CMST 2120 Exam #3

"Soft tactics"

(rational persuasion, appraising, consultation, ingratiation, inspirational appeal) - work better when combined than when used alone.

What contributes to the emotional impact of felt conflict?

-perception of the importance of the problem -our motives -the motives of others -varying abilities and relative power positions of those involved

Kipnis, Schmidt : managers are most likely to use reason and the support of coworkers when...

...approaching superiors. When influencing subordinates - managers also rely heavily on reason, but they are much more likely to be direct and forceful.

Six As of leadership accountability -

1. Accept responsibility 2. Admit mistakes 3. Apologize 4. Take immediate remedial actions 5. Make amends or reparation 6. Pay attention to the reaction of followers

Clair - frames to justify harassment behaviors

1. Accepting dominant interests - framing harassment as less important than other organizational issues 2. Simple misunderstandings -redefines the behavior as flirting or legitimate interest in another person 3. Reification - frames harassment as simply the way things operate 4. Public/private expression - suggests the behaviors are part of a private, not org life.

Tactics for conflict escalation

1. Applying evaluative labels 2. Expanding the conflict 3. Forming alliances 4. Making threats 5. Limiting the choices 6. Breaking previously agreed-upon rules 7. Behaving aggressively

Difficulty of the glass ceiling raises three questions

1. Are there differences in how males and females lead? 2. What factors hinder the emergence of women as leaders? 3. Can the gender leadership gap be narrowed?

Primary mechanisms -

1. Attention - emphasize those values that undergrid your organization's philosophy or plan. 2. Reactions to critical incidents - the way you respond to stressful events sends important messages about underlying organizational assumptions. 3. Resource allocation - how an organization spends its money is a key indicator of where it is headed. 4. Role modeling - effective leaders work to develop others who share their vision. 5. Rewards - rewards and punishments go hand in hand with the mechanism of attention described earlier. 6. Selection - since organizations tend to perpetuate existing values and assumptions by hiring people who fit into the current system, form the culture by recruiting members who share your new perspective rather than the old one.

Tit for tat strategy - three rules

1. Be nice 2. Respond to provocation 3. Be forgiving

Adler - culturally synergistic problem solving is a 4 step process

1. Identifying the dilemma of conflict facing the dyad or group. 2. Communicators try to determine why members of other cultures think and act as they do. Underlying assumption is that all people act rationally from their culture's point of view - 3. Begins by asking "what can people from one culture contribute to people from another culture" 4. Implementation of a solution

Common patterns of logic -

1. Inductive (generalizing from one or a few cases to many) 2. Deductive (moving from a larger category to a smaller one) 3. Causal (one event causes another) Analogical (argument based on similarities)

3 types of learning -

1. Intelligence - consists of the collection and interpretation of info gathered from sources outside and inside the org. 2. Experience - based on doing. Entering a new overseas market, acquiring a competitor, surviving a crisis... 3. Experimentation - comes into play when orgs enter unfamiliar territory. Through experiments, learners introduce change, observe, and then draw conclusions.

Pondy - episodes are five basic conflict stages

1. Latent conflict 2.perceived conflict 3. Felt conflict 4. Manifest conflict 5. Conflict aftermath They all influence each other, total interaction determines whether the conflict is productive or counterproductive.

Show genuine concern by

1. Listening to their problems 2. Offering words of encouragement 3. Fostering friendships between coworkers 4. Nurturing a sense of community

Common DCPs include

1. excluding women from the decision-making process 2. Dismissing their contributions by interrupting, talking over, or ignoring ideas expressed 3. Retaliation based on male fear or female competence 4. Patronizing responses such as treating female participation as unimportant or as an afterthought

Skillful leaders know how to design a framing response that is appropriate to the leadership context -

1. first they determine the specific task at hand. 2. Then faced with leading change, increasing sales, attracting investors and donors...Then they identify aspects of the situation that might help or hinder their ability to succeed 3. Effective framers determine who is making attributions about leadership in this situation.

Trust boosts collective performance by

1. fostering teamwork, cooperation and risk taking 2. increasing the flow and quality of information 3. improving problem solving

To put a new vision into action, lower level leaders must

1. help followers understand the new concepts associated with the vision 2. show followers how the new vision is relevant to their jobs 3. demonstrate enthusiasm for the vision 4. relate new ideas with established programs and practices 5. help stakeholders see the next steps in implementing the vision

Activities of adaptive leadership

1. observing patterns and events. Remain as objective as possible. "on the balcony" - leaders should step on the balcony to improve their powers of observation. 2. Interpreting observations. 3. Developing interventions - leaders address the challenges they identified through the interpretation process, tentatively testing out their interpretations or hypotheses through a series of experiments.

Thomas - basic components of individual conflict behavior

1. orientations/styles 2. strategic objectives 3. tactics

Fisher - 6 major areas in which ethical abuses can occur as orgs relate to their external environments

1. products 2. advertising 3. finance and accounting 4. pricing 5. international operations 6. ecology

Trying to see the other person's point of view in a negotiation is difficult for these reasons:

1. strong emotions, such as anger, may be aroused 2. Both parties may be highly committed to their positions 3. Negotiators may have significantly different values, beliefs, and experiences 4. Interactants may be unequal in power, which increases uncertainty about how the other person will respond

Uncertainty avoidance measures

1. the extent to which people feel uncomfortable in unstructured or unpredictable situations 2. the lengths to which they will go to avoid ambiguity by following strict codes of behavior or by believing in absolute truths

Elements of Organizational Culture - 3 levels

1.Assumptions 2. Values 3. Symbols

Credo

A set of values and beliefs that you consider to be important

Conflict contexts

Conflict Contexts - conflict can occur in any organizational setting in which there are two or more competing responses to a single event. In other words, conflict can occur in any context: intrapersonal, interpersonal, small-group, intergroup, or organization-wide or between the organization and its broader environment.

Conflict consequences

Conflict can stimulate creativity, solve problems, improve interpersonal relationships, and improve trust. Negative conflict experiences contribute to aggression, burnout, lowered commitment, silence, withdrawal, and a host of other problem behaviors.

Procedural conflict

Conflicts over procedures or ways of doing things. How the group is organized, the process of decision making, who accepts responsibility, or what happens when responsibilities are not carried out can contribute to tension and conflict within groups.

Dysfunctional communication patterns

Contrasting male/female communication styles

Surface harmony

absence of productive conflict, can block group effectiveness when critical thinking is absent, resulting in ill-conceived courses of action.

Members of low certainty...

accept uncertainty, more contemplative, experience less stress, take more risks, are less concerned about rules, more likely to trust their own judgments or common sense, believe authorities serve the citizens.

Perceived conflict

although latent conflicts exist, individuals, work groups, or entire organizations may not see goals, individual roles, resources, or authority decisions as conflict-producing. When individuals or groups become aware of differences, they are in the perceived conflict stage of an episode. Perceived conflict - awareness of individuals or groups that differences exist.

Implications of masculine-femininity

Implications - - Females in masculine cultures have a harder time emerging as leaders and are more likely to be segregated - Decision makers in feminine cultures put a greater emphasis on intuition and consensus. - Leaders and constituents in masculine cultures put a higher priority on work. Leaders and constituents in feminine cultures put more emphasis on the quality of life. - Leaders in feminine societies are more likely to demonstrate an interpersonally oriented leadership style. - Members of masculine cultures are more motivated by achievement, recognition and challenge.

