Cold War Final IDS

Linkage

A policy pursued by the United States of America, championed by Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger, during the 1970s period of Cold War Détente which aimed to persuade the Soviet Union and Communist China to co-operate in restraining revolutions in the Third World in return for concessions in nuclear and economic fields. However, despite this lack of Soviet intervention, a large number of revolutions still occurred in these third world countries, thereby undermining this policy. In particular, the U.S. wanted Moscow to pressure North Vietnam to accept a negotiated settlement in Vietnam, but the Soviets resisted these claims because the expected that the superpowers would continue to confront each other where their interests clashed even as they negotiated issues when their concerns coincided. To remain leaders of world Communism in the face of China's challenge, they had to continue their support for Third World Communist parties and national liberation movements.

Gilpatric Speech

Given in October 1961, this was a speech given by Roswell Gilpatric, Kennedy's Deputy Secretary of Defense to the U.S' NATO allies so they could be reassured in the wake of the Berlin Wall crisis. Gilpatric delineated in brutal terms the precise correlation of forces: The U.S. had 5,000 warheads to the Soviets 300, and the Soviets only had 6 ICBMs capable of reaching the United States. His message not only conveyed Kennedy's message, but it disarmed/humiliated Khruschev who could no longer intimidate anyone with rockets for the betterment of Soviet interests.

Cuban Missile Crisis

A 13-day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side, and the United States on the other, in October 1962. It is one of the major confrontations of the Cold War, and is generally regarded as the moment in which the Cold War came closest to turning into a nuclear conflict. It is also the first documented instance of the threat of mutual assured destruction (MAD) being discussed as a determining factor in a major international arms agreement. After provocative political moves and the failed US attempt to overthrow the Cuban regime (Bay of Pigs, Operation Mongoose), in May 1962 Nikita Khrushchev proposed the idea of placing Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba to deter any future invasion attempt. During a meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro that July, a secret agreement was reached and construction of several missile sites began in the late summer. These preparations were noticed, and on 14 October a US U-2 aircraft took several pictures clearly showing sites for medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs) under construction. These images were processed and presented on October 15, which marks the beginning of the 13-day crisis from the US perspective. The United States considered attacking Cuba via air and sea, but decided on a military blockade instead, calling it a "quarantine" for legal and other reasons. The US announced that it would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba, demanded that the Soviets dismantle the missile bases already under construction or completed, and return all offensive weapons to the USSR. The Kennedy administration held only a slim hope that the Kremlin would agree to their demands, and expected a military confrontation. On the Soviet side, Premier Nikita Khrushchev wrote in a letter from October 24, 1962 to President John F. Kennedy that his blockade of "navigation in international waters and air space" constituted "an act of aggression propelling human kind into the abyss of a world nuclear-missile war". However, in secret back-channel communications the President and Premier initiated a proposal to resolve the crisis. 1) U.S. cannot invade Cuba - Cuba receives security against U.S. (2) Cuba as Soviet Satellite, 90 miles from U.S. shores - Cuba as thorn in U.S. side

Patrice Lumumba

A Congolese independence leader and the first legally elected Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo after he helped win its independence from Belgium in June 1960. A young postal worker, he was inspired after attending an All-African Peoples' Conference in Ghana in December of 1958, which inspired him to promote pan-African solidarity in the struggle against imperialism. Belgium began to notice the possibility of an Algerian-style colonial war and also saw Congo's drain on the Belgian economy. The Congo asked for immediate independence and was granted the request, with June 30, 1960 serving as independence day. He was elected prime minister while Joseph Kasavubu, the leader of AKABO, was elected president. A dichotomy soon emerged: Belgium wanted white Belgians to continue to exercise broad authority in the region, while the Congolese hoped for independence and modernization under stable leadership. Within 5 days though, Congolese troops mutinied against Belgian commanders, bringing Belgian troops back into the region and muddying the waters considerably. The nation soon began to dissolve, with Katanga pulling out of the country on July 11 and South Kasai seceding on August 8 as a result of foreign business communities not wanting to be a part of this centralized nation. The UN sent in a peacekeeping force, which this man feared would solidify the partition. He turned to Moscow for assistance, which discredited him and, combined with his pan-Africanism, led many in the West to believe that he was a closet Communist. Kasavubu dismissed him on September 5; when he tried to get to the pro-Soviet government established by his deputy, he was arrested by Congolese troops and eventually executed in February of 1961. The Soviets made him a pan-African Marxist martyr in the process. He showed that imperial withdrawal from an African nation could lead to increased foreign intervention. It also showed the UN's ability to play a positive role in a difficult situation, since they kept the Belgians from reoccupying the country, escorted a small Soviet expeditionary force out of the region, kept Congo's economy alive, and obstructed Katanga's secessionist efforts, while avoiding American/European intervention.

Credibility Gap

A political term that came into wide use during the 1960s and 1970s. At the time, it was most frequently used to describe public skepticism about the Lyndon B. Johnson administration's statements and policies on the Vietnam War. Credited with J. William Fulbright when he couldn't get answers from Johnson on Vietnam policy. It was first used in association with the Vietnam War in the New York Herald Tribune in March 1965, to describe then-president Lyndon Johnson's handling of the escalation of American involvement in the war. A number of events—particularly the surprise Tet Offensive, and later the 1971 release of the Pentagon Papers—helped to confirm public suspicion that there was a significant "gap" between the administration's declarations of controlled military and political resolution, and the reality. These were viewed as examples of Johnson's and later Richard Nixon's duplicity. Throughout the war, Johnson worked with his officials to ensure that his public addresses would only disclose bare details of the war to the American public.

Fidel Castro

A Jesuit-educated, upper class Cuban who launched the Cuban Revolution as the founding member of the 26th of July Movement, on July 26, 1953. He stood for land reform and the purification of Cuban society from the Yanqui (US residents) influence and corruption. He was ultimately successful in deposing the U.S. backed dictator Fulgencio Batista, and took over power in January of 1959. This led to a sharp split between the United States and Cuba,. since he had instititued a number of leftist reforms and had prominent Marxist members in his entourage like his brother Raul and Che Guevera. The U.S. cut off sugar imports in 1961, whilst the Soviets chose to buy large sums of sugar from Cuba, leading Cuba to to tilt towards the Soviets. Alarmed by his revolutionary credentials and his friendly relations with the Soviet Union, the United States governments of Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy made repeated unsuccessful attempts to remove him, by economic blockade, assassination and counter-revolution, including the Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961. To counter these threats, he formed an economic and military alliance with the Soviet Union, and allowed them to place nuclear weapons on the island, thus sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

Triangular Diplomacy

A U.S. effort to exploit the Sino-Soviet split to gain greater leverage in its relationship with Moscow and China. This was masterly conducted by Nixon and Kissinger, who both - in an effort to ease into detente - went to China to meet with Mao Zedong in 1972 and signaled the era of detente and the betterment of relationships between the U.S. and these two other nations.

Pathet Lao

A communist political movement and organization in Laos, formed in the mid-20th century. The group was ultimately successful in assuming political power after the Laotian Civil War. They were always closely associated with Vietnamese communists. During the civil war, it was effectively organized, equipped and even led by the army of North Vietnam. They were the Laotian equivalent of North Vietnam's Vietnam People's Army, South Vietnam's Viet Minh and later Viet Cong, and Cambodia's Khmer Rouge. Eventually, the term became the generic name for Laotian communists. They initially held two provinces in the north that were granted to them by the Geneva accords of 1954, but after CIA protege Phoumi Nosavan broke a U.S. cease fire in 1960, taking the capital Vientiane, Souvanna Phouma, who was leading the neutral coalition government, was pushed to this organization. This made Laos very tricky; Khruschev didn't want war there because he thought Berlin was more important and that the country would fall to Communists anyway, Ho Chi Minh wanted a communist nation but not at the cost of American/Chinese intervention, and Kennedy was advised that neutrality was the only way to avoid war, and Kennedy was advised by advisors that based on what happened in Korea, nuclear weapons would have to be accessible if the U.S. intervened, which Kennedy didn';t want to do. Kennedy and Khruschev agreed on a neutral course on Laos at the Vienna summit,; however, continued pressure by this group led Kennedy to send the 7th fleet to the Gulf of Thailand and U.S. ground forces to Thailand. A neutral regime was eventually established by Souvanna Phouma, and it was signed off on July 23, 1961, and this held until 1975, when Hanoi's victory in Vietnam brought this organization to power in Laos, which they've held to this day.

Military Industrial Complex

A concept commonly used to refer to policy and monetary relationships between legislators, national armed forces, and the defense industrial base that supports them. These relationships include political contributions, political approval for defense spending, lobbying to support bureaucracies, and oversight of the industry. It is a type of iron triangle. The term is most often used in reference to the system behind the military of the United States, where it gained popularity after its use in the farewell address of President Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 17, 1961, though the term is applicable to any country with a similarly developed infrastructure. As Eisenhower stated "This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience. The total influence — economic, political, even spiritual — is felt in every city, every statehouse, every office of the federal government. We recognize the imperative need for this development. Yet we must not fail to comprehend its grave implications. Our toil, resources and livelihood are all involved; so is the very structure of our society. In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the _________________. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists, and will persist." 1.) Increase in defense spending - "flexible response" - $2 billion increase to $52.2 billion (overall govt. spending only $90 billion) 2.) Specifics - Doubled number of combat-ready divisions, enlarged Marine Corps, added 15 ships to Navy 3.) Creation of Green Berets for counterinsurgency warfare 4.) Accelerated ICBM program - 63 in 1961, by 1963, US had 424 http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab9.asp 5.) Development of Polaris submarine

Kitchen Debate

A series of impromptu exchanges (through interpreters) between then U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the opening of the American National Exhibition at Sokolniki Park in Moscow on July 24, 1959. In a sense, both men were arguing about the merits of their respective government and why they were the best in the world. This greatly helped Nixon's image and stimulated/amused Khruschev, who enjoyed the occasions on which adversaries stood up to him bluntly. This gave Nixon the reputation of being a forceful leader who could stand up to Khruschev.

