Cognitive Psychology Exam 3

Imagery neurons respond to

an actual visual image as well as imagining that same image.

The process of back propagation is most closely associated with

connectionist networks.

According to the _____ approach to memory, what people report as memories is based on what actually happened plus additional factors such as other knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

constructive

Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex

plays a causal role in both perception and imagery.

Spreading activation

primes associated concepts

"3x + 9 = 16" is a _____ representation.

propositional

As described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT

propositions.

Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization.

prototype

Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach?

Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.

The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on

category members that have been encountered in the past.

Schrauf and Rubin's "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the

cognitive hypothesis.

Two different definitions of ________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "the meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas."

concepts

Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network

connection weights

One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network

connectionist

The "telephone game" is often played by children. One child creates a story and whispers it to a second child, who does the same to a third child, and so on. When the last child recites the story to the group, his or her reproduction of the story is generally shorter than the original and contains many omissions and inaccuracies. This game shows how memory is a ______ process.

constructive

Stanny and Johnson's "weapons focus" experiment, investigating memory for crime scenes, found that

the presence of a weapon hinders memory for other parts of the event.

The propositional approach may use any of the following EXCEPT

a spatial layout.

Loftus and Palmer's "car-crash films" experiment described in the text shows how a seemingly minor word change can produce a change in a person's memory report. In this study, the MPI was (were) the word(s)

"smashed."

A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be

a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.

A script is a type of schema that also includes knowledge of

a sequence of actions.

Luis is taking his girlfriend, Rosa, to a resort town neither one of them has visited. Luis wants to make a good impression on Rosa, so he spends the week before the trip reading about fun places to go while they are there. He also memorizes a map of the small resort town so he can lead her around without bothering to ask for directions. When they arrive, they first visit a botanical garden. When Rosa says, "Where to next?" Luis conjures a mental image of the map and says, "art museum." Let's as

2

Jacoby's experiment, in which participants made judgments about whether they had previously seen the names of famous and non-famous people, found that inaccurate memories based on source misattributions occurred after a delay of

24 hours.

A circular plate rests at the center of a small square table. Around the table are a total of four chairs, one along each side of the square table. A person with unilateral neglect sits down in one of the chairs and eats from the plate. After he is "finished," he moves to the next chair on his right and continues to eat from the plate. Assuming he never moves the plate and he continues with this procedure (moving one chair to the right and eating) how many chairs will he have to sit in to eat al

3

Dominic is at a job interview sitting across from the company's CEO, Ms. Bing. While she takes a phone call, Dominic tries to recall her first name. Her business card is on the desk, but its orientation is not facing Dominic straight on. The business card has the initial of Ms. Bing's first name, so Dominic mentally rotates that initial letter into a straight-up orientation. For which angle (compared to the final straight-up orientation) would you predict Dominic would be fastest in identifying

30 degrees

Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials? (NOTE: Read data sets as RTs for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3) ​ Trial 1: An owl is a bird. Trial 2: A penguin is a bird. Trial 3: A sparrow is a bird.

583: 653: 518 msec

In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?

A field sparrow is an animal.

______ is a "typical" member of a category.

A prototype

Which of the following statements is true of police lineups?

A sequential lineup increases the chance that the witness compares each person in the lineup to his or her memory of the event.

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?

A turtle is an animal.

Your text describes an experiment by Talarico and Rubin (2003) that measured people's memories of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Which of the following was the primary result of that research?

After 32 weeks, participants had a high level of confidence in their memories of the terrorist events, but lower belief in their memories of "everyday" events.

Which statement below is NOT true, based on the results of memory research?

Although eyewitness testimony is often faulty, people who have just viewed a videotape of a crime are quite accurate at picking the "perpetrator" from a lineup.

Which of the following statements is NOT cited in your text as a reason why categories are useful?

Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects.

Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks?

Cognitive economy

Which of the following is the most accurate statement regarding post-event information and the misinformation effect?

Even when participants are told that the post-event information is incorrect, the misinformation effect can still occur.

Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds?

Exemplar

_______ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past.

Exemplars

Which of the following is NOT associated with the semantic network model?

