Cognitive Developmental Approaches CP 6

imaginary audience

the aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible and on stage.

Piaget's conservation Task

Beaker test : is amount of liquid the same when poured from short wide to tall thin. Preoperational (usually less thann 7 or 8 ) says no. Older children say yes and can justify why. used to determine if a child can think operationally - that is can he mentally reverse actions and show conservation of the substance. Piaget's most famous task

violation of expectations

(173) a research method used by Renee Baillargeon to study both child understanding of causality and object permanence. In this method infants see an event happen as it normally would. Then the event is changed in a way that violates what the infant expects to see. When infant looks longer at event that violates expectations it indicates they are surprised by it. criticism: some (Melzoff 174) say it is unclear if looking time is a valid measure of understanding of object permanance.

internalization of schemes

(171)Piaget. 6th & final sensorimotor substage 18 - 24 mo ability to use symbols develops allowing infant to think about concrete event without actually experiencing or perceiving it. Symbols enable these events to be manipulated & transformed. ex. girl opens matchbox then opens mouth to represent her understanding of event.

object permanence

(172) Piaget's term for one of infant's most important accomplishments; understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. (Piaget also studied understanding of causality. 173) Piaget said by end of sensorimotor period - 2yrs Renee Baillargeon used "violation of expectation" to show infants as young as 3 1/2 mo showed some understanding of this. (173) developed in a series of substages corresponding to substages of sensorimotor newborn does not differentiate between self & world - objects do not have a separate permanent existence. ex. Does infant shown an object search for it if it is covered up? yes/no

first habits & primary circular reactions

(170)Piaget. 2d sensorimotor stage develops between 1 mo - 4mo lasts until 4 - 8 mo infant coordinates 2 schemes - habit & circular reaction Infant's own body is center of attention in this stage vs. environment see: habits circular reaction primary circular reactions

circular reaction

(170)Piaget. A repetitive action. stereotyped - repeated the same way each time.

habit (Piaget)

(170)Piaget. A scheme based on a reflex that has become separate from the initial reflex. stereotyped - repeated the same way each time.

secondary circular reactions

(171) Piaget. 3rd sensorimotor stage develops between 4 - 8 mo. Infant's schemes becomes more oriented toward objects in the world around him - not just self-focused. Also, imitates simple actions he is already able to produce , babbling, gestures. not yet intentional or goal-directed ex. Shakes a rattle & repeats out of fascination

coordination of secondary circular reactions

(171) Piaget. 4th sensorimotor substage develops 8 - 12 mo requires hand-eye coordination (vision/touch) Increasingly outward focused actions changes in this period involve coordinating schemes & intentionality ex. look at an object & grasp it. Knock over 1 block to reach another. important feature of progression into this period is infant's inclination to search for an object in a familiar place rather than a new location.(A not B error) due to lack of understanding of object permanence. Recent research says Piaget's stage concept here needs to be revised because the A not B error is not consistent and is sensitive to how long between hiding object at B and infant's attempt to find it. Also infants tend to repeat previous motor behavior.

tertiary circular reactions, novelty & curiosity

(171)Piaget. 5th sensorimotor substage develops 12 mo - 18 mo infants intrigued by properties of objects & exploring new things they can do w/ them. ex. dropping, spinning,sliding a block infant purpose Marks the start of human curiosity & interest in novelty

Education & Piaget

(182) Ideas in Piaget that can be applied to teaching children: 1. Take a constructivist approach: In everything children learn best when they are actively seeking solutions - making discoveries, reflecting on them, & discussing (not just passive receptacle) 2. Facilitate rather than direct learning: Teacher designs situations that enable students to learn by doing w/ teacher asking questions. 3. Consider child's knowledge & level of thinking: interpret from child's point of view & respond in a way not too far from student's level. Examine mistakes in thinking & help guide to a higher level. 4. Promote student intellectual health: Children should learn in a natural way - not be pushed to achieve too early. ex - no Baby flashcards which to Piaget place too much emphasis on speeding up learning, passive learning & no positive outcome. 5. Turn class into a setting of exploration & discovery less structured classroom, no workbooks or predetermined assignments, rather teacher observes student interest to determine what learning will be. Games.