Taiwan-Straits Crisis

A conflict that took place between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) governments in which the PRC shelled the islands of Matsu and Quemoy in the Taiwan Strait in an attempt to seize them from the Republic of China. This started in August of 1958, and lasted until October, and was a continuation of a conflict that started following the Korean War when ROC leader Chiang Kai-Shek began building on the island. The United States Eisenhower Administration responded to ROC's request for aid according to its obligations in the 1954 U.S.-ROC defense treaty by reinforcing US naval units and ordering US naval vessels to help the Kuomintang Nationalist government protect Quemoy's supply lines. Under a secret effort known as Operation Black Magic, the US Navy modified some ROC air force F-86 Sabres with its newly introduced AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile to provide an edge against more advanced PRC MiG fighters. 1.) US treaty with Nationalist China - designed also to restrain Chiang 2.) Warsaw talks between US and PRC - began quietly in 1955 3.) Mao-Khrushchev tensions - PRC criticizes concept of "peaceful coexistence" - China in the midst of the "Great Leap Forward" domestic campaign, Mao needs mobilization against a foreign enemy 4.) August 1958 - PRC shelling Quemoy and Matsu - Eisenhower begins supply effort, warns of "Western Pacific Munich" 5.) Crisis ends quietly in October 1958 - shelling subsides, "every other day" shelling - Dulles urges Chiang to withdraw some forces and agree not to use force to attack the mainland 6.) Quemoy and Matsu become partisan issues in the US, with Democrats urging restraint, Republicans arguing for support for Chiang

Roosevelt Corollary

A corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that was articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his State of the Union Address in 1904. The corollary states that the United States will intervene in conflicts between European Nations and Latin American countries to enforce legitimate claims of the European powers, rather than having the Europeans press their claims directly. This gave the U.S. the right to exercise military force in Latin American countries in order to keep European countries out. This was invoked in a series of coup's and revolutions throughout Latin America, most predominantly in Guatemala in 1954. 1) U.S. has authority to use force, if necessary, to intervene in cases of "flagrant and chronic wrongdoing by a Latin American nation" (2) Stop revolutionary upheavals, but also protect U.S. interests (3) Reinforces racialized notion that Latin Americans cannot govern themselves

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

A joint resolution that the United States Congress passed on August 7, 1964, in response to a sea battle between the North Vietnamese Navy's Torpedo Squadron 135 and the destroyer USS Maddox on August 2 and an alleged second naval engagement between North Vietnamese boats and the U.S. destroyers USS Maddox and USS Turner Joy on August 4. With a 98-2 vote in the Senate, this authorized the president to "take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any member...of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requesting assistance in defense of its freedom." It was a blank check for U.S. military action in Southeast Asia.

Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act of 1964/1965

A landmark piece of legislation in the United States that outlawed major forms of discrimination against racial, ethnic, national and religious minorities, and women. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public ("public accommodations"). Prohibits states from imposing any "voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure ... to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color."[3] Specifically, Congress intended the Act to outlaw the practice of requiring otherwise qualified voters to pass literacy tests in order to register to vote, a principal means by which Southern states had prevented African Americans from exercising the franchise Signed in the summers of '64 and '65 respectively

Easter Offensive

A military campaign conducted by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) against the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN, the regular army of South Vietnam) and the United States military between 30 March and 22 October 1972, during the Vietnam War. This conventional invasion was a radical departure from previous North Vietnamese offensives. The offensive was not designed to win the war outright, but North Vietnam aimed to gain as much territory and destroy as many units of the ARVN as possible, to improve the North's negotiating position as the Paris Peace Accords drew toward a conclusion. The US high command had been expecting an attack in 1972, but the size and ferocity of the assault caught the defenders off balance because the attackers struck on three fronts simultaneously with the bulk of the North Vietnamese army. This first attempt by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) to invade the south since the Tet Offensive of 1968 became characterized by conventional infantry/armor assaults backed by heavy artillery, with both sides fielding the latest in technological advances in weapons systems. Although South Vietnamese forces withstood their greatest trial thus far in the conflict, the North Vietnamese accomplished two important goals: they had gained valuable territory within South Vietnam from which to launch future offensives, and they had obtained a better bargaining position at the peace negotiations being conducted in Paris.

Austria Settlement of 1955

A peace treaty brokered in May of 1955 between Khruschev and Austria, which called for all occupying powers to remove their forces from the country (which, like Germany, had been divided into British, French, American and Soviet zones), making it a neutral, independent country. While the Soviets did not want to concede land that was under their control, it compelled Western powers to remove their forces from the country, thereby eliminating NATO's land contact with Hungary and decreasing it with Yugoslavia. It also suggested that the Soviets could negotiate reasonably in future encounters, which led to direct negotiations between Soviet and Western leaders.

Buddhist Crisis

A period of political and religious tension in South Vietnam between May and November 1963, characterized by a series of repressive acts by the South Vietnamese government and a campaign of civil resistance, led mainly by Buddhist monks. The crisis was precipitated by the shootings of nine unarmed civilians on May 8 in the central city of Huế who were protesting a ban of the Buddhist flag. A series of monks were burning themselves in the streets to protest the government's actions, and Kennedy implored Diem to compromise with them. Diem instead declared martial law in the country and banned all civil liberties in August. The crisis ended with a coup in November 1963 by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and the arrest and assassination of President Ngô Đình Diệm on November 2, 1963.

Peace with Honor

A phrase U.S. President Richard M. Nixon used in a speech on January 23, 1973 to describe the Paris Peace Accord to end the Vietnam War. The phrase is a variation on a campaign promise Nixon made in 1968: "I pledge to you that we shall have an honorable end to the war in Vietnam." The treaty specified that a ceasefire would take place four days later. According to the plan, within sixty days of the ceasefire, the North Vietnamese would release all U.S. prisoners, and all U.S. troops would withdraw from South Vietnam. On March 29, the last U.S. soldier left Vietnam. In April 1975, Saigon fell to North Vietnamese troops.

Flexible Response

A piece of foreign policy proposed by Robert McNamara, Secretary of Defense to Kennedy that replaced massive retaliation - this was designed to provide decision makers with options for gradual escalation of hostilities in the event of a conventional attack by Soviet forces in Central Europe. calls for mutual deterrence at strategic, tactical, and conventional levels, giving the United States the capability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of warfare, not limited only to nuclear arms.

Monroe Doctrine

A policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. The Doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. The Doctrine was issued at a time when nearly all Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal had achieved independence from the Spanish Empire (except Cuba and Puerto Rico) and the Portuguese Empire. The United States, working in agreement with Britain, wanted to guarantee no European power would move in. This was applied to Latin America by the framers of U.S. foreign policy. When the Cuban Revolution (1953-1959) established a Communist government with ties to the Soviet Union, after trying to establish fruitful relations with the U.S., it was argued that the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine should be again invoked, this time to prevent the further spreading of Soviet-backed Communism in Latin America. The debate over this new spirit of this document came to a head in the 1980s, as part of the Iran-Contra affair. Among other things, it was revealed that the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency had been covertly training "Contra" guerrilla soldiers in Honduras in an attempt to destabilize and overthrow the Sandinista revolutionary government of Nicaragua and its President, Daniel Ortega. (1) U.S. to Europeans: "keep hands off of Western Hemisphere!" (2) Reflected that "America should have hemisphere to itself" (3) U.S. assumes "protection" of newly independent Latin American nations against European interference (4) In practice it would evolve into fundamental justification for U.S. interventions in Latin America

Great Society

A set of domestic programs in the United States announced by President Lyndon B. Johnson at Ohio University and subsequently promoted by him and fellow Democrats in Congress in the 1960s. Two main goals of this were social reforms were the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, and transportation were launched during this period. In scope and sweep resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Some Great Society proposals were stalled initiatives from John F. Kennedy's New Frontier. Johnson's success depended on his skills of persuasion, coupled with the Democratic landslide in the 1964 election that brought in many new liberals to Congress, making the House of Representatives in 1965 the most liberal House since 1938. Anti-war Democrats complained that spending on the Vietnam War choked this off. While some of the programs have been eliminated or had their funding reduced, many of them, including Medicare, Medicaid, the Older Americans Act and federal education funding, continue to the present. The programs expanded under the administrations of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford

Cultural Revolution

A social-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976. Set into motion by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to enforce communism in the country by removing capitalist, traditional and cultural elements from Chinese society, and to impose Maoist orthodoxy within the Party. The revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the failed Great Leap Forward. The movement paralyzed China politically and significantly affected the country economically and socially. It was launched in May 1966. Mao alleged that bourgeois elements were infiltrating the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. He insisted that these "revisionists" be removed through violent class struggle. China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a mass purge of senior officials who were accused of taking a "capitalist road", most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. During the same period Mao's personality cult grew to immense proportions. Millions of people were persecuted in the violent factional struggles that ensued across the country, and suffered a wide range of abuses including public humiliation, arbitrary imprisonment, torture, sustained harassment, and seizure of property. A large segment of the population was forcibly displaced, most notably the transfer of urban youth to rural regions during the Down to the Countryside Movement. Historical relics and artifacts were destroyed. Cultural and religious sites were ransacked. This removed China from all international affairs for a short period of time. Universities were shut down, industrial enterprises were closed, and legions of Red Guards were employed to force bureaucrats and professionals to work in the fields.