GLOBE Studies

Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness - initiated in 1991 by Robert House Relationship between culture and leadership - based on analysis of responses of 17,300 managers in more than 950 organizations across 62 cultures.

Characteristics of High Context Culture

High - Context Cultures - Covert and implicit Messages internalized Much nonverbal coding Reactions reserved Distinct in-groups and out-groups Strong interpersonal bonds Commitment high Time open and flexible

High context culture

High context - group members assume that they share common meanings and prefer indirect or covert messages that rely heavily on nonverbal codes.

Ethos

High moral standards, intelligence, and other traits

Animation

Keeping followers in motion

Masculinity-femininity

Looks at roles assigned to the sexes

Power Distance

Looks at the importance of power differences in a culture

Low Context Culture Characteristics

Low-Context Cultures- Overt and explicit Messages plainly coded Details verbalized Reactions on the surface Flexible in-groups and out-groups Fragile interpersonal bonds Commitment low Time highly organized

Low context culture

Low-context cultures - more meaning is embedded in words that make up the verbal message - speakers are more direct.

Self-presentation behaviors

Self-presentation behaviors - use statements that reveal that you are "human" with similar emotions, limitations, and experiences as your audience. Distance yourself from untrustworthy groups by pointing out how dissimilar you are to them. Introduce qualifications and identify credentials.

Groupthink

Tendency of groups to suspend a critical thinking and too quickly adopt proposed solutions.

Pygmalion Effect

Tendency to live up to the expectations placed on us

Backstabbing

conceived of as behaviors that deliberately try to discredit others without regard to facts or direct confrontation. Includes lying, taking credit for work of others, or falsely blaming or criticizing others when they are not present.

Putnam and Mumby

concept of bounded emotion as a way to think about the problem of emotional control in organizations. Bounded emotionality encourages the expression of a wider range of emotions than is usually condoned in traditional organizations, while stressing the importance of maintaining interpersonally sensitive, variable boundaries between what is felt and what is expressed.

Long-term short-term orientation

concerned with how citizens view the past, present and future.

Interpersonal conflict

conflict can be observed through behaviors during the conflict and by the conflict's last effects. Productive and destructive outcomes of conflict are often evidenced in the amount of group cohesion and productivity

Third -party arbitration

conflict management involving an outside negotiator who resolves differences based on formally established procedures.

Fiol, Pratt and O'Connor - intractable conflicts

conflicts resisting resolution and existing over periods of time - often are linked to identity stereotypes with zero-sum conceptualizations. When groups in conflict have fixed negative notions of the identity and characteristics of each other, these stereotypical assumptions contribute to prolonging conflict.

Tracy - when employees face...

contradictory expectations, they may experience role ambiguity or role conflict leading to a variety of stressful responses.

Competence -

belief in the effectiveness of coworkers, leaders and the entire org

Strategic objectives

combination of balancing the individual preferences for conflict styles with what the individual sees as feasible outcomes in a particular situation.

Rational persuasion, consultation, collaboration, and inspirational appeals are most likely to generate

commitment to the task, whether the target is a superior, peer, or subordinate.

Conflict tactics

communication behaviors that attempt to move the conflict toward escalation, reduction, maintenance at the present level, or avoidance.

Key to long-term conflict resolution

effective implementation of agreed-on solutions. Effective conflict outcomes are encouraged when participants establish how well they will monitor the implementation plan and when they will meet again to assess how it is working.

LTO cultures...

encourage norms and behaviors that lead to future rewards.

STO cultures...

focus on past and present, respecting tradition and expecting quick results. Much less persistence, spend freely, have lower savings ratings...

Marginality - Pepper

focuses on the conflicts that marginalized people face with both their old and new groups.

We develop sensitivity competencies by...

identifying individual and group predispositions and style preferences for conflict, by understanding how framing and sensemaking influence conflict, by becoming familiar with strategies and tactics commonly used in conflicts, and by describing emotion during conflict.

Dignity, integrity, inclusion

important tools for overcoming personal and group barriers to diversity.

Responses to anger

include silence, stress, aggression, and both productive and negative conflict behaviors.

Environment

includes climate, geographical features, and natural resources - influence a variety of cultural elements.

Ethical abuses

incorporates issues of sexual harassment and discrimination along with numerous other abuses in day-to-day org life.

Raising the white flag

individuals and groups with excellent ideas submit to the ideas of more powerful organizational members and groups.

Conflict permits

individuals and organizations to develop new ideas and approaches and to become actively involved in necessary change. Without conflict, organizations stagnate or die.

High power distance cultures

inequality is considered to be a natural part of the world

Bryant and Sias - peers make sense of coworker deception with 4 basic explanations

corrupt organizational systems that contribute to deception for personal survival"cover your ass" motivations to avoid responsibility for problems, personal gain attempts, and personality traits supporting deception.

Workplace civility

courteous treatment of coworkers and other contacts. Includes treating others with dignity, regarding others' feelings, and using social norms of mutual respect.

Leader's primary task

creating an intergroup relational identity

Incivility

intent to harm either specific individuals or the organization. Manifests itself in behaviors that demean the dignity of others and violate broad social norms of mutual respect.

Artifacts

cultures create or borrow inventions necessary to maintain or enhance day-to-day functions. Tools used by a culture.

Strategies that will generate negative feelings

deceit, coercion, and making the target feel guilty, sad, or selfish for not going along.

Conflict

described as a process that occurs when individuals, small groups, or organizations perceive or experience frustration in attaining goals and addressing concerns.

Reliability -

describes org dependability. Leaders build a culture of high reliability by making sure they follow through on their promises.

Hochschild - emotional labor

describes the work performed by those whose jobs involve a high degree of personal contact and who are expected to produce an emotional state in the people with whom they deal.

Conflict episodes

descriptions of the complex interactions of both individual and group perceptions, emotions, behaviors, and outcomes during the conflict.

Rituals, rites and routines

involve repeated patterns of behavior.

Argumentation

involves controversy and extended discussion

Emotional work

involves emotions that are authentic, not emotion that is manufactured through surface acting or deep acting. It springs from the job and not the relationships between coworkers.

Intergroup identity

is dual identity

Organization-wide context

is interpersonal, small-group, and intergroup conflict simultaneously addressing the same event or issue.

Escalation behaviors

dogmatically arguing for the same position, taking longer than anticipated to deal with issues, threats used to win arguments, mounting tension, nothing being solved despite hard work, hostile nonverbal communication, sarcastic behavior, arguments over trivial issues.

Exercising influence...

is the essence of leadership

Double bind - Jamieson

posits two and only two alternatives - one or both penalizing the person being offered them - the strategy defines something fundamental to women as incompatible with something the woman seeks - be it education, the ballot, or access to the workplace. " It is assumed that women cannot be both female and competent.

Orientations

predispositions for conflict are the balances individuals try to make between satisfying their personal needs and goals and satisfying the needs and goals of others in the conflict. These are referred to as conflict styles.

Compromise

preference during conflict for balancing people concerns with task issues and exhibiting give-and-take or negotiation behaviors. All parties can minimize losses while establishing gains.

Accomodation

preference for conflict associated with the sacrifice of personal goals to maintain relationships. It can provide important support to groups engaged in making difficult decisions, but it also encourages the accommodative individual to abandon issue, goal, or task input when others appear to disagree.