Rogoff, Barbara

(186) Thought Vygotsky's ZPD applies beyond classroom to everyday interactions with adults and peers. around the world learning appears not only in classrooms but also through interaction with knowledgeable people. U.S. Children could benefit from more time for guided participation in family & cultural activities. they currently have little time to learn by observing adults. Observational learning or "learning by osmosis" watching a skilled person to learn a new task happens when adults and children share activities. Cultures differ in goals of development: What content is to be learned and the means for providing guided participation. Parents broaden or limit children's opportunities through their decisions about how much and when to expose children to various things. Children adopt values, skills and mannerisms by watching adults. Cultural activities socialize children into skilled activities. Cultural variations exist in children's attention & learning. 2 approaches: Children participate in a range of family/community activities. or Children are separate from family/community with specialized settings like school

centration

(Piaget 176) Focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.(length, shape etc. of an object. as evidenced by this age group's lack of conservation - see chart on 179

egocentrism

(Piaget 176) important feature of preoperational thought; ability to distinguish between one's own and another's thought. Examples: The little girl who nods rather than saying yes on phone - a non egocentric thinker would respond verbally. Cannot consider doll's perspective in three mountains task. (177) Preschoolers frequently show perspective on some tasks and not others.

animism

(Piaget 176) limitation of preoperational thought; between 4 - 7 years of age, belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action. "The sidewalk made me mad." fails to distinguish between when to use human and non human perspectives. Young children not very concerned with reality create fanciful drawings. By elementary school these drawings become more neat & realistic.

intuitive thought substage

(Piaget 176)2d substage of preoperational thought. between ages 4 - 7 Children begin to use primitive reasoning. Characteristics: They want to know answers to many QUESTIONS - Why does the sun shine, why do leaves fall - this signals emergence in interest of reasoning and in figuring out why things are as they are. Difficulty understanding events taking place out of sight. Fantasy thoughts have little resemblance to reality. Cannot answer WHAT IF? reliably ex. Only a vague idea of what would happen if a car hit him. Cannot do mental calculation to know when it is safe to cross street in front of a car. Stage is called INTUITIVE because young children seem so sure of their knowledge yet are unaware of how they know what they know. They know things but without the use of rational thinking.

Preoperational stage

(Piaget 176)Second Piagetian development stage lasting from about age 2 - 7. Children begin to represent the world with words, images and drawings. Beginning of ability to reconstruct in thought what has been established in behavior. 2 substages: Symbolic Function Substage Intuitive Thought substage egocentrism is present and magic beliefs (animism) are present. world at this age is creative & free child does not yet perform operations a child who thinks in this way cannot perform the three mountains task (176 draw perspective of another location) LIMITATIONS: Centration - centering on one characteristic only (177) evident in a lack of conservation - or awareness that altering an objects appearance does not change its basic properties. example changing shape of containers does not change the nature of the water in them. (177) Young children focus on one characteristic (height of the pitcher) to the exclusion of others (width) FAIL TO SHOW CONSERVATION of liquid, number, matter, length, volume, and area. (see chart 179)

symbolic function substage

(Piaget 176)first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of 2 and 4. Child gains the ability to represent mentally an object that is not present, a huge expansion of child's mental world. Thought is still LIMITED by several things including: EGOCENTRISM and ANIMISM.

operations

(Piaget 176)internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what they had done only physically before. Operations also are reversible mental actions.

accommodation (168)

(Piaget) adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences. used this and assimilation to explain how children use & adapt schemes. ex. cars = all moving vehicles, objects to suck on accommodation excludes motorcycles excludes fuzzy blankets begins in infancy

organization (169)

(Piaget) concept of grouping isolated behaviors into higher ordered, smoothly functioning cognitive systems. Grouping or arranging items into categories. ex. vague idea of tools changes into order as use of each tool is learned/categorized.

equilibration (169)