United Arab Republic

A sovereign union between Egypt and Syria. The union began in 1958 and existed until 1961, when Syria seceded from the union. Egypt continued to be known officially as the "United Arab Republic" until 1971. The President was Gamal Abdel Nasser. During most of its existence (1958-1961), it was a member of the United Arab States, a confederation with North Yemen. Part of Nasser's motivation for this union was a fear that Syria was very close to becoming a Communist country, and the only way that threat could be eliminated was if the two countries formed this union.

Kennedy's Ich Bin Ein Berliner Speech

A speech given by President John F. Kennedy on June 26, 1963 in Berlin to commemorate the 15th anniversary of the Berlin airlift. Greeted by over a million people in the country, the president is most famous for the line "Today, all free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin. And therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words "Ich bin ein Berliner." He became a hero to the Germans and a somber reflection of Konrad Adenauer, who believed that despite years of democratic rule, Germany might someday give its devotion to another charismatic speaker like Hitler. He was underlining the support of the United States for West Germany 22 months after the Soviet-supported East Germany erected the Berlin Wall as a barrier to prevent movement between East and West. The message was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners, and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall

Missile Gap

A term used in the United States for the perceived disparity between the number and power of the weapons in the U.S.S.R. and U.S. ballistic missile arsenals during the Cold War. The gap only existed in exaggerated estimates made by the Gaither Committee in 1957 and United States Air Force (USAF). Even the CIA figures that were much lower and gave the US a clear advantage were far above the actual count. Like the bomber gap of only a few years earlier, it is believed that the gap was known to be illusionary from the start, and was being used solely as a political tool, another example of policy by press release. The Soviet launch of Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957 highlighted the technological achievements of the Soviets and sparked some worrying questions for the politicians and general public of the USA. Although US military and civilian agencies were well aware of Soviet satellite plans, as they were publicly announced as part of the International Geophysical Year, Eisenhower's announcements that the event was unsurprising found little support among a US public still struggling with McCarthyism. Political opponents seized on the event, and Eisenhower's ineffectual response, as further proof that the US was "fiddling as Rome burned." John F. Kennedy stated "the nation was losing the satellite-missile race with the Soviet Union because of ... complacent miscalculations, penny-pinching, budget cutbacks, incredibly confused mismanagement, and wasteful rivalries and jealousies." Kennedy, and other officials, stated claims that exaggerated Soviet missile counts by as much as 1,000 times what actually existed. Instead of having thousands of functioning missiles, the Soviets actually only had four prototypes. The fear generated by these false claims allowed a massive expansion of spending and authoritarian cold war measures that may otherwise have been impossible to justify to the voters

Domino Theory

A theory during the 1950s to 1980s, promoted at times by the government of the United States, that speculated that if one state in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect. This was used by successive United States administrations during the Cold War leading the Foreign Policy of Containment. President Eisenhower was the first to refer to countries in danger of Communist takeover as dominoes, in response to a journalist's question about Indochina in an April 7, 1954 news conference. If Communists succeeded in taking over the rest of Indochina, Eisenhower argued, local groups would then have the encouragement, material support and momentum to take over Burma, Thailand, Malaya and Indonesia; all of these countries had large popular Communist movements and insurgencies within their borders at the time. The loss of regions traditionally within the vital regional trading area of countries like Japan would encourage the front-line countries to compromise politically with communism.

Yom Kippur War

A war that began on October 6, 1973, when Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Yom Kippur and the 10th day of Ramadan. They initially were very successful, but massive U.S. arms shipments to Israel reversed this trend. The U.S. provided massive amounts of conventional weapons in the hopes Israel didn't use a nuclear weapon. Israel eventually pushed Sadat's army back to the Suez Canal, when U.S. quietly informed Sadat that they would not let the Third Army be destroyed. The U.S. worked with the USSR in the Security Council to obtain approval of a resolution calling for a cease-fire and peace talks. Israel and Egypt agreed, but fighting continued. Soviets then said they would intervene and enforce the cease fire with or without the U.S. Kissinger took it as a threat of unilateral Soviet intervention, and ordered a global alert of all U.S. conventional and nuclear forces without waking Nixon up. Alarmed by this development, the Russians cautiously opted not to respond militarily; both US and USSR supported UN peacekeeping force to enter, and Washington pressured Israel to accept the ceasefire. On October 28th, Egypt and Israel negotiated directly and agreed to a truce that would reopen the Suez Canal in 1975. First true test of detente in an east west crisis - improved relations and bilateral conventions did not avert the crisis or prevent it from escalating dramatically. Detente didn't deter either superpower from providing vast supplies of weapons to its clients. Yet their cooperation and communication helped bring the war to an expeditious end and kept it from becoming a far more catastrophic conflict.

Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.

Ambassador to South Vietnam from 1963-1964; The new ambassador quickly determined that Ngo Dinh Diem, President of the Republic of Vietnam, was both inept and corrupt, and that South Vietnam was headed for disaster unless Diem either reformed his administration or was replaced. While the coup toppled the Diem government, it sparked a rapid succession of leaders in Vietnam, each unable to rally and unify their people, and each in turn overthrown by someone new. Removal of Diem caused more political instability in the South, since no strong, centralized and permanent government was in place to govern the nation, not to mention an increase in Viet Cong infiltration into the Southern populace and more attacks in the South. After supporting the coup of President Diem, he then realized that the situation in the region deteriorated, and he suggested to the State Department that South Vietnam be made to relinquish its independence, and it be made a protectorate of the United States (like the former status of the Philippines) so as to bring governmental stability. The alternatives, he warned, were either increased military involvement by the U.S., or else total abandonment of South Vietnam by America

Aswan Dam

An Egyptian power and irrigation project that the U.S initially helped fund in 1955. However, they soon pulled their funding from this project in 1956 when they were angered by Egyptian president Nasser's decision to recognize Communist China. The U.S. decision to pull funding for the project triggered Nasser's decision to nationalize the Suez Canal, and eventually led to the Suez Crisis of 1956.

Cuban Revolution

An armed revolt conducted by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement and its allies against the regime of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953, and finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his regime with Castro's revolutionary government. Castro's government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the present Communist Party of Cuba in October 1965. Castro wanted to institute land reform and the purification of Cuban society from the Yanqui (US residents) influence and corruption. (1) 1952: Fulgencio Batista seizes power in Cuba (2) Batista is a corrupt, brutal criminal (3) 1957-58: State Dept begins to take seriously Fidel Castro, leader of anti-Batista revolutionary movement (4) U.S. dilemma: Batista's demise would mean chaos, but U.S. could not be associated with Batista's corruption (5) March 1958: U.S. embargo on arms shipments to Cuba (6) New Years Day, 1959: Castro enters Havana and est. a government; Batista flees (7) U.S. initially recognizes new govt (not yet Communist). (8) Increase of small Castro-sponsored guerilla attacks throughout region causes Castro to lose support in U.S. (9) American investors in Cuba say Castro is Communist

European Economic Community

An international organisation created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957. Its aim was to bring about economic integration, including a common market, among its six founding members: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. It was also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking world and sometimes referred to as the European Community even before it was officially renamed as such in 1993. It gained a common set of institutions along with the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) as one of the European Communities under the 1965 Merger Treaty (Treaty of Brussels). Eisenhower was vocal in wanting any reunited Germany to join this organization in addition with NATO, but failing that, they were perfectly fine to keep Germany divided. France, and Charles de Gaulle, were particularly forceful in promoting closer ties with West Germany through this organization, yet they were concerned about making the country reunified, rearmed, and economically powerful even if they were allied with NATO.

Bay of Pigs

An unsuccessful military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the paramilitary group Brigade 2506 in April 1961. A counter-revolutionary militia trained and funded by the United States government's Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),, It was launched from Guatemala, the invading force were defeated by the Cuban armed forces, under the command of Prime Minister Fidel Castro, within three days. The Cuban Revolution of 1952 to 1959 had seen President Fulgencio Batista, a right-wing ally of the U.S., ousted. He was replaced by a new leftist administration dominated by Castro, which had severed the country's formerly strong links with the U.S. by expropriating their economic assets and developing links with the Soviet Union, with whom the U.S. was then embroiled in the Cold War. The U.S. government of President Dwight D. Eisenhower was concerned at the direction which Castro's government were taking, and in March 1960, Eisenhower allocated $13 million to the CIA in order to plan Castro's overthrow. The CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of the Mafia and various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Mexico. Following his victory in the 1960 United States presidential election, John F. Kennedy was informed of the invasion plan and gave his assent to it. 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five infantry battalions and one paratrooper battalion, had assembled in Guatemala before setting out for Cuba by boat on April 13. Initially overwhelming a local revolutionary militia, the Cuban Army's counter-offensive was then led by Captain José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. On April 20, the invaders finally surrendered, with the majority of troops being publicly interrogated and then sent back to the U.S. The failed invasion strengthened the position of Castro's administration, who proceeded to openly proclaim their intention to adopt socialism and strengthen ties with the Soviet Union, leading to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. The invasion was a major embarrassment for U.S. foreign policy, with Kennedy ordering a number of internal investigations. Across much of Latin America, it was celebrated as evidence of the fallibility of U.S. imperialism. Late-1959/1960, as U.S. increases pressure on Castro/Cuba, Cuba turns to USSR (2) 1960: Outgoing Eisenhower administration breaks relations with Cuba (3) January 1961: JFK inherits CIA program for Cuban invasion (4) Invasion at Bay of Pigs fails / Castro declares Cuba Communist State (5) JFK marginally successful through OAS in passing resolution that Communism incompatible with inter- American system of security (6) Why couldn't Cuba be like Guatemala? Because it was an effort led by revolutionaries motivated by what happened in Guatemala