Competition

preference for emphasizing goals and needs without considering the opinions or needs of others in conflict.

Collaboration

preference for ideally balancing people and task concerns during conflict. This approach influences individuals to work for goals, to examine issues thoughtfully, and to be task-oriented while supporting others to do the same. Most difficult of the styles to actually use for strategic objectives and tactical behaviors. Individuals who prefer collaboration can behave collaboratively only when others assume a collaborative orientation and have enough task or goal info to solve the problem thoroughly.

Intergroup leadership

promotes positive relations among subgroups

"need to share" basis

providing info in a timely fashion

Credibility also depends on our...

quality of relationship with followers

goal of negotiation

reach a conclusion that is satisfying to both sides.

Dissent

reasons for dissent usually center around change, how performance is evaluated, perceived risk by employees and other stakeholders, overall org. effectiveness, treatment of employees and stakeholders, decision making, and ethical breeches.

Dynamism

refers to perceptions of a source's confidence, activity, and assertiveness. Dynamic leaders communicate confidence in their visions for the future. Integral part of charismatic leadership.

Burnout

refers to the wearing out from the pressures of a situation or a job.

Latent conflict

refers to underlying conditions in organizations and individual relationships that have potential for conflict.

Values

reflect what the org. feels it ought to do One way to identify important values is by examining credos, vision and mission statements, and advertising slogans.

Tactician managers

rely heavily on reason but revert to other tactics when needed. Most expert power in organization and are most satisfied and successful.

Whistle-blowing

reporting ethical issues to those who can do something about them

Leading the compass

requires leaders to focus on animation, improvisation, lightness, authentication, and learning

Improvisation

reshaping or reworking previous experiences, practices, and knowledge

Women are encouraged to serve...

responsibilities include nurturing interpersonal relationships and caring for family.

Conflict aftermath

result of the complex interactions of latent conditions, perceived conflict, felt conflict, and manifest conflict. This stage is what happens - in terms of both issues and relationships - as a result of the other four stages. Stage in which we evaluate the conflict as productive or counterproductive.

Collective wisdom

shaped by historical events such as immigration, invasions, wars, economic crises, legal decisions, legislative acts, and decisions of prior leaders.

Schein notes that the responsibilities of symbolic leaders...

shift as the org matures.

Sexual harassment

situation in which one person persists in behaving in a way that offends the sexual morals of another or creates employment conditions based on sexual relationships.

Keller and Brown - interpersonal ethic for communication

suggested that people will be able to reach their full potential only when they are psychologically free - not fearful of disagreement - and when their beliefs, opinions, and values are acceptable in their interactions with others.

Zero-sum assumptions

suggests parties in conflict believe there will be winners and losers without options for middle ground or win-win outcomes.

Thomas - Strategic Objectives

suggests that individuals' strategic objectives in conflict are determined not only by orientations or preferences for conflict styles but also by assessments of the probable outcomes of behavior within particular contexts.

Members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures view uncertainty as a threat....

less tolerant - face high stres - believe in rules and regulations - seek security - readily accept directives from authority

Lightness

letting go of the belief that the leader has all the answers

Responding to difficult customer

test of our abilities to critically assess the situation, exhibit effective conflict management skills, understand the limits of our responsibility to handle the situation.

Substantive issues

the reason for forming groups in orgs can contribute to group conflict. Orgs should use the energy of diverse individuals to establish effective ways of doing things or to challenge existing processes in favor of new and better efforts.

Communication strategies associated with coping with stress and burnout

participating in decision making, receiving social support from peers and supervisors, and engaging in productive conflict.

Those who work in a trusting environment are more productive because...

they have higher job satisfaction, enjoy better relationships, stay focused on their tasks, feel committed to the group, sacrifice for the greater organizational good, and are willing to go beyond their job descriptions.

Shotgun managers

those with the least experience - make indiscriminate use of all types of influence strategies to achieve their goals.

In small groups argumentative individuals are more likely

to emerge as leaders, and groups that argue about ideas generate higher quality solutions.

Process includes..

perceptions emotions behaviors outcomes

Buy-in of leadership

top leaders must be committed but their efforts alone will not be enough. Department heads, diversity officers.. must all be involved.

Cultural synergy

ultimate goal of recognizing and responding to cultural variations. Synergy refers to the production of an end product that is greater than the sum of its parts.

Low power distance cultures

uncomfortable with differences in wealth, status and power, and privilege - promote more equal rights. Members of these groups emphasize interdependence and rely on reward, legitimate, and expert power.

Organizational Culture

unique way of seeing the world, based on particular assumptions, values, rituals, stories, practices, artifacts, and physical settings.

Mediation

use of a designated individual for guiding the negotiations or bargaining efforts of groups in conflict.

Communication patterns

verbal and nonverbal codes used to convey meanings in face-to-face encounters; these patterns vary from culture to culture.

Interpersonal issues

when all members do not fairly or equally perform their responsibilities or make contributions to the group.

Waldron and Krone - personal costs associated with suppression of emotion

which include suppressed disagreements, reduced upward information flow, and the loss of voice or the sense of being heard and responded to within the org.

Organizational conflicts

-Relationships of all types -Preferences for conflicts -Past experiences

Gender bias

notion that the prototypical leader is masculine, which has been labeled as the "think manager, think male" effect.

Definition of Culture - Rogers and Steinfatt

"the total way of life of a people, composed of their learned and shared behavior patterns, values, norms, and material objects."

Benefits of diversity

- 1. Cost savings - absenteetism rates are higher for women and minorities - finding subs and temp hires is expensive - Resource Acquisition and utilization - orgs with reps for managing diversity will attract the best personnel - Keeping and gaining market share - diverse orgs are in the best position to take advantage of markets both at home and abroad. - Better decision making - Forming heterogenous groups is one way to stimulate cultural synergy. Members of a diverse group are less likely to succumb to groupthink. Having a variety of opinions forces group members to pay more attention to all aspects of an issue - Greater innovation - nurturing a variety of cultural perspectives makes an org more open to ideas. - Higher performance - more profitable

Kuhn and Poole - conflict styles

- Avoidance - behavior that minimizes addressing the conflict - Distributive - confrontational approach - Integrative - cooperative and collaborative behaviors to pursue mutually positive resolutions. (MOST EFFECTIVE)

Kassig - helps us understand the types of tactics employees use in what he has described as repetitious upward dissent

- Dissent that is voiced more than once by employees to supervisors or others higher in the organizational structure.

Implications for leadership along the individualism-collectivism continuum

- Followers in individualistic societies generally respond well to material rewards that honor individual effort. Followers in collectivist cultures don't feel comfortable with individual recognition and prefer team rewards instead. - Members of collectivist societies expect mutual loyalty between organizational leaders and followers and feel betrayed when companies furlough or fire employees. - To be accepted, new ideas in collectivist countries must come from the group as a whole rather than one individual. - Decision making is identified with a single leader in individualistic societies. Leaders in collectivist groups rely more heavily on group norms and social values to manage the behavior of followers. - The ideal leader for individualists is someone who provides autonomy and opportunities for personal growth. The ideal leader for collectivists takes an active role in nurturing followers and fostering the growth of the group as a whole. - Followers with a collectivist orientation prefer indirect criticism, while followers with individualistic values expect to be confronted directly about poor performance and conflicts.