(Piaget) uses to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. How cognition becomes qualitatively different. 1. cognitive conflict=disequilibrium 2. when something is puzzling or not understood Piaget says internal search for equilibrium motivates change 3. Resolve conflict = restores equilibrium 4. child is moved to higher cognitive ground 5.Eventually organization is fundamentally different = new stage lots of movement between states as assimilation/accommodation take place

conservation

(see chart 179) realization that altering an object's appearance does not change its basic properties.(length, number, mass, quantity, area, weight and volume) Preoperational children lack conservation - awareness that altering an objects appearance does not change its basic properties. example changing shape of containers does not change the nature of the water in them. (177) Young children focus on one characteristic (height of the pitcher) to the exclusion of others (width) Piagets conservation task: (178) PRE-OPERATIONAL FAIL TO SHOW CONSERVATION of liquid, number, matter, length, volume, and area. child may show conservation in one area but not another. Children do not conserve all quantities or all tasks simultaneously.The ORDER OF MASTERY is (number, length, liquid, quantity, mass, weight and volume) Children first master things that are more visible, later more difficult ones like volume. RESEARCH has linked number conservation to brain development: advances in a network in parietal and frontal lobes linked to 9/10 year old conservation success. ROCHEL GELMAN: did not agree w/ Piaget on when conservation skills developed. Believed conservation emerged earlier and that attention to the task is important. (Research 178) (age at which conservation skills develop is related to how much practice children get in their culture.)

Piaget, criticisms

1.ESTIMATES OF COMPETENCE AT ALL AGES/STAGES Some abilities appear much earlier: ex 1: Aspects of object permanence Data does not support Piaget's claim that certain processes are crucial in transitions from one period to another. Ex. A not B error in substage 4 may be due to delay between hide & seek or due to infant tendency to repeat previous motor behavior, rather than lacking concept of object permanence. (172) ex 2: even some 2 yr olds are not ego-centric in some circumstances.See (183) ex. 3 some understanding of conservation of number seen as early as 3. Research shows early understanding of how world works. 3 - 4 mo - infants develop expectations about future. 4 mo - infants expect objects to be solid (but not necessarily to obey gravity) 6 - 8 mo. infants perceive gravity & support Gibson and Spelke both argue that infant's perceptual abilities are highly developed early in life. Intermodal perception (coordinate vision/hearing) by 3 1/2 mo - much earlier than Piaget. New research suggests need to modify his view of sensorimotor development. (others like Meltzoff say methods used in this recent research such as looking time are tapping perceptual expectations rather than knowledge of where an object it when it is out of sight 174) Cognitive abilities can emerge much LATER than Piaget envisioned. ex. adolescents/adults still thinking concrete operational, never reaching formal operational. STAGES To Piaget, all aspects of a stage should appear at the same time, but this does not hold up in research. Some concrete operational concepts do not appear in synchrony. ex. children do not learn to conserve at the same time that they learn to cross-classify. EDUCATION & TRAINING Children at one stage can be trained to reason at a higher stage. Piaget says this is superficial, (184) 3. Issues in culture & education. Culture & education exert more influence on development than Piaget reasoned. Research shows a good teacher that trains the logic of science & math is an important cultural experience that promotes development of operational thought. ex. Research shows that the age kids learn to conserve depends on their culture (not stage) see Senegal (184) Not specific enough in how infants learn. Nature/nurture issue: Piaget greatly underestimated innate cognitive skills of infants.

K.E.E.P.

A successful classroom based on Vygotsky's theory. (188)

Reversible mental actions

A test of reversibility of thought involving conservation of matter is used to see if a child can perform concrete operations. Example: child given two identical balls of clay then one is smashed Are they the same? Usually by age 7 or 8 children answer that they are the same To figure this out they have to reverse the action on the ball. (179)

dialogue

A tool for cog.dev. Vygotsky Vygotsky viewed children as having rich but unsystematic, disorganized and spontaneous ideas. In dialogue these concepts meet with the skilled helper's more systematic logical and rational concepts resulting in children's concepts becoming more systematic, logical and rational. (185)

schemes(168)

Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. Piaget Infancy characterized by behavioral (physical) schemes: simple actions that can be performed on objects ex: sucking, looking, grasping childhood characterized by mental schemes(cognitive) Strategies for solving problems. ex: classifying objects by size. adults have schemes for driving, budgeting, fairness etc.

Elkind, David

Added to Piaget's view of adolescents the idea of adolescent egocentrism as an additional cognitive change in adolescents that governs how they think about social matters. (The heightened self consciousness of adolescents reflected in the belief that others are as interested in them as they are themselves and in their personal uniqueness and invincibility. Consists of 2 types of social thinking: 1. Imaginary audience - always on stage 2. Personal fable - adolescent sense of uniqueness and invincibility (181)

Tools of the Mind

An early childhood education curriculum (189) emphasizing development of self regulation and cognitive foundations of literacy. based Vygotsky uses dramatic play, play plans, scaffolding writing, field trips, visitor presentations, videos, books. result - more advanced writing skills more complex messages, more words, spell better, etc.. Research showed curriculum improved self-regulatory & cognitive control skills as well as cognitive skills.

social constructivist approach

An emphasis on the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction.Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach.

