Cognitive psychology final
Members of a security team are stationed on rooftops surrounding a large city plaza before a scheduled rally. Suddenly, three team members in different locations radio in to the command center, each stating that they have spotted a suspicious box on the ground with a pipe coming from the top. What enables the security team members to report seeing the same object despite being stationed on different rooftops?
Viewpoint invariance
Bartlett
War of the Ghosts
Imagine yourself walking from your car, bus stop, or dorm to your first class. Your ability to form such a picture in your mind depends on which of the following components of working memory?
The visuospatial sketch pad
According to Treisman's attenuation model, which of the following would you expect to have the highest threshold for most people?
The word "platypus"
George Miller
There are limits to the human ability to process information (memory).
Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?
Thought is always accompanied by imagery.
Which of the following learning techniques is LEAST likely to lead to deep processing of the information?
Thuy has just bought a new car and is trying to learn her new license plate sequence. Every morning, for three weeks, she repeats the sequence out loud when she wakes up.
In which of the following examples of two different brain-injured patients (Tom and Tim) is a double dissociation demonstrated
Tom has good semantic memory and poor episodic memory, while Tim has good episodic memory but poor semantic memory.
Which type of research employed a "train on perception, test on perception" method to demonstrate imagery/perception overlap?
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
Which of the following attention model components produces two levels of output?
Treisman's attenuator
Learning should be spaced out over time.
True
According to the model of working memory, which of the following mental tasks should LEAST adversely affect people's driving performance while operating a car along an unfamiliar, winding road?
Trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned
Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem?
Two-string problem
Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness?
Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice
Imagine that lawmakers are considering changing the driving laws and that you have been consulted as an attention expert. Given the principles of divided attention, in which of the following conditions would a person have the most difficulty with driving and therefore pose the biggest safety risk on the road?
When the person is driving an unfamiliar vehicle that is more difficult to operate.
Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?
Words "pizza, history" and nonwords "pibble, girk"
Lamar has just gotten a new job and is attending a company party where he will meet his colleagues for the first time. His boss escorts him around to small groups to introduce him. At the first group, Lamar meets four people and is told only their first names. The same thing happens with a second group and a third group. At the fourth group, Lamar is told their names and that one of the women in the group is the company accountant. A little while later, Lamar realizes that he only remembers the names of the people in the first group, though he also remembers the profession of the last woman he met (the accountant). Lamar's experience demonstrates
a build-up and release of proactive interference.
Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside
a bumblebee
Monique is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using
a depictive representation
Mental scanning experiments found
a direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image.
"You can't have any pudding unless you eat your meat," says a man to his son at the dinner table. This is an example of
a permission schema.
The propositional approach may use any of the following EXCEPT
a spatial layout.
"I remember being really excited last year, when my college team won the national championship in basketball." This statement is an example of ___________ memory.
episodic
Josiah is trying to decide whether to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of
expected emotion
Mental imagery involves
experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that
extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is accurate.
Neurons that respond to specific qualities of objects, such as orientation, movement, and length, are called
feature detectors.
When recording from a single neuron, stimulus intensity is represented by the
firing rate of the action potentials.
Each time you briefly pause on one face, you are making a(n) ______________.
fixation
In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.
initial
Ira and his sister are playing "Name that Tune," the object of which is to name the title of the song when given the song's first line. Ira suggests the line "Sleigh bells ring, are you listening?" His sister can't come up with the answer at first, but realizing that the title is often embedded in the lyrics, she tries to sing them silently to herself. She then bursts out "Ah! It's 'Winter Wonderland'!" It is most likely that Ira's sister used ___________ in playing the game.
inner audition
Your text describes an "Italian woman" who, after an attack of encephalitis, had difficulty remembering people or facts she knew before. She could, however, remember her life events and daily tasks. Her memory behavior reflects
intact episodic memory but defective semantic memory.
Viewpoint ________ is the ability to recognize the same object even if it is seen from different perspectives.
invariance
Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they
invent a sign language themselves.
Sanfey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________________ decision of ____.
irrational; accepting only high offers
A high threshold in Treisman's model of attention implies that
it takes a strong signal to cause activation.