LTO and STO implications

- Leaders in LTO cultures can expect greater sacrifice from followers on behalf of long-term goals. Leaders in STO societies are under greater pressure to demonstrate immediate progress. - Feelings of shame can be powerful motivational tools to encourage follower compliance in LTO nations. - STO, with its emphasis on spending rather than saving, interferes with economic development in emerging countries, making the task of national leaders and aid agencies more difficult

Leader as a Culture Maker

- Orgs are formed through the process of communication - Communication IS the organization

Frame and sensemaking

- People who share the same or similar experiences will focus on difference aspects of the experiences to make sense of what is happening. - Cognitive frames refer to using past memories or experiences to help us fill in or frame expectations of new situations. - Framing as interactional co-construction refers to cues in interaction that signal to parties involved in a conflict how to interpret the interaction.

Implications of Power Distance

- The larger the distance, the greater the fear of disagreeing with a superior and the closer the supervision of follower activities. - Followers in high power-distance countries expect managers to give direction and feel more uncomfortable when asked to participate in decision-making. - Coercive, authoritarian leadership is more common in high power-distance countries, democratic leadership is more often the norm in low power-distance cultures. - Organizations operating in low power-distance countries are less centralized and distribute rewards more equally.

Group potency

- believe they can achieve their goals no matter what tasks they have to tackle

Group efficacy

- believe they can complete the specific task set before them

Obstacles to Diversity

- can be found at every level of society. - Barriers on personal level: prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, and perceptual bias. - Prejudice - refers to negative attitudes toward people from other backgrounds. - Stereotyping - process of classifying group members according to their perceived similarities, good or bad. - When we fail, it's the fault of outside sources - when members of low-status groups fail, internal forces are to blame. When minorities perform well, we attribute it to help from others. - Ethnocentrism - the attitude - conscious or unconscious - that regard's one own culture as the measure by which all others should be judged - Intergroup conflicts - religious, social, political and economic differences generate tensions that tear groups apart.

Organization trust

- collective level of positive expectations that members have about others and the group as a whole.

"Iron Law of Power"

- dictates the greater the difference in power between the influencer and the target of the request, the greater the probability that directive strategies will be used.

Cooperative negotiators

- have an interest in others, while competitive bargainers only seek benefits for themselves

Develop solutions and narrow the choices for action

- in development of solutions, it is important to think broadly about all alternatives, even those that seem to have little immediate merit. - Decisions should be discussed in light of the defined problem issues. Often decisions made with broad agreement fail because the participants have not linked their intended actions to the actual problem. - When individuals who need to change their behavior make commitments to change that they have helped generate, the long-term possibilities for successful conflict resolution have been enhanced.

Search intelligence

- involves scanning and analyzing data that already exist or are readily available through public sources

Strategic communicators

- most likely to be skillful framers because they are very aware of the situation and alternatives for responding.

Use of the word "we"

- reflects a willingness to share power and credit and to work with others.

Expressive communicators

- say whatever comes to mind.

Folger, Poole, and Stutman

- symptoms of escalation or avoidance cycles - Avoidance behaviors include marked decrease in commitment to solving problems, quick acceptance of a suggested solution, avoidance of raising controversial aspects of any issues, people stop listening, discussion stays on safe topics, little info is exchanged, no plans are made to implement solutions, and evidence for claims or positions is not challenged.

Successful org. leaders (those in tactician profile)

- take a careful, rational, and flexible approach to influencing superiors and subordinates.

Identification

- the degree to which members and other stakeholders identify with the org's goals, values, and culture.

High task negotiators

- they want to attack the issues right away.

Compliance-Gaining Strategies

- verbal tactics that leaders and others use to get their way in face-to-face encounters.

Group conflict management processes

-Negotiation -Bargaining -Mediation -Forcing -Arbitration

Tactics for conflict reduction

1. Identifying numerous manageable issues 2. Describing behaviors and outcomes to be avoided during conflict 3. Exhibiting concern for both facts and feelings 4. Offering compromises from original positions

Agressive tactics

1. character attacks 2. background attacks 3. insults 4. teasing 5. ridicule 6. profanity 7. threats 8. competence attacks 9. physical appearance attacks 10. nonverbal indicators that express hostility

5 sets of behaviors that foster perceptions of trustworthiness in manager-employee relationships - Whitener

1. Behavioral consistency - acting consistently over time 2. Behavioral integrity - match what you say and do 3. Sharing and delegation of control - inviting participation in decision making enables employees to protect their interests, reduces the likelihood that you will take advantage of the situation and signals trust and respect for their worth and standing in the organization. 4. Communication - provide accurate info, supply explanations for decisions, reveal openness 5. Demonstration of concern - reflect your concern for followers by focusing on their needs and interests, protecting their rights, and refusing to take advantage of them.

All diversity efforts must be data driven

1. Build case for fostering diversity 2. Identify current diversity profile of the org. 3. Measure progress on important diversity metrics

Ives, Torrey and Gordon - argue you will need to address all of the following elements to encourage knowledge sharing

1. Business context - link knowledge sharing to shared goals and the success of the org. 2. Organizational structure and goals - create a competent staff of knowledge management and professionals who can assist employees. 3. Organizational processes - knowledge sharing should become part of the average job description. 4. Organizational climate - knowledge sharing should become an organizational priority - emphasize in orientation and training sessions. 5. Physical environment - create quiet spaces 6. Direction - guide the process 7. Measurement - measure contributions 8. Means - facilitate knowledge sharing through technologies like e-mail, internet... 9. Ability - help followers develop information-sharing skills and tools for capturing knowledge. 10. Motivation - emphasize the intrinsic rewards of sharing ideas

Six global leadership behaviors and the cultural contexts in which these behaviors are most positively viewed

1. Charismatic/Value-based leadership - reflects the ability to inspire and motivate and expects high performance from others based on shared core values. 2. Team oriented leadership - emphasizes team building and a common purpose among team members - characteristics such as being collaborative, integrative, diplomatic, and administratively competent. 3. Participative leadership - reflects the degree to which leaders involve others in decision making and implementation and thus includes being participative and non- authoritarian. 4. Humane oriented leadership- reflects supportive, considerate, compassionate, and generous behavior - modesty and sensitivity to the needs of other people. 5. Autonomous leadership - refers to independent and individualistic leadership. 6. Self-protective leadership - reflects behavior that ensures the safety and security of the leader and group - includes leadership that is leader-focused, status conscious, face saving, and procedural.

Most arguments involve four parts

1. Claim 2. Evidence 3. Reasons 4. Summary

Expectations are communicated through four important channels

1. Climate - type of social and emotional atmosphere leaders create for followers Baird and Wieting recommend that organizational managers use nonverbal behaviors that emphasize concern, respect, equality and warmth. 2. Input - positive expectations are communicated through the number and type of assignments and projects given employees. 3. Output - those expected to reach high standards are given more opportunities to speak, to offer their opinions, or to disagree. 4. Feedback - supervisors give more frequent positive feedback when they have high expectations of employees, praising them more often for success and criticizing them less often for failure.

Jones - emotion has three components

1. Cognitive - involves the appraisal of situations that in turn evoke emotional responses 2. Physiological - the embodied experiences that literally radiate throughout the body as ongoing lived experiences 3. Behavioral - an expression of the cognitive and physiological experience.

