Cog Exam 4

syllogism: if its a robin, its a bird

conclusion, conditional

Consider the following syllogism: All dogs are cats

Valid

Consider the following conditional syllogism: premise 1: If I study, then I'll get a good grade premise 2: i got a good grade conclusion: therefore i studied

invalid

According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is

the falsification principle.

Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following phrases?

"Because he always jogs a mile"

Terrell volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman.....

"Goodman answered the question on job creation very well"

The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing

A and 13

Which of the following is NOT commonly associated with people who are considered highly creative

Analysis

Which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x 2 + 5x - 7 = 4x 2 - 2x + 8?

Analytical

In an effort to get his sister Sharon to vaccinate her young children, Frank compiled the results from many scientific research studies that show the long-term health benefits of childhood vaccines. Yet when Frank presented the information to Sharon, she refused to believe him, stating that the research was clearly faked by large pharmaceutical companies. Sharon not only said that vaccines are risky but also now claims they are poisonous. What occurred in the conversation between Frank and Sharon?

Backfire effect

Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) ____________________ inference.

Causal

Which of the following activities would require Type 2 cognitive processing?

Choosing an entree from a menu

When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process?

Connecting the fortress with the humor

Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?

Functional fixedness

Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema?

If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends on Saturday night

________ occurs when a person gives up trying to solve a tough problem and then suddenly comes up with the answer while doing something else.

Incubation

If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?

It cuts the taffy into pieces

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?

Language has a structure that is governed by rules.

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?

Lydia is a US Congresswoman

Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?

Meaning dominance

The expected utility theory of decision making is grounded in which of the following

Rationality

Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems?

Representation

The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the ____ problem.

Russian marriage

In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. To which of the following words would you expect participants to take the longest to respond to?

SKY

Which of the following terms best describes the concept of entrainment?

Similarity

According to the concept of ________, when we read a sentence like, "Jorge grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a simulation of Jorge's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment.

Situation models

Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex

The frontal and temporal lobes

Which of the following is a nonverbal component of communication?

Theory of mind

Which term best reflects a musical composer who writes a film score in the key of E?

Tonic

Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem?

Two-string problem

From a thinking perspective, when faced with making a decision, the suggestion to "go with your gut" would emphasize __________ while "take your time" would place emphasis on __________

Type 1, System 2

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness?

Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice

From the perspective of the listener, as a person speaks, each sentence often is characterized by _______ until the sentence is completed

ambiguity

Mia has lived in NYC all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan....

an illusory correlation

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that ____ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

analogies

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) ____________________ inference.

anaphoric

The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the ________

belief bias

The typical purpose of subgoals is to

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people

can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side

In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?

comma

The given-new contract is a method for creating

comprehension between a speaker and a listener in a conversation

In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to

decide whether a string of letters is a word or a nonword.

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents

divergent thinking

The process of analogical encoding is focused on

finding similarity

Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.

gains; risk-aversion

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share.

In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that they

had a large number of sophisticated language systems

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language.

hierarchical

Making probable conclusion based on evidence involves ________ reasoning

inductive

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

Syllogism: if I dont eat lunch, I will be hungry

invalid

Sanfrey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________ decision of ______

irrational, accepting only high offers

Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking

it has a single correct answer

The validity of a syllogism depends on

its form.

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

noticing, mapping, and applying.

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)

novel object.

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT

operators.

Utility refers to

outcomes that achieve a person's goals

According to the situation model of text processing

people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events

When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, and ages are substituted for the letters and numbers),

performance is better for the concrete task

The application of a(n) _________________ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.

permission schema

Research in neuroeconomics has linked activity in the _____ with a reflexive decision system and activity in the _____ with reflective decision system.

prefrontal cortex, insula

Within the realm of conversational speech, knowledge refers to the

previously understood information that we bring into the conversation

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving

reorganization and reconstruction

In the context of language, another term for "heuristics" is ________.

rules

Syntax is the

rules for combining words into sentences

Which of the following is NOT a factor in prosody?

semantics

The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more

slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem

source

Research conducted by Chi and Snyder demonstrated that the Gestalt-style perceptual grouping of items occurs in which regions of the brain

temporal lobe

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

temporary ambiguity

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if

the box is empty

A syllogism is valid if

the conclusion follows logically from the two premises.

Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT

the falsification principle.

At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because

the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the US population

The conjunction rule states that

the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone.

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because

the solution is immediately obvious.

Insight refers to

the sudden realization of a problem's solution

consider the following syllogism: all cats are birds, all birds have wings, all cats have wings

valid

The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine

what information a person is attending to while solving a problem

People tend to overestimate

what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.