Semantic memory is to ________ as episodic memory is to ________.
knowing; remembering
The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between
laboratory and real-world settings.
Thorndike
law of effect, wrote "Animal Intelligence" about cats escaping from puzzle boxes
It is easier to perform two tasks at the same time if
one is handled by the visuospatial sketch pad and one is handled by the phonological loop.
Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as
operators.
The story in the text about the balloons that were used to suspend a speaker in mid-air was used to illustrate the role of ___________ in memory.
organization
The process by which small objects become perceptually grouped to form larger objects is the principle of perceptual
organization.
Bransford and Johnson's study had participants hear a passage, which turned out to be about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture made it easier to understand. The results of this study illustrated the importance of ___________ in forming reliable long-term memories.
organizational context
Speech segmentation is defined as
organizing the sounds of speech into individual words.
Utility refers to
outcomes that achieve a person's goals.
The use of a machine that tracks the movement of one's eyes can help reveal the shifting of one's __________ attention
overt
A 10-month-old baby is interested in discovering different textures, comparing the touch sensations between a soft blanket and a hard wooden block. Tactile signals such as these are received by the __________ lobe.
parietal
One of the defining characteristics of implicit memory is that
people are not conscious they are using it.
Perky's imagery study (1910) had participants describe images of objects that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of Perky's results was that
people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present.
__________ is the process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object.
Binding
Localization of function
Brain areas are specialized for specific functions.
The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?
Cake mug
John Watson
Classical conditioning and Little Albert
Which of the following options would NOT be an important factor in automatic processing?
Close attention
Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?
Communication
The key difference between depictive representation and propositional representation is based on which of the following?
Content
Regarding free recall of a list of items, which of the following will most likely cause the recency effect to disappear by preventing rehearsal?
Counting backward for 30 seconds before recall
Which of the following theories on conceptual representation combines both sensory and motor experiences?
The embodied approach
Terrell volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman- Hernandez debate on TV. Terrell was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100 percent sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Terrell's first response to the debate will most likely be
"Goodman answered the question on job creation very well."
A person who is activating their visuospatial sketch pad is likely to say which of the following?
"I can see it in my mind's eye."
Free recall of the stimulus list "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" will most likely yield which of these response patterns?
"apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, pants, lamp, chair"
Which of the following represents the most effective chunking of the digit sequence 14929111776?
1492 911 1776
Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify
50 percent of the words spoken by their own voices.
Which of the following statements best describes how neurons communicate with one another?
A chemical process takes place in the synapse.
Donald Broadbent was the first person to develop which of the following?
A flow diagram depicting the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages
Which of the following stimuli will last longer in the receiver's sensory memory?
A lion's roar at the zoo
According to the concept of topographical mapping, which of the following stimuli encountered on a beach trip will activate the farthest forward in the visual cortex?
A pink beachball on your towel
___________is a "typical" member of a category.
A prototype
Levels of analysis
A topic can be understood by studying it at a number of different levels of a system
Tulving
According to _____, the defining property of the experience of episodic memory is that it involves mental time travel.
Which of the following is NOT commonly associated with people who are considered highly creative?
Analysis
Wilhelm Wundt
Analytic introspection
Occipital lobe
Analyzing incoming visual information
John McCarthy
Artificial intelligence
Which part of a neuron transmits signals to other neurons?
Axons
In an effort to get his sister Sharon to vaccinate her young children, Frank compiled the results from many scientific research studies that show the long-term health benefits of childhood vaccines. Yet when Frank presented the information to Sharon, she refused to believe him, stating that the research was clearly faked by large pharmaceutical companies. Sharon not only said that vaccines are risky but also now claims they are poisonous. What occurred in the conversation between Frank and Sharon?
Backfire effect
Why can we consider Tolman one of the early cognitive psychologists?
Because he used behavior to infer mental processes
Why is classical conditioning considered a form of implicit memory?
Because it involves learning an association without being aware of the reasons behind it.
Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex?
The frontal and temporal lobes
Your text's discussion of false memories leads to the conclusion that false memories
arise from the same constructive processes that produce true memories.
A task with the instructions "Read the following words while repeating 'the, the, the' out loud, look away, and then write down the words you remember" would most likely be studying
articulatory suppression.
