cognition exam 3
Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using
inductive reasoning
Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?
Lydia is a US congresswoman
Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using
Mental chronometry
The technique in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout is known as
Method of Loci
Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself standing at one end of a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior shows
Neglect always occurred on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was positioned
The typical purpose of subgoals is to
bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.
measuring the amount of time a person requires to complete different cognitive tasks is the goal of mental _______
chronometry
In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?
comma
Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?
communication
Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to
demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and noninsight problems
The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the ____________________ approach to parsing.
garden path
The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves
mental images
Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because
the solution is immediately obvious
Insight refers to
the sudden realization of a problem's solution
Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that
the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving
From a thinking perspective, when faced with making a decision, the suggestion to "Go with your gut" would emphasize ________, while the suggestion "Take your time" would place emphasis on ________.
type 1 system 2
Consider the following syllogism: All cats are birds. All birds have wings. All cats have wings. This syllogism is
valid
consider the following All cats are birds. All birds have wings. All cats have wings the syllogism is
valid
which term best reflects the process of reading and understanding sentences in a story?
dynamic
Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside
a bumblebee
Tuan bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Tuan's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of
an illusory correlation
The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of _________________ in problem solving.
analogy
In an effort to get his sister Sharon to vaccinate her young children, Frank compiled the results from many scientific research studies that show the long-term health benefits of childhood vaccines. Yet when Frank presented the information to Sharon, she refused to believe him, stating that the research was clearly faked by large pharmaceutical companies. Sharon not only said that vaccines are risky but also now claims they are poisonous. What occurred in the conversation between Frank and Sharon?
backfire effecta re
Which of the following does NOT reflect the System 1 approach to thinking as proposed by Kahneman?
deliberate
deductive reasoning
the process of applying a general statement to specific facts or situations
Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?
Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.
The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more
(we respond more...) slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words
One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a _________________ chance that Sarah is a science major.
40% chance
The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as
Analogical transfer
Which of the following is NOT commonly associated with people who are considered highly creative?
Analysis
Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) ____________________ inference.
Anaphoric (Connecting objects/people: you know that "them" refers to his kids)
Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) ____________________ inference.
Casual (you are able to make a causal interpretation based on one clause causing an event linked in the sentence)
In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to
Decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word
Mental imagery involves
Experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?
Functional fixedness
The expected utility theory of decision making is grounded in which of the following?
Having all relevant information and making rational choices
Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language.
Hierarchical Structure
Noam Chomsky proposed that
Human language is coded in genes; the underlying basis of all languages is similar. (examp: kids produce sentences they have never heard & have never been reinforced)
Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that
Imagery and perception can interact with one another
Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)
Instrument interference
Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they
Invent a sign language themselves
The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery
Is based on mechanisms related to language
Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on
Psycholinguistics
Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving
Reorganization or restructuring
Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems?
Representation
The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from
Seeing more efficient solutions to the problem
Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or Internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the _________________ bias.
Status quo
The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing
The A card and the 13 card.
According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is
The falsification principle
Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT
The falsification principle
Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using
The representative heuristic
Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because
Visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them
Imagery neurons respond to
all visual images
from the perspective of the listener, as a person speaks, each sentence often is characterized by _______
ambiguity
The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the
availability heuristic
Wally and Shamika are out on a date. When Shamika asks where they should go for dinner, Wally says, "My coworkers keep telling me about that new Japanese place downtown, so it must be a great place to eat." Wally's response illustrates the use of a(n)
availability heuristic
The given-new contract is a method for creating
comprehension between a speaker and a listener in a conversation
An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies _________________ reasoning.
deductive
In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _________________ approach developed by Ronald Finke.
divergent thinking
Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?
imagine the meaning of the word "ethics"
Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?
freedom
Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.
gains risk-aversion
Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates
group brainstorming
Shepard and Maetzler's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated
imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms
a researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of _________ research
in vivo problem solving
In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) _________________ state.
intermediate
Sanfey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________________ decision of ____.
irrational accepting only high offers
Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?
language has a structure that is governed by rules
Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's
lexicon
Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?
meaning dominance
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)
novel object
Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the
novel objects before a function was described
A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for ____________________ because of the ____________________ effect.
one word frequency
The pegword technique is particularly suitable for use when you need to remember items based on their
order
Utility refers to
outcomes that are desirable because they are in the person's best interest
According to the situation model of text processing,
people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events
When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, and ages are substituted for the letters and numbers),
performance is better for the concrete task
The application of a(n) ____ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.
permission schema
Research in neuroeconomics has found that the function of the ________ may be to deal with the cognitive demands of a given task, while the ________ is responsible for handling emotional goals such as resenting an unfair outcome.
prefrontal cortex insula
One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children
produce sentences they have never heard & have never been reinforced
"3 x + 9 = 16" is a ___________ representation
propositional
Which of the following representation types is associated with abstract concepts?
propositional
inductive reasoning
reasoning from detailed facts to general principles
B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through
reinforcement
Coherence refers to the
representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.
Syntax is the
rules for combining words into sentences
Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves
search
Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the
size of the field of view
Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ___________ representations.
spatial
The concept of language can best be thought of as a ________.
system
Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people
tend to look for information that affirms their hypothesis, and "ignore" information that argues against it
The evolutionary approach proposes that the Wason problem can be understood in terms of people's
tendency to detect when others are cheating
Consider the following argument: Observation: Here in Nashville, the sun has risen every morning Conclusion: the sun is going to rise in Nashville tomorrow
the argument is strong because there are a large number of observations
Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if
the box is empty
At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because
the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the U.S. population
Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning
the representativeness heuristic
Which term best reflects a musical composer who writes a film score in the key E?
tonic
In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.
traget source
People tend to overestimate
what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.
Mental scanning experiments found
A direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image
The phrase "You just hear what you want to hear" best reflects which of the following concepts?
myside bias