Piaget, contributions

Concepts: assimilation, accommodation, object permanance, egocentrism, conservation & more. current view of children: as active, constructive thinkers research: tons on child cognitive development Observing children to discover how they act & adapt (important things to look for when observing: shifts in stages showed how children need to make experience fit their schemes. & adapt experience to fit schemes. Showed how change is likely to occur if context is structured to all gradual movement to next level. (continuity)

adolescent egocentrism

David Elkins claims that in addition to Piaget's characteristics of the formal operational stage (thinking more logically, abstractly & idealistically) adolescent thinking is also characterized by (a kind of social thinking) a heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescent's beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves (termed imaginary audience) and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability. (termed Personal Fable with two subclasses: Danger invulnerability and psychological invulnerability) . **some current research refutes the idea that teens feel invulnerable - rather portray themselves as vulnerable - overestimating their chance of dying. (181) Piagets Formal Operational stage (181)

Three Mountains Task

Designed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder to study child's egocentrism.

Neo-Piagetian Approach

Gives more attention to how children use attention, memory and strategies to process information. Especially believe that a more accurate portrayal of children's thinking requires attention to children's strategies, the speed at which they process info, the particular task, and division of problems into more precise steps.

scaffolding

In cognitive development, Vygotsky used this term to describe the practice of changing the level of support provided over the course of a teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level.

assimilation (168)

Incorporating new information into existing knowledge. (Piaget) used this and accommodation to explain how children use & adapt schemes. ex. cars = all moving vehicles, objects to suck on begins in infancy

Core Knowledge Approach

Infants are born with domaine-specific innate knowledge systems such as those involving space, number, sense, object permanence and language. Prewired by evolution to make sense of their world. This innate knowledge forms a foundation on which more mature learning can take place. Spelke: nature over nurture. Piaget greatly underestimated cognitive skills of infants. infants can differentiate between different numbers of objects , actions, sounds. Not everyone agrees with this idea of Spelke's critic of core knowledge - Mark Johnston (175)

inner speech

Language & thought develop independently for Vygotsky. and then merge. Has social origins -children must use external language for a long time before they can focus it inward. This transition takes place (external to internal) between ages 3 - 7 & includes talking to yourself. Eventually a child matures & can focus this talking inward to become inner speech (their thoughts).(187)

formal operational stage

Piagets 4th stage (180) age 11 - 17 individuals move beyond concrete experience and think more abstractly, idealistically and logically. Adolescents develop images of IDEAL circumstances (the ideal parent vs. the real) and become perplexed over which of their newfound ideals to adopt. are able to solve problems verbally (vs.concrete operational must see the elements a, b and c to reason about them) Have a greater tendency to think about thinking. Compare themselves with others and think about future possibilities. where children solve problems with trial-and-error, adolescents think more scientifically, devising plans and testing solutions to problems. They use hypothetical deductive reasoning.(181) Initial development of this thought involves a lot of incorporating new info into existing structures or assimilation. They think subjectively and idealistically. Later they mature into balance through accommodation. Current research challenges ideas of Piaget here: There is more variation in formal operational thought than Piaget imagined. Only 1 in 3 adolescents is a formal operational thinker. Many adults never get there.

interrelations among sets and subsets

The ability to understand interrelations among sets and subsets (along with seriation and transitivity) is a characteristic of Piaget's concrete operational child. interrelations among sets and subsets (ex.understanding relationships in the family tree, one can be husband, father, brother, son all at once ) (179)

concrete operational stage

Piaget's 3rd stage (178) 7 - 11 yrs children can perform concrete operations and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning (know but don't know why I know) as long as the reasoning can be applied to concrete examples. Concrete operations which are REVERSIBLE mental actions on concrete objects. In concrete operations children can coordinate multiple characteristics (height and width)rather than just a single quality(height) of an object. (179) One skill that characterizes this stage is ability to classify and consider relationships, specifically: 1. interrelations among sets and subsets (ex.understanding relationships in the family tree, one can be husband, father, brother, son all at once ) 2. seriation (ordering quantitativly - put sticks of different lengths in order smallest to largest (180)) 3. transitivity

horizontal decalage

Piaget's concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development. example Children do not conserve all quantities or all tasks simultaneously.The order of their mastery is (number, length, liquid, quantity, mass, weight and volume)