Which of the following provides the key benefit to the generate-and-test study strategy?
engagement
Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?
Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.
Which of the following does NOT reflect the System 1 approach to thinking as proposed by Kahneman?
Deliberate
Who introduced the flow diagram to represent what is happening in the mind?
Donald Broadbent
How would you describe the relationship between elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal in terms of establishing long-term memories?
Elaborative is more effective than maintenance.
___________ memories are to experiences as ___________ memories are to facts.
Episodic; semantic
___________ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past.
Exemplars
Ramon is looking at photos of athletes in a sports magazine. He is focusing on their body parts, particularly their chest and legs. Which part of Ramon's brain is activated by this viewing?
Extrastriate body area (EBA)
Loftus
Eyewitness testimony & constructive memory
Once you have experienced an event and formed a memory of it, that memory does not change
False
Psychological scientists recently demonstrated that human memory works like a video camera, accurately recording the events we see and hear so we can review and interpret them later.
False
Which of the following is NOT part of a complete definition of a problem?
Has one correct answer
Which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem?
Has one correct answer
Frontal lobe
Higher cognitive functions such as thinking and problem solving
A man suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome would be able to perform which of the following activities without difficulty?
Identifying a photograph of his childhood home
Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema?
If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends on Saturday night.
What is likely to occur if a person sustains damage to the parietal lobe of the brain?
Image processing will be reduced by half.
Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?
Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."
___________ memories are those that we are not aware of.
Implicit
A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of_________________ research.
In vivo problem solving
Kohler
Insight in apes
If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?
It cuts the taffy into pieces.
Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking?
It has a single correct answer.
Which of the following is true about perception?
It involves rapid processes.
Which of the following is NOT true of positron emission tomography (PET)?
It replaced functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) because it was less expensive.
Katie and Alana are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00-11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Alana will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances?
Katie should perform better because of the spacing effect.
Lakeisha and Kim have been studying for two hours for their chemistry exam. Both girls are tired of studying. Lakeisha decides to watch a two-hour movie on DVD, while Kim decides to go to bed. What would you predict about their performance on the chemistry exam?
Kim performs better because of consolidation.
Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?
Language has a structure that is governed by rules
Temporal lobe
Language, memory, hearing, and vision
Suppose you are in your kitchen writing a grocery list, while your roommate is watching TV in the next room. A commercial for spaghetti sauce comes on TV. Although you are not paying attention to the TV, you "suddenly" remember that you need to pick up spaghetti sauce and add it to the list. Your behavior is best predicted by which of the following models of attention?
Late selection
A spatial imagery test measures a person's capacity with imaging which of the following?
Layout
Which of the following lies at the foundation of a connectionist network?
Learning
Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?
Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman.
Given what we know about the operation of the phonological loop, which of the following word lists would be most difficult for people to retain for 15 seconds?
MAC, CAN, CAP, MAN, MAP
If the brain can be considered a busy factory that takes in and processes information, which of the following would occur during the synaptic state in Stokes's working memory concept?
Machines would shut down for material resupply.
Kosslyn
Map-Scanning experiments - scanning an image/real map. learn locations. - asked to imagine a black dot from one object to another on map- results: further the distance on map, longer the scanning time.
Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?
Meaning dominance
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Memory savings is a function of elapsed time.
The phrase "You just hear what you want to hear" best reflects which of the following concepts?
Myside bias
Functional connectivity
Neural activity in separate brain areas is correlated with each other
Feature detectors
Neurons that respond to specific qualities of objects, such as orientation, movement, and length
Which substance is released when signals reach the synapse at the end of the axon?
Neurotransmitters
Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?
Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection
Sarah has experienced brain damage making it difficult for her to understand spatial layout. Which area of her brain has most likely sustained damage?
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
Which of the following is an example of unconscious inference?
Perceiving that a partially covered automobile continues beneath the cover
How does perceptual load differ from processing capacity?
Perceptual load is individual and processing capacity is universal.
Physiological studies indicate that damage to the brain's ___________can disrupt behaviors that depend on working memory
Prefrontal cortex
The expected utility theory of decision making is grounded in which of the following?