Cambodian Invasion

Announced by Richard Nixon on April 30, 1970 in a nationalized television address, in which pro-American general Lon Nol replaced Cambodia's neutralist Prince Sihanouk in a military coup. The U.S. at once called on Lon Nol to expel the NVA and vietcong from the country; American operations ended on June 30 - six months later, Congress prohibited the use of U.S. combat troops in Laos and Cambodia. But the Ho Chi Minh trail was still open and still being used by Vietcong and NVA forces throughout Laos and Cambodia.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Became Egypt's dictator when he overthrew preexisting government in July 1952. He used anti-Zionist feelings to unite the Arab peoples and gain leadership of the Muslim world. He was initially viewed with suspicion by both the U.S. and the USSR, but began trading cotton to the USSR in exchange for Czech weapons in 1955, allowing the USSR to advance itself as the champion of Arab nationalism as opposed to U.S/British imperialism. He is seen as one of the most important political figures in both modern Arab history and politics in the 20th century. Under his leadership, Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal Company and came to play a central role in anti-imperialist efforts in the Arab World and Africa. The imposed ending to the Suez Crisis made him a hero throughout the Arab world. He was also instrumental in the establishment of the international Non-Aligned Movement. He is well known for his nationalist policies and version of pan-Arabism which won a great following in the Arab World during the 1950s and 1960s. Although his status as "leader of the Arabs" was badly damaged by the Israeli victory over the Arab armies in the Six-Day War, as well as Egypt's failure to win the subsequent War of Attrition against Israel, he is still looked on by many Arabs as a hero.

Ostpolitik

Beginning in 1969, this was Eastern policy led by Chancellor Willy Brandt of West Germany. It was based on improved relations with the Soviet bloc. Moscow encouraged the initiative in the hopes of driving a wedge between Western Europe and America. Brandt was the head of the Social Democratic Party, and thus shifted away from the Christian Democratic Union policies of Konrad Adenauer. Concluding that he had little to gain by clinging to lost causes, he made concessions to the Soviets and East Germany in return for stability and normalization in Central Europe. He accepted "two states in one nation", signed the nuclear non proliferation treaty, and negotiated treaties with Poland and the USSR and a trade pact with Czechoslovakia. His policies led to the Treaty of Moscow in 1970, which renounced war between the two nations, recognized existing German boundaries, and opened new trade channels between the states. The most controversial agreement was the Basic Treaty of 1972 with East Germany, establishing formal relations between the two German states for the first time since partition. The situation was complicated by the Federal Republic's longstanding claim to represent the entire German nation; Chancellor Brandt sought to smooth over this point by repeating his 1969 statement that although two states exist in Germany, they cannot regard one another as foreign countries.

Prague Spring

Beginning in early 1968, its origins stemmed from the election of Alexander Dubcek, a reform minded Slovak who initiated measures designed to institute a form of democratic socialism. These reforms expanded civil rights, allowed freedom of the press and began democratizing the political system. It inspired much excitement from the West, while it engendered deep consternation among Soviet leaders, who feared that the reforming zeal might spread and loosen their hold on Eastern Europe. Unable to diplomatically appease the Soviets, the Soviets decided to invade Czechoslovakia on August 20th, and the world watched Soviet troops and tanks invade a socialist neighbor and ally. The Soviets crushed all resistance, forced Dubcek and his colleagues to rescing their reforms, and then gradually removed the reformers from all positions of power. They replaced him with Gustav Husak, who brought Czechoslovakia back into Moscow's influence. Gave Moscow security to improve relations with the West, but it damaged its international stature. Johnson had no choice bu to cancel his trip to Russia and cancel talks on arms control negotiations. Western European Communist parties condemned Moscow for the intervention, with Romania and Yugoslavia openly expressing displeasure, with the Chinese being especially pissed, since they felt that the Soviets had laid the precedent to do it begin.

Rolling Thunder

Beginning in mid-February of 1965 and lasting until 1968, this was the name for a systematic bombing campaign for North Vietnam. The four objectives of the operation (which evolved over time) were to boost the sagging morale of the Saigon regime in the Republic of Vietnam, to persuade North Vietnam to cease its support for the communist insurgency in South Vietnam without actually taking any ground forces into communist North Vietnam, to destroy North Vietnam's transportation system, industrial base, and air defenses, and to cease the flow of men and material into South Vietnam. Attainment of these objectives was made difficult by both the restraints imposed upon the U.S and its allies by Cold War exigencies and by the military aid and assistance received by North Vietnam from its communist allies, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China (PRC).

Christmas Bombing

Beginning on December 18, 1972, this was an 11 day massive aerial assault on North Vietnam. Moscow condemned it, bur worked privately to end the impasse, urging Hanoi to resume negotiations in return for an end to the bombing. It saw the largest heavy bomber strikes launched by the US Air Force since the end of World War II. This came at the final period of involvement in the Vietnam War for the U.S.

Tet Offensive

Beginning on January 30, 1968, this was the first day of the Lunar New Year that was originally celebrated as the year's main holiday. The U.S. expected little hostility so both sides could celebrate the holiday in peace. However, the Vietcong led an assault that captured 13 provincial capitals, captured the ancient imperial city of Hue, and used 19 commandos to attack and briefly occupy parts of the U.S. embassy in Saigon. It was initially viewed as an American intelligence disaster. Westmoreland was able to restore order by late February, as the Vietcong lost their best military strategists and their replacements turned a largely indigenous southern movement into a subsidiary of the NVA. The Vietcong didn't hold any city they obtained and they suffered massive casualties. The Vietcong's goal of sparking uprising in South Vietnam by showing that the U.S. could not protect its people didn't work either; in fact, Hanoi did succeed in influencing U.S. public opinion. This proved to be Johnson's political death knell, because it confirmed the convictions of the anti war movement (who always thought it was unjustified, immoral, and unwise), and those who felt that Johnson wasn't waging the war effectively and that troops were fighting with one hand behind their backs. This provided the spark for the McCarthy and Robert Kennedy challenges, ensured that the credibility gap existed, and led to Johnson not seeking another term.

Fall of Saigon

Captured by North Vietnamese forces on April 30, 1975. The event marked the end of the Vietnam War and the start of a transition period leading to the formal reunification of Vietnam into a communist state. The city was renamed Ho Chi Minh City. The fall of the city was preceded by the evacuation of almost all the American civilian and military personnel in Saigon, along with tens of thousands of South Vietnamese civilians associated with the southern regime. The evacuation culminated in Operation Frequent Wind, which was the largest helicopter evacuation in history.[2] In addition to the flight of refugees, the end of the war and institution of new rules by the communists contributed to a decline in the population of the city.

Vietnamization

Coined by Defense Secretary Melvin Laird during the Nixon administration, it was his way of describing the implementation of the Nixon Doctrine in Southeast Asia. Nixon had begun a gradual troop pullout in the region, which enraged NSA Henry Kissinger, who didn't want to do that because he wanted leverage when negotiating with Hanoi.

Pentagon Papers

Commissioned by Robert McNamara in 1967 and published by the NYT in 1971, these documents which included illegally photocopies and leaded Defense Department memos, painted a devastating portrait of U.S. government efforts to deceive the American people about the situation in Vietnam.

Khmer Rouge

Communist forces in Cambodia who made significant gains during the North Vietnam offensive in early 1975 into the central highlands of South Vietnam. Phnom Penh fell to them on April 17.Vietnam invaded Cambodia in December of 1978 when they drove the Pol Pot and this organization from power; from 1975 till then they had killed over a million people with its radical deurbanization campaign. The U.S. continued to recognize and send arms to this genocidal group, which made a mockery of Carter's mission of human rights; this came as a result of China invading Northern Vietnam in February of 1979 in an attempt to punish Hanoi and help this beleagured organization

Berlin Wall

Construction of this structure began on August 13, 1961, this structure completely cut off (by land) West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that this was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period. The U.S greeted this project with silence, since it was hard to conceive that they could have done anything to prevent its completion. Kennedy sent retired general Lucius Clay and VP Lyndon Johnson to the region, and he moved an armored convoy of U.S. troops from West Germany through East German territory to West Berlin, thus heightening tensions considerably. This structure did confer benefits for both sides; it defused the German question, it stemmed the flow of East German refugees moving west and defanged the critics who had long pressured Khruschev to deal resolutely with Berlin. The U.S got a propaganda windfall from this highly visible of Communism's repugnance, and Kennedy could relax a bit knowing that Khruschev had noted the U.S. resolve in not leaving Berlin had led to to a workable compromise.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

Created in 1968 and was designed to prevent additional nations from joining the nuclear club: signed by U.S, USSR, Britain and numerous other countries (No France or China). Willy Brandt signed on behalf of Western Germany, thereby easing Soviet fears of a rearmed and hostile Germany

Eisenhower Doctrine

Established on January 5, 1957, this stated that a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state. It authorized the commitment of U.S. forces "to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against covert armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism." This came in response to the Suez Crisis, when the USSR nearly intervened on behalf of Egypt. Military support was provided to Lebanon and Jordan when they called for it, and established the U.S. as the lone power willing to provide military power to the Middle East, helping to protect their oil interests in the region.