Family resemblance

Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?

Freedom

Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall?

Graduating from college at age 22

Which of the following represents a basic level item?

Guitar

Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?

Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."

Which of the following is an example of the sentence verification technique?

Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO

Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements?

It is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time.

The retroactive interference hypothesis states that the misinformation effect occurs because

MPI obstructs or distorts memories formed during the original experiencing of an event.

Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?

Parallel distributed processing theory

Which of the following statements is true of the cognitive interview technique?

Police allow witnesses to talk with a minimum of interruption from the officer.

____ occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the sentence

Pragmatic inference

Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?

Prototype

____ occurs when more recent learning impairs memory for something that happened further back in the past

Retroactive interference

Wei has allergy symptoms. He has gone to his regular doctor and an allergy specialist, but he wasn't given a prescription by either doctor. Instead, he was advised to buy an over-the-counter medicine. While he was in the specialist's waiting area, he read a magazine where he saw three ads for an allergy medicine called SneezeLess. A week later, in a drug store, Wei says to his brother, "My doctor says SneezeLess works great. I'll buy that one." Wei and his doctor never discussed SneezeLess. Wei

Source monitoring

Lindsay and coworkers "slime in the first-grade teacher's desk" experiment showed that presenting

a photograph of the participant's first-grade class increased the likelihood of false memories.

In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether

a presented stimulus is a word.

Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category?

Sparrow

People playing the parlor game "20 Questions" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "Is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "Is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level

Superordinate

Which of the following has been used as an argument AGAINST the idea that imagery is spatial in nature?

The tacit-knowledge explanation

Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?

Thought is always accompanied by imagery.

Which of the following would be in a basic level category?

Truck

Which of the following is not one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model?

Working units

Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside

a bumblebee.

When a participant is asked to list examples of the category vegetables, it is most likely that

a carrot would be named before eggplant.

Carly is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using

a depictive representation.

Mental-scanning experiments found

a direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image.

For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for

adolescence and young adulthood.

The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented

after the event.

Your text's discussion of false memories leads to the conclusion that false memories

arise from the same constructive processes that produce true memories

Suppose that, as a participant in an imagery study, you are asked to memorize the four outside walls of a three-story rectangular house. Later, you are asked to report how many windows are on the front of the house. You will probably be fastest to answer this question if you create an image as though you were standing

at the far side of the front yard, away from the house.

In Lindsay's "misinformation effect" experiment, participants saw a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer. This slide presentation included narration by a female speaker who described what was happening in the slides as they were shown. Results showed that the misinformation effect was greatest when MPI presentation was

auditory from a female speaker.

Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.

back propagation

According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience.

basic

Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with

boat _______ - car ________.

In explaining the paradox that imagery and perception exhibit a double dissociation, Behrmann and coworkers suggested that perception necessarily involves _____ processing and imagery starts as a _____ process.

bottom-up; top-down

How is cognitive economy represented in the following example? The property _____ is stored at the _____ node.

can fly; bird

The conclusion to be drawn from the man named Shereshevskii whose abnormal brain functioning gave him virtually limitless word-for-word memory is that having memory like a video recorder

can seriously disrupt functioning in one's personal life

In the "word list" false memory experiment where several students incorrectly remembered hearing the word sleep, false memory occurs because of

constructive memory processes.

Bartlett's experiment in which English participants were asked to recall the "War of the Ghosts" story that was taken from the French Indian culture illustrated the

constructive nature of memory.

Arkes and Freedman's "baseball game" experiment asked participants to indicate whether the following sentence was present in a passage they had previously read about events in a game: "The batter was safe at first." Their findings showed inaccurate memories involved

creations from inferences based on baseball knowledge

It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties.

crowding

Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others is known as

cryptomnesia.

In the "War of the Ghosts" experiment, participants' reproductions contained inaccuracies based on

cultural expectations.

Examples like Paul McCartney's composition of the song "Yesterday" and Jack Nicklaus's improvement of his golf swing demonstrate a connection between imagery and

dreams.