Rationality
Models designed to explain mental functioning are constantly refined and modified to explain new results. Which of the following exemplifies this concept based on the results presented in your text?
Replacing the short-term memory component of the modal model with working memory
___________ cues help us remember information that has been stored in memory.
Retrieval
which of the following is NOT a factor in prosody?
Semantics
Which of the following statements is NOT accurate?
Semantics and lexicons are equal in scope.
Which of the following represents the correct progression of information as it moves through the primary memory stores?
Sensory, short-term, long-term
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates how effective or ineffective maintenance rehearsal is in transferring information into long-term memory?
Serena's keys were stolen from her purse. She cannot give a detailed description of her keychain to the police, even though she used it every day for three years.
In the text's use of the Olympic Rings example, which Gestalt law contributes to the correct perception of five interlocking circles rather than nine separate segments?
Simplicity
Pylyshyn
Spatial representation is an epiphenomenon
Distributed representation
Specific cognitive functions activate many areas of the brain
Before the advent of intercoms, old mansions had a sash in each room. Each sash was connected to a bell on a master board in the servants' office. When someone pulled a sash in a particular room, a bell corresponding to the room would ring on the master board, informing a servant where to go to provide assistance. This system is similar to which of the following?
Specificity coding
Connectome
Structural description of the connections forming the human brain
Parietal lobe
Tactile signals
Research conducted by Chi and Snyder demonstrated that the Gestalt-style perceptual grouping of items occurs in which region of the brain?
Temporal lobe
The episodic buffer directly connects to which two components in Baddeley's model of memory?
The central executive and long-term memory
On what factor do working memory and short-term memory most differ
activity
The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented
after the event.
Jason quickly scanned the map on his phone to get to his job interview, then took a left and ran down the block so he wouldn't be late. According to Stokes, Jason's ability to recall the directions as he's running is the result of ________.
an activity state followed by a synaptic state
Imagery neurons respond to
an actual visual image as well as imagining that same image.
The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as
analogical transfer.
Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) ____________________ inference.
anaphoric
Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)
anaphoric inference.
Eye tracking studies investigating attention as we carry out actions such as making a peanut butter sandwich found that a person's eye movements
are determined primarily by the task.
Suppose that, as a participant in an imagery study, you are asked to memorize the four outside walls of a three-story rectangular house. Later, you are asked to report how many windows are on the front of the house. You will probably be fastest to answer this question if you create an image as though you were standing
at the far side of the front yard, away from the house.
Ming is taking a memory test. She is more likely to recall the name of a popular singer if she had
attended the singer's concert last year with her boyfriend.
From a cognitive psychology perspective, memories from specific experiences in our life are defined as being ________.
autobiographical
Donte purchased a new car, a Ford Mustang, less than a month ago. While sitting in traffic, Donte says to his girlfriend, "Mustangs must be the best-selling car now. I can't remember seeing as many on the road as I have recently." Donte's judgment is most likely biased by a(n)
availability heuristic
Action potentials occur in the
axon
The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery
based on spatial or language mechanisms
Your author points out that studying the mind requires both __________ and __________ experiments.
behavioral; physiological
The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the _________________.
belief bias
A person with strong ________ would likely have a deeper experience of Bayesian influence.
beliefs
If you stand very close to a pointillist painting, all you will see are tiny colored dots. But as you step away from the painting, larger areas of color become noticeable and eventually become recognizable objects such as flowers or clouds. This is similar to which of the following?
binding
Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat- hat and car- house. While taking the test, she would be presented with
boat _______ - car ________.
The sequence of steps that includes the image on the retina, changing the image into electrical signals, and neural processing is an example of _____ processing
bottom-up
In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the _________________ group had the fastest response time.
bread and butter
The typical purpose of subgoals is to
bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.
Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to
buy first-class or coach tickets for a spring break trip.
Mantyla's "banana/yellow, bunches, edible" experiment demonstrates that for best memory performance, retrieval cues should be created
by the person whose memory will be tested.
Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people
can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side.
soma
cell body
The staff working in the air traffic control tower at a busy airport can be considered a suitable metaphor for which of the following?
central executive
The difficulty we have in recognizing even an obvious alteration in a scene is called __________ blindness.
change
The research by Ericsson and colleagues (1980) examined the ability of a college student to achieve amazing feats of memory by having him remember strings of random digits that were recited to him. They found that this student used his experience with running times to help him retain these strings of numbers. The significance of this finding was that
chunking requires knowledge of familiar patterns or concepts.
The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli is called
cocktail party effect.
Attention, perception, memory, and decision making are all different types of mental processes in which the mind engages. These are known as different types of
cognition.
A mental conception of the layout of a physical space is known as a(n)
cognitive map
The study of the physiological basis of cognition is known as
cognitive neuroscience.
Illusory conjunctions are
combinations of features from different stimuli.
Use of the word "If" is a good way to identify a(n) ________ syllogism.
conditional
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights.
___________ transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.
consolidation
Imagine you are driving to a friend's new house. In your mind, you say the address repeatedly until you arrive. To remember the address, you used a(n) ___________process in short-term memor
control
In the "War of the Ghosts" experiment, participants' reproductions contained inaccuracies based on
cultural expectations.
Which of the following best describes the result of attention in the context of perception?
enhancement
Peterson and Peterson studied how well participants can remember groups of three letters (like BRT, QSD) after various delays. They found that participants remembered an average of 80 percent of the groups after 3 seconds but only 10 percent after 18 seconds. They hypothesized that this decrease in performance was due to ___________, but later research showed that it was actually due to ___________.
decay; interference
In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to
decide whether a string of letters is a word or a nonword.
Donders's main reason for doing his choice reaction time experiment was to study
decision making.
If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using _________________ reasoning.
deductive
Sperling
delayed partial report procedure provided evidence that information in sensory memory fades within one or two seconds. partial report
Brain imaging has made it possible to
determine which areas of the brain are involved in different cognitive processes.
Kuhl
development of language in babies
The technique where the participant's task is to focus on the message in one ear, called the attended ear, and to repeat what he or she is hearing out loud is known as
dichotic listening.
The four proposals addressing the representation of concepts in the brain all agree that the information is ________.
distributed
The idea that specific cognitive functions activate many areas of the brain is known as
distributed representation.
Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents
divergent thinking.
Proponents of multitasking would note ________ to support their opinion, whereas opponents of multitasking would point to ________ to justify their perspective.
divided attention; distraction
Baddeley
diving experiment showing better memory if encoding and retrieval locations matched. working memory
Which of the following word strings all refer to the same pathway?
dorsal, where, action
Brief sensory memory for sound is known as
echoic memory.
Elementary school students in the United States are often taught to use the very familiar word "HOMES" as a cue for remembering the names of the Great Lakes (each letter in "HOMES" provides a first-letter cue for one of the lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). This memory procedure usually works better than repeating the names over and over. The use of this familiar word provides an example of
elaborative rehersal
Research into reconsolidation of memories in people who have PTSD has focused on the ________ aspects of memory.
emotional
According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is
encoded
Acquiring information and transforming it into long-term memory i
encoding
Acquiring information and transforming it into long-term memory is
encoding.
In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _________________ may be more important than _________________ in creative thinking.
flexibility; experience
Ebbinghaus
forgetting curve. plotted functions that described the operation of the mind
The concept of reconsolidation is based on the ________ of retrieved memories.
fragility
Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?
freedom
Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.
gains; risk-aversion
Experts categorize problems based on
general principles that problems share.
In Slameka and Graf's (1978) study, some participants read word pairs, while other participants had to fill in the blank letters of the second word in a pair with a word related to the first word. The latter group performed better on a later memory task, illustrating the
generation effect.
When you look at the image shown below, you perceive it as a "X" or two lines, rather than a bunch of dots because of the law of
good continuation.
In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that they
had a large number of sophisticated language systems.
A bottom-up process is involved in fixating on an area of a scene that
has high stimulus salience.
The recency effect occurs when participants are asked to recall a list of words. One way to eliminate the recency effect is to
have participants count backwards for 30 seconds after hearing the last word of the list.