The crucial question in comparing garden path and constrain-based approaches to parsing is ____________________ is involved.

when semantics

Intermediate states can be created by

creating subgoals

Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the ________ bias.

status quo

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?

Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of_________________ research.

In vivo problem solving

Subgoals serve a key role in which of the following?

Means-end analysis

The phrase "You just hear what you want to hear" best reflects which of the following concepts?

Myside bias

Which of the following correctly pairs a problem-solving stage with a process under Basadur's model?

Problem Solving: Planning

Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)

anaphoric inference

The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the

availability heuristic.

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

instrument inference.

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) _________________ state

intermediate

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between

laboratory and real-world settings.

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate

representation and restructuring

Imagine that your friend James has just taken up the habit of smoking cigars because he thinks it makes him look cool. You are concerned about the detrimental effects of smoking on his health, and you raise that concern to him. James gets a bit annoyed with your criticism and says, "My grandfather smoked cigars, and he lived to be 100!" You might point out that a major problem with his argument involves

sample size.

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves

search

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem

which of the following statements is NOT accurate

semantics and lexicons are equal in scope

The constraint-based approach to parsing states that

semantics is activated as a sentence is being read.

Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning

the representativeness heuristic.

Which term best describes the process of brainstorming?

Divergent

Use of the word "If" is a good way to identify a(n) ________ syllogism.

conditional

Ling is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an

expected emotion

Josiah is trying to decide whether to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of

expected emotion.

Warmth judgements on nearness to a solution __________ prior to the solution of an insight problem and ______ prior to the solution of a non-insight problem

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a ____ chance that Sarah is a science major.

40%

Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify

50 percent of the words spoken by their own voices

Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?

Before the police stopped, the Toyota disappeared into the night

The radiation problem can be solved using

representation and restructuring.

Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?

Words "pizza, history" and nonwords "pibble, girk"

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents

a mental set.

"You can't have any pudding unless you eat your meat," says a man to his son at the dinner table. This is an example of

a permission schema.

Tuan bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Tuan's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of

an illusory correlation

Dr. Chan is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Chan is studying the effect of _________________ on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache?

analogies

The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of ____ in problem solving.

analogy

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participation in the _________ group had the fastest response time

bread and butter

Consider the following syllogism: If it's a robin then it is a bird. It is a bird. Therefore, it is a robin. In the example above, "Therefore, it is a robin" is a _________________ of a _________________ syllogism.

conclusion; conditional

If a motorcycle cop believes that young female drivers speed more than other drivers, he will likely notice young female drivers speeding in the fast lane but fail to notice young male or older drivers doing the same. In this case, the police officer's judgments are skewed by the operation of the

confirmation bias

An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies _________________ reasoning.

deductive

If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using _________________ reasoning.

deductive

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to

demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _________________ approach developed by Ronald Finke.

divergent thinking

Which term best reflects the process of reading and understanding sentences in a story

dynamic

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of ____________________ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations.

environmental context

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _________________ may be more important than _________________ in creative thinking.

flexibility; experience

Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates

group brainstorming

There are two gumball machines outside the local grocery store, one large machine and one small machine. Both machines have only yellow and orange gumballs, and each machine contains 50 percent of each color. For each coin, the large gumball machine dispenses 15 gumballs, while the small machine dispenses 5. Tim is a young genius whose interests include probability and sound decision-making. His "probability project of the day" is to get a greater percentage of either of the colors, but not an equal amount of each color. Given this, and presuming Tim has only one coin,

he should use his coin in the small machine

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

One reason that most people do not easily solve the original (abstract) version of the Wason four-card problem is that they

ignore the falsification principle.

Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using

inductive reasoning.

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

made the objects themselves.

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the

novel objects before a function was described

actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as

operators

One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children

produce sentences they have never heard

In the information-processing approach to problem solving, an operator is most closely associated with _______

progress

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in his or her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming

The concept of language can best be thought of as a ________.

system

Experts _________________ than novices

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

In analogical problem solving, the ________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the ________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution. .

target, source

Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she takes a route on her drive home that goes past the abandoned shacks, but she feels more negative when she takes a route that goes past the mansions with large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by

the framing effect.

Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on

the meaning dominance of each definition of the word.

Coherence refers to

the representation of the text in a reader's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text

Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using

the representativeness heuristic.

In an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, prefrontal cortex activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money. Prefrontal cortex activation was

the same for accepted and rejected offers

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that

the way the problem is represented can influence the case of problem solving

A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence.Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture.Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for ____________________ because of the ____________________ effect.

trial 1; word frequency