Trusting cultures are marked by high expectations of

1. Collective competence 2. Openness and honesty 3. Concern for employees and other stakeholders 4. Reliability 5. Identification

The most significant elements or dimensions of credibility are...

1. Competence 2. Trustworthiness 3. Dynamism

Baxter - encourages corporations to support the attempts of senior female leaders to act as role models by adopting these tactics

1. Contesting use of sexist language - adopt the use of nonsexist language. For example, replace he with he/she. 2. Contesting use of terms to describe women - draw attention to how women are often referred to in negative terms like tough, mean, difficult, shrill, hysterical, moody, or lesbian. Encourage corporate communication personnel to be alert to gendered speech. 3. Contesting masculinized use of metaphors - war/fighting metaphors are common in the business context. War has been considered a masculine activity, repeated use of war imagery reinforces the notion that leaders are males and alienates females. 4. Contesting the use of generalizations - Challenge seemingly harmless statements such as "like all men, he never listens" or "she's an emotional female." 5. Contesting gossip and "mean talk" - encourage women to be supportive of the efforts of female leaders, avoiding gossip, or other negative statements.

Mindful state - three intrapersonal processes

1. Creation of new categories 2. Welcoming new info - when mindless, we are closed off to new data - 3. Openness to different points of view - reduces the liklihood of cultural misunderstandings and opens the way for solutions that combine the insights of a variety of cultures.

Four sets of influence tools particularly significant to leaders:

1. Credibility-building behaviors 2. Compliance-gaining strategies 3. Argumentation competencies 4. Negotiation tactics

Tactics for conflict avoidance

1. Delaying conflicting issues 2. Using formal rules 3. Denying the existence of conflict 4. Fogging the issue

Hurdles include...

1. Denying women experience in important business functions like operations, manufacturing, or marketing. 2. Failure to receive mentoring and performance-based feedback 3. Family demands 4. Fear of powerful women 5. Old boy networks that exclude women 6. Discriminating against females 7. Social isolation 8. Stereotyping

Tactics for conflict maintenance

1. Describing what parties have to gain or lose 2. Honor long term relationship rules 3. Combining both escalation and reduction tactics 4. Proposing areas or agreement and areas for compromise

Tactics for...

1. conflict escalation 2.conflict avoidance 3. conflict maintenance 4.conflict reduction

Credibility-building practices that are effective in the long-term - Kouzes and Posner

1. Discover yourself - know yourself in order to lay the foundation for consistent behavior. Identify your CREDO - a set of values and beliefs you consider to be important. 2. Appreciate constituents - credible leaders have a deep understanding of the values and needs of their constituents. To cultivate an in-depth understanding of followers, listen, be willing to learn from others, solicit feedback from superiors and subordinates, encourage dissent or controversy about ideas, and put your trust in others at the same time you live up to the trust they put in you. 3. Affirm shared values -shared values are the compasses that enable people to act independently and interdependently. They provide a reference point for decisions and actions, creating a common language for collaboration which boosts productivity. 4. Develop capacity - followers need to develop skills and self-confidence to put their beliefs into action. 5. Serve a purpose - serving a purpose refers to creating a sense of direction for the group. 1. 2. 3. Making meaning on a daily basis 4.Storytelling 5.Regaining lost credibility 6. Sustain hope - leaders play a critical role in boosting the spirits of followers -1. create positive images, 2. being passionate, 3. show concern, 4. develop a sense of community

Baxter - senior female leaders should demonstrate the following

1. Doing authority - need to be flexible - adopting their tactics to the situation. Women also need to enact their public voice by giving speeches and leading meetings and training sessions. This provides "linguistic visibility." Women should use both warm and cold language - Cold authority - based on rank and involves giving instructions, telling people what to do and pointing out misunderstandings or errors. Warm authority - which is expressed through a friendly manner, politeness, and indirect commands, fosters inclusion and encourages team ownership. 2. Doing politeness- lets people go about their tasks withut interference and also meets others' needs for approval and recognition. Warm and cold kinds of politness Cool politness - proper titles and saying please and thank you - important to use in more formal settings Warm politeness - expresses genuine interest in others and demonstrates respect for their viewpoints. Effective way of generating support for collective projects. 3. Doing humor - humor helps release tension, promotes group solidarity, and provides transitions. Essential for leaders because it establishes what employees have in common while downplaying status differences. Humor can soften remarks that might appear impolite - blunt, personal, critical.

Frequently adopted norms

1. Everyone in the group being responsible for assisting everyone else in presenting individual opinions 2. avoiding win/lose statements 3. avoiding suppression of differences by using procedures such as voting, averaging, and formal rules. 4. Avoiding quick solutions 5. making decisions only after alternative perspectives have been discussed 6. supporting differences of opinion and valuing diverse contributions for effectiveness

Common fallacies

1. False analogy - the differences in the two items being compared outweigh their similarities 2. Hasty generalization - drawing conclusions based on a sample that is a. too small or b. isn't typical of the group as a whole 3. False cause - assuming that one event caused another just because it happened first, or using only one cause to explain a complex problem like illegal immigration or international terrorism 4. Slippery slope - assuming that an event is the first in a series of steps that will inevitably lead to a bad outcome. No proof is offered for the claim that the subsequent events will actually take place 5. Begging the question (circular reasoning) - using the premise of the argument to support the claim instead of brining in outside evidence . 6. Non-sequitur - the evidence doesn't support the arguer's claim 7. Misdirection - diverting attention from the central argument to an irrelevant argument. 8. Equivocation - exploiting the fact that a word has more than one meaning to generate a false conclusion. 9. Amphibody - using grammatical structure to mislead or confuse 10. Emotive language - selecting words that generate positive or negative emotional images and associations that undermine the ability to judge proof and reasoning.

Challenges leaders face when it comes to establishing and maintaining credibility

1. Followers pay more attention to leaders, and notice when they fall short 2. Leaders must respond to the conflicting demands of multiple constituencies. Fulfilling the expectations of one group may mean violating the expectations of another. 3. Leaders feel pressure to treat organizational "Stars" better than their peers, creating perceptions of injustice. 4. Leaders may seek to improve performance by communicating high expectations that turn out later to be unrealistic. 5. Following latest management fads can lead to a gap between words and deeds because leaders use new terminology that doesn't match reality. 6. Leaders hired for technical competencies may overlook the importance of interpersonal skills like acting consistently, treating others justly and following through on promises.