There are two gumball machines outside the local grocery store, one large machine and one small machine. Both machines have only yellow and orange gumballs, and each machine contains 50 percent of each color. For each coin, the large gumball machine dispenses 15 gumballs, while the small machine dispenses 5. Tim is a young genius whose interests include probability and sound decision-making. His "probability project of the day" is to get a greater percentage of either of the colors, but not an equal amount of each color. Given this, and presuming Tim has only one coin,
he should use his coin in the small machine.
Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the _______ property of language.
hierarchical
Research shows that ___________ does not improve reading comprehension because it does not encourage elaborative processing of the material.
highlighting
Broca
identified language production issues in the patient "Tan"
One reason that most people do not easily solve the original (abstract) version of the Wason four-card problem is that they
ignore the falsification principle.
Shepard and Metzler's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated
imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.
According to your text, imagery enhances memory because
imagery can be used to create connections between items to be remembered.
"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT
imagery requires a special mechanism.
Work with brain-injured patients reveals that ___________ memory does not depend on conscious memory.
implicit and procedural
Perception is NOT essential for
improving empathy.
The primary effect of chunking is to
increase the efficiency of short-term memory.
Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using
inductive reasoning.
Most of the coherence in text is created by
inference
Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's
lexicon
The saying, "If you've seen one, you've seen 'em all" best reflects which of the following?
likelihood principle
Paul Broca's and Carl Wernicke's research provided early evidence for
localization of function.
The concept of encoding specificity is grounded in which of the following?
location
The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment) is associated with ___________ memory.
long-term
If you are folding towels while watching television, you may find that you don't have to pay much attention to the act of folding while keeping up with the storyline on the TV show. Folding the towels would be an example of a(n) ________ task.
low-load
Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they
made the objects themselves.
By comparing reaction times across different tasks, Donders was able to conclude how long the mind needs to perform a certain cognitive task. Donders interpreted the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions of his experiment as indicating how long it took to
make a decision about the stimulus.
A property of control processes in the modal model of memory is that they
may differ from one task to another.
Kosslyn's island experiment used the ___________ procedure.
mental scanning
Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the ___________ experiment.
mental walk
Lan has no idea what she just read in her text because she was thinking about how hungry she is and what she is going to have for dinner. This is a real-world example of
mind wandering.
Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself standing at one end of a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior show
neglect always occurred on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was positioned.
Groups of interconnected neurons are referred to as
neural circuits.
Groups of neurons or structures that are connected within the nervous system are called __________.
neural networks
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)
novel object.
John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of
observable behavior.
When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of
speech segmentation.
Ganis and coworkers (2004) used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that
perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does.
The Gestalt psychologists believe that _____.
perception is affected by experience, but built-in principles can override experience
The application of a(n) _________________ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.
permission schema
Chantal has frontal lobe damage. She is doing a problem-solving task in which she has to choose the red object out of many choices. She can easily complete this repeatedly, but when the experimenter asks her to choose the blue object on a new trial of the task, she continues to choose the red one, even when the experimenter gives her feedback that she is incorrect. Chantal is displaying
perseveration
When light from a flashlight is moved quickly back and forth on a wall in a darkened room, it can appear to observers that there is a trail of light moving across the wall, even though physically the light is only in one place at any given time. This experience is an effect of memory that occurs because of
persistence of vision.
Robin lost the softball game for her team when she ran toward home and was thrown out at the plate. The coach asked her, "Why did you run? You knew it was a risky move." Robin replied, "But I heard you yell, 'Go! Go!'" The coach replied, "I was saying, 'No! No!'" Robin's ill-fated run was the result of a ________ error.
phonological
The "filter model" proposes that the filter identifies the attended message based on
physical characteristics
If kittens are raised in an environment that contains only verticals, you would predict that most of the neurons in their visual cortex would respond best to the visual presentation of a
picket fence.
Ebbinghaus's "memory" experiments were important because they
plotted functions that described the operation of the mind.
Behaviorists believe that the presentation of ____________ increases the frequency of behavior.
positive reinforcers
According to Treisman's feature integration theory, the first stage of perception is called the __________ stage.
preattentive
Funahashi's work on monkeys doing a delayed response task examined the role of neurons in the
prefrontal cortex.