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.(181)

simple reflexes (170)

Piaget. 1st sensorimotor stage birth - 1 mo up to 4 mo Sensation/action coordinated mainly via reflexes ex. rooting/sucking. infants progress to initiating (& structuring) these behaviors w/out needing the stimulus to generate ex. infant can suck w/out needing bottle touched to lips. Develops a habit.

primary circular reaction

Piaget. A scheme, based on the attempt to reproduce an event that initially occurred by chance. see ex. pg 170 infant accidentally sucks fingers then tries to reproduce but lacks coordination. stereotyped - repeated the same way each time.

Sensorimotor Stage (169)

Piaget. Birth - 2 yrs Infants construct understanding of world by coordinating sensory experience with motor action. (main task of infancy) Newborns begin this stage with reflexes only. By end they can produce complex sensorimotor patterns and primitive symbols. (divided into six substages) 1. simple reflexes 2. first habits & primary circular reactions 3. secondary circular reactions 4. coordination of secondary circular reactions 5. tertiary circular reactions, novelty & curiosity 6. Internalization of schemes

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH(185) Describe's children as social creatures developing via social interaction & context vs. Piaget's focus on personal action/interaction w/ physical world. Development depends on tools provided by society. Minds shaped by cultural context. HOW CHILDREN LEARN 1. instruction - ZPD refers to kids cognitive skills in the process of maturing that require the assistance of a more skilled person who can help child accomplish task they could not do solo. These instances called "buds" or "flowers" as contrasted with "fruits" which are the things child can accomplish on their own.(thinking beyond the zone) Applied mainly to academic learning. See Rogoff 2. Scaffolding is used to change the level of support to fit a child's current performance. As competence increases less guidence is required. (Dialogue) is an important tool of scaffolding. ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN COG. DEV. ex. of language as a tool for cog.dev.= dialogue Children use speech to help solve tasks. Young children use language to plan, guide and monitor their behavior. (private speech - language for self-regulation - is an important tool of thought in early childhood for Vygotsky but not Piaget - research supports Vygotsky (187) that children use private speech when tasks are more difficult and they are not sure how to proceede. Also found that children who use private speech are more attentive & improve performance more than those who do not.)When young children talk to themselves they are using it to help govern behavior & guide themselves. Language & thought develop independently for Vyg. and then merge. Has social origins -children must use external language for a long time before they can focus it inward. This transition takes place (external to internal) between ages 3 - 7 & includes talking to yourself. Eventually a child matures & can focus this talking inward to become inner speech (their thoughts).(187) End point in learning differs based on what skills are valued in a culture.

seriation

the concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension such as length The ability to understand seriation is a characteristic of Piaget's concrete operational child. seriation (ordering quantitativly - put sticks of different lengths in order smallest to largest (180))

Piaget, Nature/Nurture

Speke (core knowledge approach) says nature plays more important role in infant development.

number sense, infants

Spelke (174) Piaget greatly underestimated cognitive skills of infants. infants can differentiate between different numbers of objects , actions, sounds. Not everyone agrees with this idea of Spelke's. Infants could just be responding to changes of display that violate expectations when watching her puppet show. critic: Mark Johnston

Baillargeon, Renee (173)

Studied infants understanding of object permanence & causality. Showed these concepts existed in infant's understanding much earlier than Piaget suggested. ex. 3-4 mo expects objects to be substantial (174)

infant cognition

Study in this area highly specialized.(175) No general theory exists. Local theories focus on specific questions. Researchers seek to understand how developmental changes in cognition take place and explore issue of nature / nurture. still seeking to understand if development is best accounted for by an innate set of facts or environmental experiences.

Vygotsky's zone of proximal development

Tasks in the ZPD are too difficult for a child to do alone.Requires assistance from a more skilled person.As child experiences the verbal or physical demonstration, they organize information in their existing mental structures so they can eventually perform the skill or task alone.

qualitatively different What does it mean for cognition to be qualitativly different from one stage to another?

The way a child reasons becomes more advanced as he progresses through Piaget's stages.