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that

damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation

If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that

damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization.

definitional

Research on the physiology of semantic memory has shown that the representation of different categories in the brain (like living and non-living things) is best described as being

distributed.

The definitional approach to categorization

doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.

Sometimes a behavioral event can occur at the same time as a cognitive process, even though the behavior isn't needed for the cognitive process. For example, many people look toward the ceiling when thinking about a complex problem, even though "thinking" would likely continue if they didn't look up. This describes a(n)

epiphenomenon.

Lindsay's misinformation effect experiment, in which participants were given a memory test about a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer, showed that participants are influenced by MPI

even if they are told to ignore the postevent information.

If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the _____ approach to categorization.

exemplar

Research suggests that the _____ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents)

exemplar

Mental imagery involves

experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input.

A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that

extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is accurate.

According to the typicality effect,

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.

Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus

facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.

Your text's discussion of eyewitness testimony illustrates that this type of memory is frequently influenced by all of the following EXCEPT

failing to elaboratively rehearse these kinds of events due to fear.

The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of "chairs" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is

family resemblance.

To explain the fact that some neuropsychological studies show close parallels between perceptual deficits and deficits in imagery, while other studies do not find this parallel, it has been proposed that the mechanism for imagery is located at _____ visual centers and the mechanism for perception is located at _____ visual centers.

higher; both lower and higher

Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that

imagery and perception can interact with one another.

Shepard and Meltzer's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated

imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.

"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT

imagery requires a special mechanism.

Much research has been dedicated to improving the reliability of eyewitness testimony. One finding reveals that when constructing a lineup,

increasing similarity between "fillers" and a suspect leads to an increased level of missed identification of some guilty suspects.

Ira and his sister are playing "Name that Tune," the object of which is to name the title of the song when given the song's first line. Ira suggests the line "Sleigh bells ring, are you listening?" His sister can't come up with the answer at first, but realizing that the title is often embedded in the lyrics, she tries to sing them silently to herself. She then bursts out "Ah! It's 'Winter Wonderland'!" It is most likely that Ira's sister used _____ in playing the game.

inner audition

The experiment in which participants first read sentences about a baseball game and were then asked to identify sentences they had seen before, illustrated that memory

involves making inferences.

Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal

is a dog that does not bark.

The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery

is based on spatial or language mechanisms

In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that

it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images.

"S," who had a photographic memory that was described as virtually limitless, was able to achieve many feats of memory. According to the discussion in your text, S's memory system operated _____

less efficiently than normal.

Experiments that argue against a special flashbulb memory mechanism find that as time increases since the occurrence of the flashbulb event, participants

make more errors in their recollections.

The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that

memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities

The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?

mental chronometry.

The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves

mental images.

Kosslyn's island experiment used the _____ procedure.

mental scanning

Ben has had problems with the pipes in his apartment. First, he had a clog in his bathroom sink, and then two months later, his garbage disposal in the kitchen sink clogged. Ben's superintendant told him he was not adequately flushing the debris from his pipes. She suggested that he run the water a little longer and visualize the debris (be it carrot peelings or toothpaste) traveling through the pipes all the way out to the sewer connection in the street. Using this technique, Ben has had no mor

mental scanning.

Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the _____ experiment.

mental walk

Wilma is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., Tabasco sauce sp

method of loci

The technique in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout is known as

method of loci.

Gallese and colleagues (1996) noted that certain types of neurons, now called ________ neurons, activated when a monkey grasped food on a tray, but also activated when they watched the experimenter grasping food on a tray.

mirror

Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. It would be correct to say that Olin's standard probably involves

more exemplars than Bob's.

The idea that we remember life events better because we encounter the information over and over in what we read, see on TV, and talk about with other people is called the

narrative rehearsal hypothesis.

Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself standing at one end of a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior shows

neglect always occurred on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was positioned.

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a

node.

The pegword technique is particularly suitable for use when you need to remember items based on their

order.

Perky's imagery study (1910) had participants describe images of objects that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of Perky's results was that

people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present.

Ganis and coworkers used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that

perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does.

Your text argues that the proper procedure for measuring the accuracy of flashbulb memories is

repeated recall.