Research in neuroeconomics has found that the function of the _________________ may be to deal with the cognitive demands of a given task, while the _________________ is responsible for handling emotional goals such as resenting an unfair outcome.
prefrontal cortex; insula
Reaction time refers to the time between the _______ of a stimulus and a person's response to it
presentation
The maintenance rehearsal task of learning a word by repeating it over and over again is most likely to
produce some short-term remembering, but fail to produce longer-term memories.
As described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT
propositions.
Experimental evidence suggesting that the standard model of consolidation needs to be revised are data that show that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of ___________ memories.
recent and remote episodic
Treatment of PTSD has benefitted from recent research on
reconsolidation
B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through
reinforcement.
You have been studying for weeks for a nursing school entrance exam. You love the idea of becoming a nurse, and you have been enjoying learning about the material for your exam. Each night, you put on comfortable clothes and study in the quiet of your lovely home. Memory research suggests you should take your test with a(n) ________ mindset.
relaxed
According to Tulving, an episodic memory is distinguished by the process of ________ it.
reliving
A patient with impaired episodic memory would most likely have the greatest difficulty in
remembering graduating from college.
Retrograde amnesia is usually less severe for ______ memories.
remote
Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving
reorganization or restructuring
The radiation problem can be solved using
representation and restructuring.
Coherence refers to the
representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.
Examples from your book describing real experiences of how memories, even ones from a long time ago, can be stimulated by locations, songs, and smells highlight the importance of ___________ in long-term memory.
retrieval cues
In the context of language, another term for "heuristics" is ________.
rules
Syntax is the
rules for combining words into sentences.
As the ________ of a stimulus increases, ________ tends to ________.
salience; fixation; increase
Imagine that your friend James has just taken up the habit of smoking cigars because he thinks it makes him look cool. You are concerned about the detrimental effects of smoking on his health, and you raise that concern to him. James gets a bit annoyed with your criticism and says, "My grandfather smoked cigars, and he lived to be 100!" You might point out that a major problem with his argument involves
sample size.
Entering a church service and seeing someone selling hot dogs and cotton candy from a cart near the altar would be perceived as a violation of
scene schema.
In which concept is an individual's knowledge most important?
schema
Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves
search.
Information remains in sensory memory for
seconds or a fraction of a second.
The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from
seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.
When Sam listens to his girlfriend Susan in the restaurant and ignores other people's conversations, he is engaged in the process of __________ attention.
selective
Remembering that a tomato is a fruit rather than a vegetable is an example of ___________ memory
semantic
The predominant type of coding in long-term memory is
semantic
The constraint-based approach to parsing states that
semantics is activated as a sentence is being read.
The three structural components of the modal model of memory are
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.
According to memory research, studying is most effective if study sessions are
short and across several days.
A person with a reduced digit span would most likely have a problem with ___________ memory.
short-term
Suppose you're on the phone with a customer support representative who gives you a ticket number for your records. You're later transferred to a different representative who asks for your ticket number, but you've forgotten it. This probably occurred because the number was only temporarily stored in your
short-term memory.
You are at a parade where there are a number of marching bands. You perceive the bands that are all in the same uniforms as being grouped together. The red uniforms are one band, the green uniforms another, and so forth. You have this perceptual experience because of the law of
similarity
The propaganda effect demonstrates that we evaluate familiar statements as being true
simply because we have been exposed to them before.
The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more
slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.
Research suggests that the capacity of short-term memory is
somewhat small, holding only about seven items at one time.
For effective mastery of course material, the best study practice is to use
spaced practice and overlearning
A mental rotation task is focused on the ________ aspect of imagery
spatial
The idea that an object could be represented by the firing of a specialized neuron that responds only to that object is called _____________.
specificity coding
The principle that we encode information together with its context is known as encoding
specificity.
Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or Internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the _________________ bias.
status quo
Perception is to ________ as imagery is to ________
stone; smoke
___________ consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a fairly long time scale.
systems
Experts _________________ than novices.
take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem
Strayer and Johnston's (2001) experiment involving simulated driving and the use of "hands-free" versus "handheld" cell phones found that
talking on either kind of phone impairs driving performance significantly and to the same extent.