Kennedy Inaugural Address

Delivered on January 21st, 1961, the just elected president gave his first important speech. The address is 1364 words and took 13 minutes and 42 seconds to deliver, from the first word to the last word, not including applause at the end, making it the fourth-shortest inaugural address ever delivered. It is widely considered to be among the best presidential inauguration speeches in American history. Notable Passages Include: "...the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state, but from the hand of God." "Let the word go forth.....that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans." "Let every nation know... that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, to assure the survival and the success of liberty." "The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life." "Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate." "Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country" "For only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we be certain beyond doubt that they will never be employed." "All this will not be finished in the first 100 days. Nor will it be finished in the first 1,000 days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." "...let us go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God's work must truly be our own."

George McGovern

Democratic presidential nominee in 1972 and advocated the removal of all troops from Vietnam in his Come Home, America advertisements. Got completely annihilated by Nixon in the election; Nixon recorded on secret tapes that December Bombings had definitively wiped him out of contention.

Suez Crisis of 1956

Done in July of 1956, this was an international crisis that developed when Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal in response to the U.S. pulling their funding for the Aswan Dam (which the U.S did because they thought they were smuggling arms to Algerian rebels and decision to recognize Red China). This triggered an alarm with Israel, who suddenly feared for their independence because Nasser was rallying support from the Arab world. Combined with France and Britain (and behind the U.S' backs), Israel invaded Egypt on October 29th and was quickly aided by France and Britain who entered to retake the canal and remove Egypt as a threat to Israel's existence. They failed to take the canal and heavy fighting ensued. The U.S. was annoyed, and believed that the USSR and Arab allies would win a prolonged war, so they condemned the attack and called for UN resolutions calling for the withdrawal of all invading troops. The USSR feared that Egypt would lose, and always enjoys making Britain look bad, so they urged joint U.S/Soviet intervention to end the crisis. Britain and France, realizing the U.S. were pissed and that the USSR could intervene, were forced to accept a cease-fire on November 7th and began to withdraw troops in the coming months. The crisis foreshadowed a lot of developments; This signaled the end of British/French influence in the Middle East and the end of their global empires. Moscow gained points by backing Egypt, but their military weakness in the region had been striking. Nasser still stood as an Arab hero, but he depended on the Soviets for help, which he was not happy about. In addition, the USSR were viewed as hypocrites who condemned the attack while simultaneously partaking in the Hungarian Uprising. The U.S. were equally viewed as hypocrites when the Eisenhower Doctrine was invoked, and the U.S. sent aid and military forces to Lebanon and Jordan in subsequent years to protect their own interests.

Baghdad Pact

Formed in 1955, this was also called the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and incorporated the U.S, UK, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Pakistan into a new alliance. The alliance was ultimately counterproductive in that it alienated Egyptians and other Arab nationalists, and allowed for an increased Soviet influence in the Middle East. It is generally viewed as one of the least successful of the Cold War alliances. The organization's headquarters were initially located in Baghdad (Iraq) 1955-1958 and Ankara (Turkey) 1958-1979. Cyprus was also an important location for this due to its positioning within the Middle East and the British Sovereign Base Areas situated on the island. This committed the nations to mutual cooperation and protection, as well as non-intervention in each other's affairs. Its goal was to contain the Soviet Union (USSR) by having a line of strong states along the USSR's southwestern frontier. Similarly, it was known as the 'Northern Tier' to prevent Soviet expansion into the Middle East. The U.S tried to get Nasser to join this, but he was unable to because of long standing regional rivalries.

George Wallace

Former Governor of Alabama who ran as a Third Party candidate for president in 1968. He split the prowar vote with Nixon, letting Hubert Humphrey close to within a percentage point of winning the election, but Nixon was able to hang on successfully. He hoped to force the House of Representatives to decide the election with one vote per state if he could obtain sufficient electoral votes to make him a power broker. He hoped that southern states could use their clout to end federal efforts at desegregation. His platform contained generous increases for beneficiaries of Social Security and Medicare. His foreign policy positions set him apart from the other candidates in the field. "If the Vietnam War was not winnable within 90 days of his taking office, he pledged an immediate withdrawal of U.S. troops ...he described foreign aid as money 'poured down a rat hole' and demanded that European and Asian allies pay more for their defense.

Daniel Ellsberg

Former United States military analyst who, while employed as a Defense Department analyst, precipitated a national political controversy in 1971 when he released the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study of U.S. government decision-making in relation to the Vietnam War, to The New York Times and other newspapers.

Six-Day War

Fought between June 5th and June 10th, 1967. Israel launched surprise bombing raids against Egyptian air-fields after a period of high tension that included an Israeli raid into the Jordanian-controlled West Bank, Israeli initiated aerial clashes over Syrian territory, Syrian artillery attacks against Israeli settlements in the vicinity of the border followed by Israeli response against Syrian positions in the Golan Heights and encroachments of increasing intensity and frequency (initiated by Israel) into the demilitarized zones along the Syrian border and culminating in the Egyptian imposition of a naval blockade on Eilat and ordering of the evacuation from the Sinai Peninsula of the U.N. buffer force. Within six days, Israel had won a decisive land war. Israeli forces had taken control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Arabs lost territory, productive capacity and self-respect. Israel maintained Sinai until 1979, and still hold the West Bank/Golan Heights. Gave rise to Palestinian Liberation Organization. Nasser believed only way for future victory is to bring in Moscow, which Brezhnev didn't want to do.

Nikita Khruschev

He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. In the power struggle triggered by Stalin's death in 1953, he, after several years, emerged victorious. On February 25, 1956, at the 20th Party Congress, he delivered the "Secret Speech," denouncing Stalin's purges and ushering in a less repressive era in the Soviet Union, leading to the policy of de-Stalinization. His domestic policies, aimed at bettering the lives of ordinary citizens, were often ineffective, especially in the area of agriculture. Hoping eventually to rely on missiles for national defense, he ordered major cuts in conventional forces. Despite the cuts, his rule saw the tensest years of the Cold War, culminating in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Some of his policies were seen as erratic, particularly by his emerging rivals, who quietly rose in strength and deposed him in October 1964. He did not suffer the deadly fate of some previous losers of Soviet power struggles, but was pensioned off with an apartment in Moscow and a dacha in the countryside. His lengthy memoirs were smuggled to the West and published in part in 1970. he died in 1971 of heart disease.

George Ball

He was the Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs in the administrations of John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. He is well known for his opposition to escalation in the Vietnam War. After Kennedy decided to send 16,000 "trainers" to Vietnam, "He, the one dissenter in Kennedy's entourage, pleaded with JFK to recall France's devastating defeat in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu and throughout Indochina. 'Within five years we'll have 300,000 men in the paddies and jungles and never find them again.'" In response to this prediction, "JFK laughed and replied, 'Well you're supposed to be one of the smartest guys in town, but you're crazier than hell. That will never happen.'" He was one of the architects of Cable 243, and a supporter of the 1963 overthrow of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem.

20th Party Congress

Held from February 14-25 1956, it is known especially for Nikita Khrushchev's "Secret Speech", which denounced the personality cult and dictatorship of Joseph Stalin. Delegates at this Congress of the Communist Party. In the speech, Khruschev charged Stalin with having fostered a leadership personality cult despite ostensibly maintaining support for the ideals of communism. The speech was a milestone in the Khrushchev Thaw. Superficially, the speech was an attempt to draw the Soviet Communist Party closer to Leninism. Khrushchev's ulterior motivation, however, was to legitimize and help consolidate his control of the Communist party and government. This group was given no advance warning of what to expect. Indeed, proceedings were opened by Khruschev's call for all to stand in memory of the Communist leaders who had died since the previous Congress, with Stalin being mentioned in the same breath as Klement Gottwald. Hints of a new direction only came out gradually over the next ten days.

Vienna Summit of 1961

Held from June 3-4, 1961, this was a conference held by Kennedy and Khruschev, and proved to be unfortunate in that strong misperceptions grew as a result of the conference, and the crises in Berlin and Cuba in 1961 and 1962 developed as a result of this. Kennedy talked with a more pragmatic view in that he considered ideologically motivated people impractical, while Khruschev was quite ruthless, and had an idealistic faith in Marxism which verged on the romantic. The summit was initially seen as a diplomatic triumph. Kennedy had refused to allow Soviet pressure to force his hand, or to influence the American policy of containment. He had adequately stalled Khrushchev, and made it clear that the United States was not willing to compromise on a withdrawal from Berlin, whatever pressure Khrushchev may exert on the "testicles of the West" (as Khrushchev once called them). However, it may seem, in retrospect, to have been a failure. The two leaders became increasingly frustrated at the lack of progress of the negotiations. After the summit, Khrushchev realized he had underestimated Kennedy.] Kennedy, meanwhile, felt that he had to avoid giving the same impression of weakness which he had demonstrated before the summit, and felt he had demonstrated to Khrushchev during the summit. He later claimed of Khrushchev, "He beat the hell out of me." Central Europe became a very uneasy place in the wake of the summit, since the German question was still unsettled and the Soviets sense an opportunity giving Khruschev's dressing down of Kennedy. Post Vienna Crisis: 2.) Additional $3.25 billion to defense 3.) Call up of Reserve and National Guard units 4.) Emphasis on civil defense and fallout shelters 5.) Increasing refugee problem in Berlin - (2000 a day, 3.5 million by 1961, 20 percent of population) Senators speaking about closing the border

Alliance for Progress

Initiated by John F. Kennedy in 1961 to establishing economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America. (1) JFK initiative est. economic cooperation between Latin America and U.S. (2) Initiative aims to improve lives of Latin Americans via social reform, economic growth, and democracy (3) Stop Communism by eliminating poverty and inequality (4) Response to failure of military intervention (Bay of Pigs) The program was signed at an inter-American conference at Punta del Este, Uruguay, in August 1961. The charter called for: an annual increase of 2.5% in per capita income, the establishment of democratic governments, the elimination of adult illiteracy by 1970 price stability, to avoid inflation or deflation more equitable income distribution, land reform, and economic and social planning.