Kieran found that studying for his Spanish exam made it more difficult to remember some of the vocabulary words he had just studied for his French exam earlier in the day. This is an example of

retroactive interference

Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information.

superordinate level to basic level

The misinformation effect can be explained by

retroactive interference.

Your friend has been sick for several days, so you go over to her home to make her some chicken soup. Searching for a spoon, you first reach in a top drawer beside the dishwasher. Then, you turn to the big cupboard beside the stove to search for a pan. In your search, you have relied on a kitchen

schema.

In the experiment in which participants sat in an office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" some things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of _____ on memory

schemas

Jackie went to the grocery store to pick up yogurt, bread, and apples. First, she picked up a hand basket for carrying her groceries, and then she searched the store. After finding what she needed, she stood in a check-out line. Then, the cashier put her items in a plastic bag, and soon after, Jackie left the store. As readers of this event, we understand that Jackie paid for the groceries, even though it wasn't mentioned, because we are relying on a grocery store _____.

script

According to the ________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain.

semantic category

The _____ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation.

semantic network

According to the S-F hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes ________ and one that distinguishes ________.

sensory attributes; function

When presenting lineups to eyewitnesses, it has been found that a(n) ____ lineup is much more likely to result in an innocent person being falsely identified

simultaneous

Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the

size of the field of view.

In the word list experiment that was based on work by Deese (1959) and Roediger & McDermott (1995), many students incorrectly remembered hearing the word ________ as part of the list of presented stimuli. This highlights a disadvantage of memory's constructive nature.

sleep

The "wedding reception" false memory experiment shows that false memories can be explained as a product of familiarity and

source misattribution.

The experiment for which people were asked to make fame judgments for both famous and non-famous names (and for which Sebastian Weissdorf was one of the names to be remembered) illustrated the effect of _____ on memory.

source misattributions

Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ____ representations.

spatial

Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of _____ into their network model.

spreading activation

Items high on prototypicality have ____ family resemblances.

strong

If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level.

subordinate; basic

In their imagery study, Finke and Pinker presented a four-dot display briefly to participants. After a two-second delay, participants then saw an arrow, and their task was to indicate whether the arrow would have pointed to any of the dots in the previous display. The significance of their results was they called into question the ____ explanation of imagery.

tacit-knowledge

The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by

the distance that must be traveled through the network.

The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when

the error signals are reduced to nearly none and the correct properties are assigned.

Research on eyewitness testimony has shown that the more confident the person giving the testimony is of their memories,

the more convincing the testimony is to a jury.

Rosch and coworkers conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a category label, like car or vehicle, and then, after a brief delay, saw a picture. The participants' task was to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the picture was a member of the category. Their results showed

the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories.

Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is _____ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."

the same as

The repeated reproduction technique used in memory studies involves

the same participants remembering some information at longer and longer intervals after learning the information

For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that

the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi.

The lesson to be learned from the imagery techniques for memory enhancement (for example, the pegword technique) is that these techniques work because

they showcase the fact that memory improvement requires a great deal of practice and perseverance.

Autobiographical memory research shows that a person's brain is more extensively activated when viewing photos

they took themselves

Asking people to recall the most influential events that happened during their college careers shows that ____ in people's lives appear to be particularly memorable.

transition points

Your text describes cross-cultural studies of categorization with U.S. and Itzaj participants. Given the results of these studies, we know that if asked to name basic level objects for a category, U.S. participants would answer ____ and Itzaj participants would answer ____.

tree; oak

An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ________ effect.

typicality

Amedi and coworkers used fMRI to investigate the differences between brain activation for perception and imagery. Their findings showed that when participants were ____, some areas associated with non-visual sensation (such as hearing and touch) were ____.

using visual images; deactivated

One of Sarah's friends asks her to describe her new house by asking her how many windows are on the front of it. After a minute, Sarah answers 12. She has most likely used _____ in answering the question.

visual imagery

Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because

visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.

Research on eyewitness testimony reveals that

when viewing a lineup, an eyewitness's confidence in her choice of the suspect can be increased by an authority's confirmation of her choice, even when the choice is wrong.