Leaders can communicate direction by

1. Going first 2. Staying in touch 3. Making meaning on a daily basis - set an example. 4. Storytelling - teach others through narratives 5. Regaining lost credibility

Common destructive tactics used by competitive negotiators

1. Good cop/bad cop - variation of interrogation techniques portrayed on Law and Order - good cop is friendly and cooperative, bad cop is tough and demanding. Temptation is to offer more info and concessions than you should to the "good" negotiator. 2. Bad-faith negotiation - other party states that he or she is willing to collaborate but is really just stalling for time or looking for more info. 3. Lack of authority - counterpart claims that a third party who doesn't participate in the discussion must approve disagreements. 4. Inaccurate data - info supplied by the other negotiator may be inaccurate, deceptive, or incomplete 5. Many for one - rests on the norm of reciprocity. Other party makes small concessions early in the negotiations only to ask for large, important concessions from you near the end of the talks. 6. Information overload - other negotiator tries to overload you by providing a flood of data - mass of info is intimidating

Uncertainty avoidance implications

1. High uncertainty avoidance cultures give more weight to age and seniority when picking leaders 2. Managers in low uncertainty avoidance societies emphasize interpersonal relations and are more willing to take risks. Managers in high uncertainty avoidance countries seem unapproachable and are more likely to try to control the activities of followers. 3. Organizational constituents in high uncertainty-avoidance cultures prefer clear instructions, are more willing to follow orders, disapprove of competitions between employees, and are more loyal than their low uncertainty avoidance counterparts

Eagly and colleagues - used meta-analysis - reported this:

1. Men are more likely to emerge as leaders in short-term groups and in task-oriented teams; women are more likely to emerge as social leaders in small groups 2. Male leaders tend to adopt a more task-oriented style based on gender norms while female leaders tend to have a more interpersonally oriented style 3. Women adopt a more participative or democratic leadership style than men, reflecting a greater openness to collaboration and sharing power. When in top positions, though, women very often lead like their counterparts by acting in a more autocratic fashion. 4. Male and female leaders are rated equally effective across organizational and laboratory studies. However, men are rated as more effective in roles defined as "masculine" while women were rated as more effective in less masculine roles, such as in fields of education and social service. 5. Females are slightly more likely to engage in transformational leadership behaviors, specifically by providing individualized consideration (focusing on the needs of the individual followers) More likely to reward performance. Men are more likely to be laissez-faire leaders who are uninvolved and let problems reach a critical state.

5 qualities of an adaptive organization are:

1. Name the elephants in the room - at many organizations, difficult issues are seldom raised in public meetings. 2. Share responsibility for the organization's future - members look beyond their work groups and take ownership for the entire organization. 3. Value independent judgment - meeting adaptive challenges is more likely when followers don't expect their leaders to have all the answers. Rather, both leaders and followers argue their positions and are willing to change their minds in the face of new evidence. 4. Build leadership capacity - leadership development is essential to building adaptive capacity. 1. Observe patterns and events 2.Interpreting observations 3.developing interventions 5. Institutionalize reflection and continuous learning - adaptive orgs emphasize ongoing learning and experimentation.

4 values dimensions (5th added later) - Hofstede

1. Power Distance 2.Individualism-Collectivism 3.Masculinity-Femininity 4.Uncertainty avoidance 5.Long-term short -term orientation

You can help constituents increase their capacity by

1. Providing educational opportunities 2. Giving followers the latitude and authority to make significant decisions 3. Helping followers believe in their own abilities 4. Giving followers the opportunity to make mistakes 5. Sharing information and feedback 6. Ensuring that everyone accepts responsibility for her or his own actions

Yukl - directed most extensive research program. Common managerial influence tactics -

1. Rational persuasion - use of logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request or proposal will attain organizational objectives. 2. Appraising - explaining how compliance will benefit the target and his or her career. 3. Inspirational appeals - generating enthusiasm by appealing to values and ideals, arousing emotions 4. Consultation - seeking suggestions for improvement, asking for input for planning an activity, strategy or change 5. Collaboration - providing resources and assistance if the target complies with the request 6. Ingratiation - use of flattery and praise before or during a request; expressing confidence in the target's ability to fulfill a difficult request 7. Personal appeals - appealing to feelings of loyalty and friendship when asking for something 8. Exchange - trading favors, promising to reciprocate later or to share the benefits when the task is completed 9. Coalition tactics - soliciting the aid of others or using the support of coworkers to convince the target to go along with the request 10. Legitimizing tactics - claiming the right or authority to make a request. Aligning the request with organizational policies, rules, traditions, and so forth 11. Pressure - demanaging, threatening, checking up, persistent reminders.

Tactics to resist influence

1. Reciprocation (give and take) - The rule of reciprocity (that people are obligated to return favors) appears to be a universal guideline. "foot-in-the-door" is another name for this. Reciprocal concessions strategy - "door-in- the-face" - persuaders make an extreme request and then back off, asking for less. 2. Commitment and Consistency - the desire to appear consistent with previous choices and actions. It prevents feelings of dissonance while reducing the need to think carefully about an issue after making a choice. Commitment goes hand in hand with the drive for consistency. Using small commitments to leverage bigger ones is called "foot-in-the door" strategy. 3. Social proof (validation) - Deciding how to act based on what others are doing. Social proof exerts the most influence when we observe others who are similar to us and in ambiguous situations when observers don't know how to interpret information. 4. Liking - we are more swayed by people we like. Based on a variety of factors 1. physical attractiveness 2. Similarity 3. Compliments 4. Familiarity and frequent cooperative contact 5. Association with positive events and people 5. Authority - Receivers overlook the content of the message and respond to status cues instead, like titles, clothes, jewelry and cards. The higher the status, the more likely the follower will comply. 6. Scarcity - scarcity appeals are a staple of advertising . Two principles underlie this mental shortcut 1. Belief that opportunities in short supply are better than common ones 2. People react against any attempt to limit their freedoms, particularly when something is newly scarce or when competition develops. Scarcity generates physical arousal (increased blood pressure and adrenaline) - making a rational response difficult.

Trice and Beyer - some common organizational rites

1. Rites of passage - mark important changes in roles and statuses. 2. Rites of degradation - some rituals are used to lower the status of organizational members, such as when a coach is fired. 3. Rites of enhancement - raises the standing of organizational members. Giving rewards is an example. 4. Rites of renewal - strengthen the current system - serve the status quo. 5. Rites of conflict reduction - orgs use collective bargaining, task forces, and committees to resolve conflicts. 6. Rites of integration - tie subgroups to the large system 7. Rites of creation - celebrate and encourage change, helping orgs remain flexible in turbulent environments marked by rapid shifts in markets and techonology. 8. Rites of transition - meetings, speeches, and other strategies can help org members accept changes that they didn't plan. 9. Rites of parting - when orgs die, parting ceremonies are common.

Leaders foster identification by

1. connecting employees to org. mission and values through orientation and training programs 2. continually emphasize that employees, customers, and other stakeholders are important to the org. 3. Modeling high character and courage.

Principled negotiation model - Robert Fisher, Ury - 4 steps

1. Separate the People from the Problem - avoid defining the situation as a test of wills - focus instead on working side by side on a common goal 2. Focus on Interests, not Positions A negotiating position is the negotiator's public stance An interest is the reason why the negotiator takes the position Focusing on positions can blind you and the other negotiator to the fact that there may be more than one way to meet the underlying need or interest 3. Invent Options for Mutual Gain -Spend time brainstorming solutions that can meet the needs of both negotiators. 4. Insist on Objective Criteria- find a set of criteria on which you both can agree when determining the terms of settlement. Reduces the possibility that one party will force the others into accepting an unsatisfactory solution.

Infante - five skills that constitute argumentative competence

1. Stating the controversy in propositional form - best way to clarify what the conflict is about. Propositions of value deal with issues of right and wrong - propositions of policy are concerned with what course of action should be taken - those who favor a proposition must demonstrate that the status quo should change 2. Inventing arguments - answering questions related to blame and possible solutions - developing a case either for or against the proposal 3. Presenting and defending your position - 4. Attacking other positions - based on identifying weaknesses in the evidence and reasoning of the other party. Is the evidence recent enough? Was there enough? 5. Managing interpersonal relations - When others aren't as skilled at arguing as you, don't show off and humiliate them. Reaffirm the sense of competence of other participants. Emphasize what you have in common and show that you're interested.