Salvadore Allende

Marxist Economics professor who was elected president of Chile in 1970. The U.S. was very opposed to a freely elected Marxist in the Western Hemisphere, and subsequently subverted him by cutting off Chile's foreign credit and recalling outstanding loans, leading to Chile's economy crumbling by 1973. Moscow didn't want to defend Chile given their rhetoric with Cuba, proximity to Moscow, and the lessons of the Cuban Missile Crisis. A U.S sponsored junta seized power on September 11, 1973 and he committed suicide to the delight of the U.S while the Soviets were slightly dismayed. Augusto Pinochet was put in place to lead the country.

Arab Oil Embargo

It started in October 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries or the OAPEC (consisting of the Arab members of OPEC, plus Egypt, Syria and Tunisia) proclaimed an oil embargo. Earlier that year, Egypt and Syria, with the support of other Arab nations, launched a surprise attack on Israel on the holiest day of the Jewish calendar, Yom Kippur. As Israel was vastly outnumbered, the United States chose to re-supply Israel and in response, OPEC decided to "punish" the United States. It lasted until March 1974. With the Arab nations actions seen as initiating the oil embargo and the long-term possibility of high oil prices, disrupted supply, and recession, a strong rift was created within NATO. Additionally, some European nations and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from the U.S. policy in the Middle East. Arab oil producers had also linked the end of the embargo with successful U.S. efforts to create peace in the Middle East, which complicated the situation. To address these developments, the Nixon Administration began parallel negotiations with both Arab oil producers to end the embargo, and with Egypt, Syria, and Israel to arrange an Israeli pull back from the Sinai and the Golan Heights after the Arabs withdrew from Israeli territory. By January 18, 1974, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai. The promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was sufficient to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974 1.) Alliance Crisis - Europe and Japan move toward support of the Arab Position 2.) Shift in Relative Power to producing States 3.) Rapid Influx of Capital, Modernization Projects 4.) Stagflation and Economic Recession in the West

EXCOM

Known as the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, it was a body of United States government officials that convened to advise President John F. Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. It was composed of the regular members of the National Security Council, along with other men whose advice the President deemed useful during the crisis. It was formally established by National Security Action Memorandum 196 on October 22, 1962. It was made up of twelve full members in addition to the president. Advisers frequently sat in on the meetings, which were held in the Cabinet Room of the White House's West Wing and secretly recorded by tape machines activated by Kennedy. In their meetings, the president agreed that the primary objective was the removal of the missiles, not Castro's regime. Kennedy's decision to try the naval quarrantine was against much of the advice of this body.

Guatemalan Coup

Lasting from June 18-27, 1954, this was a CIA covert operation that deposed President Jacobo Árbenz from power from the namesake country. In the early 1950s, the politically liberal, elected Árbenz Government had effected the socio-economics of Decree 900 (27 June 1952), the national agrarian-reform expropriation, for peasant use and ownership, of unused prime-farmlands that the country and multinational corporations had set aside as reserved business assets. The Decree 900 land reform especially threatened the agricultural monopoly of the United Fruit Company (UFC), the American multinational corporation that owned 42 per cent of the arable land of Guatemala; which landholdings either had been bought by, or been ceded to, the UFC by the military dictatorships who preceded the Árbenz Government. In response to the expropriation of prime-farmland assets, the United Fruit Company asked the US Governments of presidents Harry Truman (1945-53) and Dwight Eisenhower (1953-61) to act diplomatically, economically, and militarily against President Árbenz Guzmán, which, in 1954, resulted in the coup d'état that provoked the Guatemalan Civil War, from 1960 to 1996, in which were killed 140,000 to 250,000 Guatemalans. The secret intelligence agencies of the US deemed such liberal land-reform nationalization as government communism in Latin America, instigated by the USSR. The intelligence analyses aggravated the fears of CIA Director Allen Dulles that Guatemala would become "a Soviet beach head in the Western Hemisphere", and thus was a backyard challenge to US hegemony.

Hungarian Revolt of 1956

Lasting from October 23 - November 10, 1956, this was initially a student revolt beginning in Budapest when students wanted Imre Nagy, a reformist premier, to return to the country. The Soviets sent planes and tanks to put down the riots, but this only stoked the Hungarians, and provoked many clashes in Budapest's streets. Nagy was allowed to return and set up a new government that set up some non-Communists, and the Soviets began to withdraw their troops, showing Khruschev's ability to compromise and allow an East European nation to pursue its own road to socialism. However, the protesters differed from Poland in that they didn't want partial autonomy but full autonomy, leading Nagy to announce the creation of a multi-party government, Hungary's neutrality, and their removal from the Warsaw Pact. This was well-received in the West, but the Soviets quickly entered Budapest with tanks and soldiers, and the resistance was crushed within a week. The West was caught flatfooted; a combination of the ongoing Suez Crisis, John Foster Dulles' incapacitation as a result of cancer surgery, and the 1956 presidential election looming made the logistics so complex that it was providing aid to the resistance was never really considered. The West was unprepeared to interfere directly in the Communist bloc. This had a devastating effect on international relations between Khruschev and the West, which had been moving in a positive direction since his takeover. The West was shocked by what happened, and the UN formally denounced the Soviets for what transpired.

Sputnik I

Launched on October 4, 1957, this was an artificial earth satellite that was launched into orbit by the Soviets. Coming from a Russian word meaning fellow traveler, this, combined with the Russians announcing their successful test of the world's first ICBM's, signaled that the Soviets had the lead in the space race. Americans were devastated by this news; it undermined their faith in their own science and educational system, believing that the Soviets had better science and math education than the Americans. This garnered Soviet prestige in developing nations, who showed that great progress could be made by following the socialist path. The Soviets eventually launched a second, larger satellite in November, and Khruschev trumpeted a missile gap between the two countries even though the Soviets only built a small number of ICBMs in anticipation of better technology forthcoming.

MAD

Mutually Assured Destruction: A doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-scale use of high-yield weapons of mass destruction by two opposing sides would effectively result in the complete, utter and irrevocable annihilation of both the attacker and the defender, becoming thus a war that has no victory nor any armistice but only effective reciprocal destruction. It is based on the theory of deterrence according to which the deployment, and implicit menace of use, of strong weapons is essential to threaten the enemy in order to prevent the use of the same weapons by the enemy against oneself. This was proposed by then Defense Secretary McNamara who believed that this was the best way to secure international peace. He also thought it might slow the arms race, since a numerical lead in such a situation offered little real advantage. This finally came to fruition when Kennedy's call for massive ICBM buildup coincided with the Soviet mass production of ICBM's at an unprecedented rate.

Kent State

Occured on May 4 1970 when students erupted in protest over Richard Nixon's decision to invade Cambodia to close down Vietcong and NVA forces who were using Cambodian supply lines. The Ohio National Guard fired on the demonstration and killed four students, sending ripples of revulsion across the nation. This further affected American involvement in the war in Vietnam and Indochina.

Rapacki Plan

Plan proposed in October of 1957 by Polish foreign minister Adam Rapacki that called for a denuclearized zone in Central Europe, which would include Poland, Czechoslovakia and both parts of Germany. This came as a response to NATO's decision to rearm West Germany. While the plan did provide an alternative to Germany's remilitarization and hoped to settle the Germany question, The U.S. rejected the plan in 1958 because Western troops in Germany, unless equipped with nuclear weapons, would be at the mercy of the vast conventional forces in Central and Eastern Europe. Also, the U.S. pointed out that the plan forbade them from doing something they might want to do (arm West Germany) while the Soviets had no intention of arming this proposed neutral region. Moscow won a propaganda advantage over this plan, but the advantage was limited because the world was focused on Sputnik.

Realpolitik

Politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and on practical and material factors and considerations, rather than ideological notions or moralistic or ethical premises. Particularly used by Nixon/Kissinger in foreign policy to differentiate from the ideologically driven Kennedy. 1.) Perception of the international system as anarchic 2.) States as dominant actors - (some disdain for domestic politics) 3.) Statesmen act to promote the "national interest" - maximizing power/ issue of morality 4.) Contrast with idealism, Wilsonianism, Kennedy's inaugural, more ideologically-driven American policies 5.) But the concern with credibility differentiates Kissinger from the realists like Morgenthau on Vietnam

Nixon Doctrine

Put forth on July 25, 1969 by Richard Nixon, it was an announcement in which he declared that "the United States would assist in the defense and developments of allies and friends," but would not "undertake all the defense of the free nations of the world." Essentially, he called for American allies to assume the main role in their defenses, as opposed to using primarily the Americans. First, the United States will keep all of its treaty commitments. Second, we shall provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose survival we consider vital to our security. Third, in cases involving other types of aggression, we shall furnish military and economic assistance when requested in accordance with our treaty commitments. But we shall look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense.