In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.
target; source
The type of coding that occurs in a particular situation primarily depends on the ________.
task
Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, dish, shoe, cherry, sofa" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of the
tendency of objects in the same category to become organized.
The evolutionary approach proposes that the Wason problem can be understood in terms of people's
tendency to detect when others are cheating.
Dr. Leung is leading a research team to explore the retrieval practice effect. Which of the following will likely be a key component of her team's research protocol?
testing
If a Gestalt psychologist was baking a cake for an event, what would they be most focused on?
the cake
One function of ___________ is to pull information out of long-term memory.
the central executive
With the Stroop effect, you would expect to find longest response times when
the color and the name differed.
Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT
the falsification principle.
Broadbent's model is called the early selection model because
the filter eliminates the unattended information right at the beginning of the flow of information.
Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she takes a route on her drive home that goes past the abandoned shacks, but she feels more negative when she takes a route that goes past the mansions with large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by
the framing effect.
A synapse is
the gap that separates two different neurons.
Trinh is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., fish sauce splattered on the front door). By doing so, Trinh is using ___________ to organize her memories
the method of loci
At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because
the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the U.S. population.
The conjunction rule states that
the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone.
Edgar Adrian studied the relationship between nerve firing and sensory experience by measuring how the firing of a neuron from a receptor in the skin changed as he applied more pressure to the skin. He found that
the rate of nerve firing increased as he increased the pressure.
Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning
the representativeness heuristic.
Memory enhancement due to repetition priming is a result of the test stimulus being
the same as or resembling the priming stimulus.
Jeannie loves to dance, having taken ballet for many years. She is now learning salsa dancing. Although the movements are very different from the dances she is familiar with, she has found a successful memory strategy of linking the new dance information to her previous experiences as a dancer and to her own affection for dance. This strategy suggests reliance on
the self-reference effect
Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because
the solution is immediately obvious.
Wickens et al.'s "fruit, meat, and professions" experiment failed to show a release from proactive interference in the "fruit" group because
the stimulus category remained the same.
Insight refers to
the sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Transfer-appropriate processing is likely to occur if
the type of encoding task matches the type of retrieval task.
The lesson to be learned from the imagery techniques for memory enhancement (e.g.,, the pegword technique) is that these techniques work because
they showcase the fact that memory improvement requires a great deal of practice and perseverance
Which of the following is NOT considered a starting point for perception?
thinking
Which term best reflects the core concept of echoic memory?
time
Maria took a drink from a container marked "milk." Surprised, she quickly spit out the liquid because it turned out that the container was filled with orange juice instead. Maria likes orange juice, so why did she have such a negative reaction to it? Her response was most affected by
top-down processing.
Perceiving machines are used by the U.S. Postal Service to "read" the addresses on letters and sort them quickly to their correct destinations. Sometimes, these machines cannot read an address because the writing on the envelope is not sufficiently clear for the machine to match the writing to an example it has stored in memory. Human postal workers are much more successful at reading unclear addresses, most likely because of
top-down processing.
When the methods used to encode and retrieve information are the same, this is called ________ processing.
transfer-appropriate
Amedi and coworkers (2005) used fMRI to investigate the differences between brain activation for perception and imagery. Their findings showed that when participants were ___________, some areas associated with nonvisual sensation (such as hearing and touch) were ___________.
using visual images; deactivated
Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because
visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.
The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine
what information a person is attending to while solving a problem.
People tend to overestimate
what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.
The perception pathway corresponds to the _____ pathway, while the action pathway corresponds to the _____ pathway.
what; where
Recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that
when a memory is reactivated, it becomes capable of being changed or altered, just as it was immediately after it was formed.
The crucial question in comparing garden path and constrain-based approaches to parsing is ____________________ is involved.
when semantics
Research on eyewitness testimony reveals that
when viewing a lineup, an eyewitness's confidence in his or her choice of the suspect can be increased by an authority's confirmation of his or her choice, even when the choice is wrong.
If working memory were an actual workplace, which of the following best describes the members of Baddeley's model?
workers and manager
Working memory differs from short-term memory in that
working memory is engaged in processing information.
The ability to manipulate information in memory temporarily while remembering something else is called
working memory.
Kahneman
wrote "Thinking Fast and Slow"