Vygotsky and Teaching Strategies

To use in classroom 1. Assess ZPD: instead of formal standardized testing. Present tasks of varying difficulty determine where to begin instruction. 2. Use child's ZPD in teaching: begin toward upper limit and offer just enough assistance. 3. Use more skilled peers as teachers: 4. Monitor/encourage children's use of private speech. By elementary school encourage children to internalize their self talk. 5.Place instruction in meaningful context rather than abstract lecture. 6. Transform how the class looks (KEEP)187,188 small group activities, scaffolding, discussions

Private Speech

Using language for self-regulation. for Piaget this was egocentric and immature. for Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought in early childhood. Believed children w/ lots of inner speech become more socially competent & this speech represents a transition to becoming more socially communicative. Research supports Vygotsky (187) that children use private speech when tasks are more difficult and they are not sure how to proceede. Also found that children who use private speech are more attentive & improve performance more than those who do not.

zone of proximal development

Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone, but can be mastered with assistance from adults or more skilled children.

Danger invulnerability

adolescents sense of indistructability and tendency to take physical risk (181) adolescents who scored high on this had greater risk for juvenile delinquency, substance abuse, or depression. One of two divisions of David Elkind's Personal Fable (a type of adolescent social thinking)

Psychological invulnerability

adolescents sense of invulnerability related to personal or psychological distress. (ex. getting feelings hurt) (181) adolescents who scored high on this were less likely to be depressed, had higher self esteem and engaged in better interpersonal relationships. Adolescents seem to benefit from normal developmental challenges related to exploring identity, making friends, learning new skills. All of these involve the risk of failure, but success brings enhanced self-image. One of two divisions of David Elkind's Personal Fable (a type of adolescent social thinking)

separation-individuation process

adolescents separate from parents and develop independence and identity. according to Daniel Lapsley this process is responsible for the enhanced self-image teens can develop throughnormal developmental challenges related to exploring identity, making friends, learning new skills. All of these involve the risk of failure, but success brings enhanced self-image.

Piaget's Stages (170)

age-related, each with a distinct way of thinking. Sensory-Motor, (divided into six substages) 1. simple reflexes 2. first habits & primary circular reactions 3. secondary circular reactions 4. coordination of secondary circular reactions 5. tertiary circular reactions, novelty & curiosity 6. Internalization of schemes Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational

transitivity

if A = B and B = C then A = C Piaget argued that an understanding of transitive is characteristic of concrete operational thought (180) (along with interrelations among sets and subsets and seriation)

A not B error

infant makes mistake of selecting familiar hiding place A to locate an object rather than looking in the new hiding place B as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor (172)

symbol

internalized sensory image or word that represents an event

permanent, infant expects object to be

objects continue to exist when they are hidden at 3 -4 mo

substantial, infant expects object to be

other objects cannot move through an object - at 3 -4 mo

Spelke, Elizabeth

says nature plays the more important role in infant development (174) Piaget greatly underestimated cognitive skills of infants. Infants show ability to understand the world at 3-4 mo 3 - 4 mo - infants develop expectations about future. 4 mo - infants expect objects to be solid (but not necessarily to obey gravity) 6 - 8 mo. infants perceive gravity & support infants can differentiate between different numbers of objects , actions, sounds. Not everyone agrees with this idea of Spelke's endorses a core Knowledge Approach (174)

Guided Participation

see Barbara Rogoff (186)

Cultural Contexts

see Barbara Rogoff(186)

Lapsley, Daniel

separation-individuation process - adolescents separate from parents and develop independence and identity. according to Daniel Lapsley this process is responsible for the enhanced self-image teens can develop through normal developmental challenges related to exploring identity, making friends, learning new skills. All of these involve the risk of failure, but success brings enhanced self-image. (182)

developmental cognitive neuroscience

studys connections between brain, cognition and development. Is the task of acquiring information as an infant best accounted for by nature / an innate sense of biases, or environmental experiences infant is exposed to.

personal fable

the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility.(181) (although much recent research says that adolescents see themselves as vulnerable - ex. greatly overestimating their risk of dying (181) see also danger/psychological invulnerability 2 types) no one can understand how they really feel. May involve crafting stories about themselves filled w/ fantasy. David Elkind

causality, understanding

two accomplishments of infants that Piaget studied were understanding of causality and object permanence. see also Renee Baillargeon (173)