Charles de Gaulle

President of the French Republic from 1959-1969, he oversaw a number of economic and political reforms to the country. Internationally, he rebuffed both the United States and the Soviet Union, pushing for an independent France with its own nuclear weapons, and strongly encouraged a "Free Europe", believing that a confederation of all European nations would restore the past glories of the great European empires. He set about building Franco-German cooperation as the cornerstone of the European Economic Community (EEC), paying the first state visit to Germany by a French head of state since Napoleon. In January 1963, Germany and France signed a treaty of friendship, the Élysée Treaty. France also reduced its dollar reserves, trading them for gold from the U.S. government, thereby reducing the US' economic influence abroad. With the onset of the Cold War and the perceived threat of invasion from the Soviet Union and the countries of the eastern bloc, America, Canada and the other western European countries set up the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) to co-ordinate a military response to any possible attack. France played a key role during the early days of the organisation, providing a large military contingent and agreeing - after much soul-searching - to the participation of West German forces. But after his election in 1958 he took the view that the organisation was too dominated by the US and UK, and that with its problems in Vietnam, America would not fulfill its promise to defend Europe in the event of a Russian invasion. He demanded political parity with Britain and America in NATO, and for its geographic coverage to be extended to include French territories abroad, including Algeria, then experiencing civil war. This was not forthcoming, and so in March 1959 France, citing the need for it to maintain its own independent military strategy, withdrew its Mediterranean fleet from NATO, and a few months later he demanded the removal of all US nuclear weapons from French territory. In 1964 he visited Russia, where he hoped to establish France as an alternative influence in the Cold War. Later, he proclaimed a new alliance between the nations, but although the Soviet statesman Alexei Kosygin made a return visit to France, the Russians did not accept France as a super power, knowing that in any future conflict they would have to rely on the overall protection of the Western Alliance. In 1965, he pulled France out of SEATO, the Southeast Asian equivalent of NATO and refused to participate in any future NATO manoeuvres. In February 1966, France withdrew from NATO military command, but remained within the organisation. However, secret protocols were agreed whereby French forces could quickly be re-integrated into NATO command, demonstrating that the move was little more that a symbolic show of defiance to America and Britain. Haunted by the memories of 1940, he wanted France to remain the master of the decisions affecting it, unlike in the 1930s, when it had to follow in step with its British ally. He also declared that all foreign military personnel had to leave French territory and gave them one year to redeploy. This latter action was particularly badly received in the US, prompting Dean Rusk, the US Secretary of State, to ask him whether the removal of American military personnel was to include exhumation the 50,000 American war dead buried in French cemeteries.

Open Skies Proposal

Proposed by Dwight D. Eisenhower at the Geneva Conference in July of 1955, it was a scheme by which the superpowers would exchange blueprints of their military force dispositions and allow each to make regular flights over the other's territory. Eisenhower did not expect Khruschev to accept this proposal, because U.S. missile installations were already public knowledge, so the USSR had little to gain in comparison the U.S. Also, the U.S. had a big lead in atomic weapons and long-range bombers, and the USSR didn't want to expose their relative weakness in this department. It was in the USSR's best interests to maintain a level of secrecy that helped offset their weakness - Khruschev described it as a "very transparent espionage device" and gave it little consideration.

Search and Destroy Operations

Refers to a military strategy that became a large component of the Vietnam War. The idea was to insert ground forces into hostile territory, search out the enemy, destroy them, and withdraw immediately afterward. The strategy was the result of a new technology, the helicopter, which resulted in a new form of warfare, the fielding of air cavalry, and was thought to be ideally jumped to counter-guerrilla jungle warfare. The complementary conventional strategy, which entailed attacking and conquering an enemy position, then fortifying and holding it indefinitely, was known as "clear and hold" or "clear and secure." In theory, since the traditional methods of "taking ground" could not be used in this war, a war of attrition would be used, eliminating the enemy by the use of "searching" for them, then "destroying" them, and the "body count" would be the measuring tool to determine the success of the strategy of "search and destroy." It is common practice among military forces to enforce strict rules on a search and destroy mission.

Fulbright Hearings

Refers to any of the set of U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearings on Vietnam conducted between 1966 and 1971. Chaired by J. William Fulbright, his goal was "Under our system Congress, and especially the Senate, shares responsibility with the President for making our Nation's foreign policy. This war, however, started and continues as a Presidential war in which the Congress, since the fraudulent Gulf of Tonkin episode, has not played a significant role. [...] The purpose of these hearings is to develop the best advice and greater public understanding of the policy alternatives available and positive congressional action to end American participation in the war." Fulbright commented that Congress' predicament had a precedent in the frustration experienced by the French National Assembly during the first Indochina war. That war ended only after the National Assembly responded to growing public concern and brought in a new government pledged to negotiate a settlement in Geneva within a month, resulting in the Geneva accords that ended that war.

De-Stalanization

Refers to the process of eliminating the cult of personality, Stalinist political system and the Gulag labour-camp system created by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Stalin was succeeded by a collective leadership after his death in March 1953. Particularly trumpeted by Nikita Khruschev in his secret speech to the 20th Party Congress, it was Khruschev's efforts to expunge Stalin's influence from the public sphere which continued through the late 1950s. His efforts were marked by the removal of Stalin's name from cities, landmarks, and facilities which had been named or renamed after him. Khrushchev also attempted to lessen the harshness of the Gulag labour system, by allowing prisoners to send letters home to their families, and by allowing family members to mail clothes to loved-ones in the camps, which was not allowed during Stalin's time. While the gulag remained until 1991 because it was so ingrained in the culture, it was significantly less important and strenuous as it was during Stalin's time.

Barry Goldwater

Republican nominee for president in the 1964 presidential election. He suffered from a lack of support from his own party and his deeply unpopular conservative political positions. Johnson's campaign advocated social programs and further federal efforts to curb racial segregation, collectively known as the Great Society, and successfully portrayed Goldwater as being a dangerous extremist. Johnson easily won the Presidency, carrying 44 of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Johnson painted him as an extremist, and used the famous Daisy ad to strengthen his position as the better national candidate. Originally a senator from Arizona.

Franco-German Treaty

Signed early in 1963 between French president Charles de Gaulle and West German president Konrad Adenauer, this was a friendship treaty that set the seal on reconciliation between the two countries. With it, Germany and France established a new foundation for relations that ended centuries of rivalry between them. The treaty contained a number of agreements for joint cooperation in foreign policy, economic and military integration and exchange of student education. The treaty was signed under difficult political situations at that time and criticized both by opposition parties in France and Germany, as well as from the United Kingdom and the United States. Opposition from the United Kingdom and the United States was answered by an added preamble which postulated a close cooperation with those (including NATO) and a targeted German reunification. The treaty achieved a lot in initiating European integration and a stronger Franco-German co-position in transatlantic relations.

Partial Test-Ban Treaty

Signed on August 5, 1963, this was an agreement between the U.S, USSR and Britain, that dealt with the question of the atomic fallout problem. Khruschev was as equally concerned as Kennedy on atomic fallout, and wanted to be put on equal footing as the Americans. The treaty was complete when the U.S. dropped its demand for on-site inspections; the treaty banned atmospheric tests but allowed underground blasts. It didn't halt or slow the arms race since both sides could still develop new weapons through underground testing, but it did solve the fallout problem and showed that both superpowers could work out an arms agreement.

Geneva Agreements on Laos

Signed on July 23, 1962, The 14 signatories (including the U.S) pledged to respect Laotian neutrality, to refrain from interference — direct or indirect — in the internal affairs of Laos, and to refrain from drawing Laos into military alliance or to establish military bases in Laotian territory. The Laotian government pledged to promulgate constitutionally its commitments which would have the force of law. However, the agreement was violated in when the Democratic Republic of Vietnam established a supply line through "neutral" Laotian territory for supplying the Viet Cong insurgency against the government of South Vietnam. More specifically, during the Second Indochina War the North Vietnamese obtained the cooperation of the Pathet Lao in constructing and maintaining the Ho Chi Minh Trail which passed through the length of Laos. Thousands of Vietnamese troops were stationed in Laos to maintain the road network and provide for its security. Vietnamese military personnel also fought beside the Pathet Lao in its struggle to overthrow Laos' neutralist government. Cooperation persisted after the war and the Lao communist victory.

Strategy of Attrition

Since the goal of the United States in the Vietnam War was not to conquer North Vietnam but rather to ensure the survival of the South Vietnamese government, measuring progress was difficult. All the contested territory was theoretically "held" already. Instead, the US Army used body counts to show that the US was winning the war. The Army's theory was that eventually, the Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army would lose after this strategy was utilized. Ho Chi Minh said, in reference to the French, "You can kill ten of our men for every one we kill of yours. But even at those odds, you will lose and we will win." Some analysis of war casualties indicated that the US and its allies inflicted roughly a three-to-two ratio of communist combat deaths against allied deaths. Eventually, the US signed the Paris Peace Accords and pulled out. North Vietnam claimed it had lost 1,176,000 combatants dead, while 58,159 Americans and at least 250,000 South Vietnamese combatans died in the conflict. Advocated by General Westmoreland

Brezhnev Doctrine

Stated in September of 1968 that Communist countries must damage neither socialism in their own country nor the fundamental interests of the other socialist countries. In November, he would later state that when forces hostile to socialism seek to reverse the development of any socialist country, this becomes a common problem and concern of all socialist countries. Essentially, he said that Moscow had the right to intervene in other Communist countries whenever it felt that Soviet interests were threatened, which enraged and disturbed the Chinese. China viewed this as Russian imperialism.

SALT I

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty signed between Nixon and Brezhnev at the end of May, 1972. It froze the number of strategic ballistic missile launchers at existing levels, and provided for the addition of new submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) launchers only after the same number of older intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) and SLBM launchers had been dismantled. This coincides with the signing of the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty as well. 1.) Background - USSR's success in agreements with Germany, Moscow Treaty of December 1970, Berlin Treaty of September 1971 (Quadripartite Agreement) 2.) Restrictions on ABM sites - only 2 sites - Soviets and US could complete building programs. Soviets had preponderance of land based ICBMs, 1618-1054; and 950-710 in SLBM (submarine-launched missiles) programs - but agreement didn't cover US allies, US bombers, or MIRVs (multiple-independently-targeted vehicles) 3.) Jackson Amendment insisted on equality in any future agreements

Decent Interval

Strategy informally proposed by Henry Kissinger. During 1968, Henry Kissinger frequently said in private talks that the appropriate goal of U.S. policy was this—two to three years—between the withdrawal of U.S. troops and a Communist takeover in Vietnam."