Secondary mechanisms

1. Structure - structure and design affect how leaders divide up such things as product lines, markets, and work responsibilities. 2. Systems and procedures - quarterly reports, monthly meetings, work routines, etc.. 3. Rites and rituals - nonessential rituals can be dropped, essential rituals can be adapted to new purposes, and new rituals can be created. Trice and Beyer - suggest that rites of passage and enhancement are the best ways to encourage change. 4. Physical space - physical layout of orgs facilities can transmit your values, but only if you pay attention to the messages you send through these elements. 5. Stories - consider creating new stories and changing old ones 6. Formal statements - most of what an organization believes never makes it into a formal statement.

Tactics that produce a positive emotional climate

1. Supporting evidence - giving reasons why the target of the request should comply 2. Other benefit - emphasizing how the target of the request will benefit by complying with the request 3. Exchange - offering to trade or exchange things of value like favors, money and services 4. Referent influence - appealing to how much the target and actor (persuader) have in common.

Two characteristics of leaders moderate the impact of their expectations.

1. The level of their self-esteem. 2. Level of expectations

Yukl - any given strategy is more likely to be successful if -

1. The target perceives the influence attempt as socially acceptable 2. The influencer has the position and personal power to use the tactic 3. The strategy makes the request seem more desirable to the target 4. The tactic is used skillfully 5. The request is legitimate and doesn't violate the needs and values of the recipient

Organizational compliance seekers face a number of constraints not present in the interpersonal context

1. They have less in freedom to decide whether or not to engage in persuasion 2. The statuses of both the compliance seeker and the target of the request in an org. are clearly defined 3. Org. influence agents aren't free to pursue their personal goals only, they must direct most of their efforts at achieving org. objectives like increasing productivity, reducing tardiness, and improving service. 4. The rules and culture or the organization may favor some influence methods while discouraging others.

3 strategies for resisting the power of reciprocity -

1. Turn down initial favors 2. Do not feel obligated to return favors that are tricks 3. Turn the tables on unethical influencers by exploiting them.

Nine dimensions of GLOBE studies

1. Uncertainty avoidance - extent to which members of an org strive to avoid uncertainty by relying on established social norms, rituals, bureaucratic processes. People in high uncertainty-avoidance cultures seek to decrease the probability of uncertain events - Switzerland, Singapore, Germany and Austria scored high - Russia, Hungary, Bolivia - low in uncertainty avoidance. 2. Power distance - degree to which members of an org expect and agree that power should be concentrated at higher levels of an org or government. 3. Collectivism I - institutional collectivism - degree to which organizational and societal practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action 4. Collectivism II - in-group collectivism - degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty and cohesiveness 5. Gender egalitarianism - degree to which orgs minimize gender role differences while promoting gender equality. 6. Assertiveness - degree to which individuals in orgs or societies are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships. 7. Future orientation - degree to which individuals in orgs or societies engage in future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future, and delaying individual or collective gratification 8. Performance orientation - degree to which an org encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence. 9. Humane orientation - degree to which individuals in orgs encourage and reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly, generous, caring, and kind to others.

Eagly and Carli - two key principles that are critical in allowing women to ease their route through the labyrinth

1. Women must blend with communion - nice female leaders may be criticized for being too nice and not being assertive, while strong women leaders may be viewed as being too harsh because it goes against the norm culturally. To succeed a woman must first establish an exceptional level of competence. Being well prepared for meetings and mastering job-relevant knowledge. Once competence is achieved, a woman can finesse the agency/communion conflict by combining assertive task behavior with kindness. 2. Critical for women to build social capital - good relationships with colleagues, both within and outside their org. These women are more likely to rise to positions of authority. This can be earned by participating in social networks, informal relationships, etc.

Effective orgs share three cultural distinctives :

1. an ability to adapt to changing conditions 2. a commitment to learning 3. and a trusting organization climate.

5 cautions should be kept in mind when studying cultural categories

1.Cultures change over time, so older groupings may not be as accurate 2.Scholars disagree about how to categorize some nations and have not studied some regions as thoroughly. 3.Not every member of a cultural group will respond the same way. Statements about cultural patterns are generalizations that don't account for the behavior of every individual. 4.Political and cultural boundaries are not always identical 5.Westerners have developed most of the cultural category systems and may have overlooked values that are important to non-Western societies.

Four T's that brought the world into a global age

1.Technology 2.Travel 3.Trade 4. Television

Understanding the other negotiator's perspective is a valuable leadership skill.

A negotiator with high perspective-taking ability anticipates the goals and expectations of the other party.

What can help bridge the gender leadership gap?

Aggressive recruitment, greater accountability for developing female leaders, formation of advocacy groups, mentorship, and executive development programs

Trustworthiness (character)

Another name for honesty and consistentcy

Negotiation

Back-and-forth communication aimed at reaching a joint decision when people are in disagreement. Significance of leading becomes particularly apparent when a leader introduces change.

Glass ceiling

Barrier to top level leadership roles

Fostering diversity

Best leaders actively promote diversity in the groups they lead

Deutsch - there are sharp differences between cooperative and competitive negotiation climates.

Both competition and cooperation get locked in to a negotiation relationship at an early stage and persist throughout the process.

Negotiation

Broad conflict-management process involving discussions between and among individuals who are interdependent and need to come together for a decision or course of action, frequently associated with the need to compromise effectively.

Gibb- defensive characteristics

Evaluation vs. problem solving - Control vs. problem orientation - Strategy vs. spontaneity - spontaneity - makes real motives plain and generate a trust that straightforward and honest interactions are taking place. Straightforward and honest interactions facilitate an individual's freedom of choice through accurate info. Neutrality vs. empathy - acceptance of others with different values and beliefs - Superiority vs. equality - defensive groups are more likely to have members intent on asserting superiority and exhibiting an unwillingness to participate equally in problem solving. Certainty vs. provisionalism - defensive groups are more likely to have members who are certain and dogmatic about their positions. -costs attitude.

Common "trust busters" to eliminate -

Inconsistent messages and behavior, unjust rewards, incompetence and low standards, inconsistent rules and procedures, secrecy, concentration of power, hierarchy, monitoring and surveillance, unclear priorities and vision, org underperformance, etc.

Chain starts:

Manager's expectations → allocation → more effective leadership behavior. These behaviors influence the expectations that followers have of themselves, particularly their self-efficacy or personal power. This increases motivation, leading to more effort, greater performance, and higher achievement. Subordinate performance then completes the chain because employee behavior raises or lowers the manager's expectations for future assignments. Subordinates perform better if they set high standards for themselves. When they reach their goals, they expect to achieve even more in the future.

The Galatea Effect

Same effects can be generated by expectations that followers place on themselves

Physical appearance and other nonverbal behaviors

Physical appearance and other nonverbal behaviors - dress appropriately for your profession, choose a style similar to that of your audience, reject clothing that might match negative stereotypes. -make sustained eye contact when communicating with others. -use gestures to add emphasis to the points you make. -maintain a relaxed, open posture when talking with others. -pay attention to your voice - sound confident.

Schein - six primary and six secondary mechanisms you can use to establish and maintain culture.

Primary mechanisms create the organization's climate, and are the most important tools for shaping culture. Secondary serve a supporting role, reinforcing messages sent through the primary mechanisms.

Labyrinth - Eagly and Carli

Obstacles women face are more surmountable now, but successful routes can be difficult to discover.

Authentification

Occurs when leaders admit they don't know but then ask followers to help them discover

Learning-and-effectiveness approach

Recognizes cultural differences and valuable organizational assets

Mindfulness

Refers to focused attention, which stands in contrast to mindlessness. Scripted responses make us susceptible to prejudice, stereotypes and perceptual biases.

"Sleeper effect"

Source is forgotten as time passes, but the message is remembered and judged on its own merits.

Trust repair - four steps

Step 1 - determine what happened Step 2 - determine the depth and breadth of the loss of trust Step 3 - own up to the loss (don't ignore or downplay) Step 4 - Identify what you must accomplish in order to rebuild trust

Stories

Stories carry multiple messages. They reflect important values, inspire, describe what members should do, and provide a means to vent emotions.

"Value-added"

The kind of competence leaders need to demonstrate. The leader must provide the skills that the group needs at a particular time

Learning

The outcome of sensemaking

The goal is to...

enable all employees, regardless of ethnicity, gender, age, or physical ability, to achieve their full potential and to contribute to organizational goals and performance.

Strategic choice

associated with attempted to escalate, reduce, maintain, or avoid a conflict.

Manifest conflict

actual conflict behaviors: problem solving, open aggression, covert action, and numerous other possibilities; influential for determining the productivity of the conflict and the way conflict participants will interact in the future. Referred to as "Action time" of conflict

Commit to solutions

agreeing on a solution or approach to the problem should occur only after the parties assess how that solution addresses the identified problem, whether individuals can support the decision, if those most affected have participated in the decision, and whether the solution is workable and can be implemented.

Observation intelligence -

appropriate when respondents have trouble communicating their real needs or feelings.

Berlew and Hall - conclude that the first 12-18 months...

are critical to the career success of any new employee.

Assumptions

are shared and serve as the foundation for the group's culture -unstates beliefs about: human relationships, human nature, truth, the environment + universalism/ particularism

Language

avoid technical, jargon-laced language that will distance you from your audience and may give the impression that you are hiding behind the terminology

Miller - conceptualized workplace stress as a process in which...

certain aspects of the environment create strains on individuals, contributing to negative, psychological, physiological, and organizational outcomes.

Causes of conflict

change, scarce resources, technology, dissent, difficult people, irrationality, incivility, diverse backgrounds and cultures, deception, identities, stigmas, emotional labor, burnout, relationships of all types, preferences, and past experiences.

The relative power of the compliance seeker and the target of the request often...

determines the strategy selected.

Individualism-collectivism

distinguishes cultures by their beliefs about indivudals and groups

Felt conflict

emotional impact the perception of conflict has on potential conflict participants. This stage usually precedes actual conflict and is important to behavior because it represents the merger of our perceptions and emotional reactions. It is our ego-investment stage - this is when we conceptualize or define probable outcomes should an actual conflict occur.

Orator sways an audience with...

ethos, logos and pathos

Discrimination

exclusion of individuals or groups based on personal characteristics not associated with competence or performance. The systematic exclusion of individuals based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, and age. Based on characteristics not related to productivity.

We develop value competencies by...

exploring productive consequences of conflict, identifying supportive climates for conflict, and clarifying ethical conflict behaviors.

Effective leaders build learning organizations that are skilled at...

generating and acquiring knowledge and then using that information to modify behavior.

Competence

knowledge of the topic at hand, intelligence, expertise, skill and good judgment

4 competencies

knowledge, sensitivity, skills and values

Behavior choices

known as tactics - specific communication choices that are influenced by both orientation and style and strategic objectives

Heifetz and Linsky - in order to successfully manage change...

leaders must recognize the difference between technical problems and what they call "adaptive challenges"

Bystander managers

make fewer compliance-gaining attempts and exercise less organizational influence.

Symbols (artifacts)

make up the top level of an organization's culture. -Common organizational symbols and artifacts include: language, stories and myths, rites and rituals, written materials, metaphors, dress and physical appearance, buildings, products, technology, heroes, logos, office door.

In masculine cultures...

men are thought to be assertive, decisive, competitive, ambitious, and dominant. Concerned with material success and "respect whatever is big, strong, and fast"

Cialdini -

mental shortcuts leave leaders and others vulnerable to unethical influence.

"friendly persuasion"

messages that put both parties in a positive frame of mind.

Coalitions of boundary-spanning leaders can be...

more effective than boundary-spanning leaders acting on their own.

Conventional communicators -

more sensitive to framing because they track what is appropriate to the to the situation.

Inquiry intelligence

must be used when existing info is incomplete or unavailable.

Irrationality

normal condition of organizational life and not something that should be removed or resolved.

Intrapersonal conflict

not readily observable through overt behaviors - an individual may not discuss the problem.

Anger

occurs when individuals experience humiliation, receive verbal abuse, are ignored when trying to engage in contributions or disagreements, or encounter a host of other emotion-producing interactions.

Success or failure of a particular influence strategy ultimately depends...

on the credibility of the influencer

Framing

one strategy that leaders can use to make sense or meaning and thus help create organizational reality. Leaders create a mental picture of the world and then encourage followers to accept their frame or interpretation of events.

Supportive climates

organizational environments in which individuals feel secure and encouraged to seek good solutions; characterized by problem description, problem orientation, spontaneity, empathy, equality, and provisionalism.

Emotional labor

sales reps, bill collectors, service complaint reps - these jobs require a separation of "true self" feelings from those that are expected to be expressed when in contact with the public. These jobs require regulated emotions because they entail voice or face with the public, require the workers to produce a specific emotional state or reaction in customer, and are regulated by the employer control of the emotional activities of the employee.

Hunter, Boster and others suggest that persuaders in interpersonal settings...

select and reject compliance-gaining strategies based on the impact they have on the emotional state of both the compliance seeker and the target of the request.

Sensemaking - Weick

sensemaking is about how to stay in touch with context

Feminine characteristics are associated with...

sensitivity to the needs of others, concern for family and relationships, emotionality and nurturing.

In Feminine cultures...

sex roles overlap. Neither sex is expected to be competitive, ambitious, or caring at all times. Stress intuition, interdependence, and concern. Respect for the weak, small and slow.

in US - masculine characteristics are associated with...

strenth, aggression, ambition independence, stoicism, and rationality

Patterns of relationships

strongly influenced by the culture in which one was raised. A son or daughter in US has more freedom than his or her counterpart in South Korea.

Formal Organizations

structure the activities of significant numbers of people. Important institutions include governments, social and professional organizations, work orgs and religions.

Bargaining

structured form of negotiations usually involving the presentation of fairly specific proposals for the purpose of achieving a working agreement on particular issues.

Avoidance

style of individuals who, as a result of their preferences, are unlikely to pursue their own goals and needs or to support relationships and the goals and needs of others during conflicts. Fear conflict

Power plays

tactics that make explicit how power should be viewed in particular circumstances in order to preserve the position of the person or persons making the "play."

Diversity management means...

taking advantage of the benefits of a diverse labor force while coping with the problems that arise when people from different backgrounds work together.