Helsinki Agreement

Summit in July of 1975 between Ford and Brezhnev eventually led to agreement with other Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe participants that ranged from issues on inviolability of international borders to improved trade among European nations to freedom of expression and emigration for all European peoples. Signed on August 1, 1975 - it marked the success of detente efforts in Europe and marked the fruition of Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik vision. Moscow got the broad international recognition of the new boundaries and territorial adjustments that resulted from World War II. But they had to content to language on human rights and individual freedoms that would be used against them by internal dissidents and external foes.

Geneva Conference of 1955

The Cold War's first summit conference held in July of 1955 between the big four: Eisenhower/Dulles (U.S), Khruschev/Bulganin (USSR), Premier Edgar Faure (France) and Prime Minister Anthony Eden (UK). It was at this meeting that Eisenhower announced his open skies proposal, which was immediately shot down by the Soviets. While not much substantively was achieved at this conference, the talks were cordial, leaders got along, and cultural/economic ties between East and West did improve. Ultimately, this was a success in at least getting the leaders to talk productively about the importance of global security, even though nothing was really solved at the conference.

Quemoy-Matsu

The PRC extensively shelled these islands during the First and Second Taiwan Strait Crises, which was a major issue in the 1960 United States Presidential Election between Kennedy and Nixon. In the 1950s, the United States threatened to use nuclear weapons against the PRC if it attacked the island. During the debates, both candidates, Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy, pledged to use U.S. forces if necessary to protect Taiwan from invasion by China, the mainland, which the U.S. did not at that time recognize as a legitimate government. But the two candidates had different opinions about whether to use U.S. forces to protect the ROC's forward positions. In fact, Senator Kennedy stated that these islands - as little as 5½ miles off the coast of China and as much as 106 miles from Taiwan - were strategically indefensible and were not essential to the defense of Taiwan. On the contrary, Vice President Nixon maintained that, since these islands were in the "area of freedom," they should not be surrendered to the Communists as a matter of "principle. The bombing of these islands was also one of the reasons that provoked the Sino-Soviet split, since the Soviets were not happy that this provoked an international crisis with America.

Jacobo Arbenz

The President of Guatemala from 1951-1954 who was deposed in the Guatemalan coup d'etat in 1954 that was orchestrated as a covert CIA operation by the U.S. This president had effected the socio-economics of Decree 900 (27 June 1952), the national agrarian-reform expropriation, for peasant use and ownership, of unused prime-farmlands that the country and multinational corporations had set aside as reserved business assets. The Decree 900 land reform especially threatened the agricultural monopoly of the United Fruit Company (UFC), the American multinational corporation that owned 42 per cent of the arable land of Guatemala; which landholdings either had been bought by, or been ceded to, the UFC by the military dictatorships who preceded the Government. In response to the expropriation of prime-farmland assets, the United Fruit Company asked the US Governments of presidents Harry Truman (1945-53) and Dwight Eisenhower (1953-61) to act diplomatically, economically, and militarily against him, which, in 1954, resulted in the coup d'état

Dean Rusk

The United States Secretary of State from 1961 to 1969 under presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. As Secretary of State he believed in the use of military action to combat Communism. Despite private misgivings about the Bay of Pigs invasion, he remained noncommittal during the Executive Council meetings leading up to the attack and never opposed it outright. During the Cuban missile crisis he supported diplomatic efforts. Early in his tenure, he had strong doubts about US intervention in Vietnam,[9] but later his vigorous public defense of US actions in the Vietnam War made him a frequent target of anti-war protests. Outside of his work against communism, he continued his Rockefeller Foundation ideas of aid to developing nations and also supported low tariffs to encourage world trade. Rusk also drew the ire of supporters of Israel after he let it be known that he believed the USS Liberty incident was a deliberate attack on the ship, rather than an accident.

Ngo Dinh Diem

The first president of South Vietnam (1955-1963). In the wake of the French withdrawal from Indochina as a result of the 1954 Geneva Accords, he led the effort to create the Republic of Vietnam. Accruing considerable U.S. support due to his staunch anti-Communism, he achieved victory in a 1955 plebiscite, which was fraudulent. A Roman Catholic, he pursued biased and religiously oppressive policies against the Republic's Montagnard natives and its Buddhist majority that were met with protests, epitomized in Malcolm Browne's Pulitzer Prize winning photograph of the self-immolation of Buddhist monk Thích Quảng Đức in 1963.Amid religious protests that garnered worldwide attention, he lost the backing of his U.S. patrons and was assassinated, along with his brother, Ngô Đình Nhu by Nguyễn Văn Nhung, the aide of ARVN General Dương Văn Minh on 2 November 1963, during a coup d'état that deposed his government. The Kennedy administration had been aware of the coup planning, but Cable 243 from the United States Department of State to U.S. Ambassador to South Vietnam Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., stated that it was U.S. policy not to try to stop it. Lucien Conein, the Central Intelligence Agency's liaison between the US embassy and the coup planners, told them that the US would not intervene to stop it. Conein also provided funds to the coup leaders.

Lee Harvey Oswald

The sniper who assassinated John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963. A former U.S. Marine who had defected to the Soviet Union between October 1959 and June 1962, he was a Castro supporter.

Detente

The term is often used in reference to the general easing of geo-political tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States which began in 1971, as a foreign policy of U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford; a 'thawing out' or 'un-freezing' at a period roughly in the middle of the Cold War. The most obvious manifestation of this was the series of summits held between the leaders of the two superpowers and the treaties that resulted from these meetings. Early 1960s, the Partial Test Ban Treaty had been signed on August 5, 1963. Later in the decade, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and Outer Space Treaty were two of the first building blocks of this. However, these early treaties were in fact signed all over the globe. The most important treaties were not developed until the Nixon Administration came into office in 1969. The Political Consultative Committee of the Warsaw Pact sent an offer to the West, urging to hold a summit on "security and cooperation in Europe". The West agreed and talks began towards actual limits in the nuclear capabilities of the two superpowers. This ultimately led to the signing of the SALT I treaty in 1972. This treaty limited each power's nuclear arsenals, though it was quickly rendered out-of-date as a result of the development of MIRVs. In the same year that SALT I was signed, the Biological Weapons Convention and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty were also concluded. Talks on SALT II also began in 1972. In 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe met and produced the Helsinki Accords, a wide ranging series of agreements on economic, political, and human rights issues. The CSCE was initiated by the USSR, involving 35 states throughout Europe. Among other issues, one of the most prevalent and discussed after the conference was that of human rights violations in the Soviet Union. The Soviet Constitution directly violated the Declaration of Human Rights from the United Nations, and this issue became a prominent point of separation between the United States and the Soviet Union

Peace Corps

The three goals of this program: provides technical assistance; helping people outside the United States to understand American culture; and helping Americans to understand the cultures of other countries. The work is generally related to social and economic development. Each program participant is an American citizen, typically with a college degree, who works abroad for a period of 24 months after three months of training. Volunteers work with governments, schools, non-profit organizations, non-government organizations, and entrepreneurs in education, hunger, business, information technology, agriculture, and the environment. After 24 months of service, volunteers can request an extension of service. The program was established by Executive Order 10924, issued by President John F. Kennedy on March 1, 1961, announced by televised broadcast March 2, 1961, and authorized by Congress on September 22, 1961.

Ngo Dinh Nhu

The younger brother and chief political advisor of South Vietnam's first president, Ngô Ðình Diệm. Although he held no formal executive position, he wielded immense unofficial power, exercising personal command of both the ARVN Special Forces (a paramilitary unit which served as the Ngô family's de facto private army) and the Cần Lao political apparatus (also known as the Personalist Labor Party) which served as the regime's de facto secret police. In 1963, the Ngô family's grip on power became unstuck during the Buddhist crisis, during which the nation's Buddhist majority rose up against the pro-Catholic regime. Nhu tried to break the Buddhists' opposition by using the Special Forces in raids on prominent Buddhist temples that left possibly hundreds dead, and framing the regular army for it. However, Nhu's plan was uncovered, which intensified plots by military officers, encouraged by the Americans, who turned against the Ngô family after the pagoda attacks. Nhu was aware of the plots, but remained confident he could outmanoevre them, and began to plot a counter-coup, as well as the assassinations of U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. and other American and opposition figures. Nhu was fooled by the loyalist General Tôn Thất Đính, who had turned against the Ngô family. On 1 November 1963, the coup proceeded, and the Ngô brothers (Nhu and Diệm) were detained and assassinated the next day.

Wars of National Liberation

These can refer to those fought during the decolonization movement, primarily in the third world against Western powers and their economic influence, and was a major aspect of the Cold War. The First Indochina War (1946-54), Vietnam War (1959-75), and the Algerian War of Independence (1954-62) were all considered national liberation wars by the rebelling sides of the conflicts.

Jupiter Missiles

These were the first medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) of the United States Air Force (USAF). The missiles, armed with nuclear warheads, were deployed in Italy and Turkey in 1961 as part of NATO's Cold War deterrent against the Soviet Union. They were all removed by the US as part of a secret agreement with the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Berlin Crisis 1958-1962

This began in November 1958, when Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev issued an ultimatum giving the Western powers six months to agree to withdraw from Berlin and make it a free, demilitarized city. At the end of that period, Khrushchev declared, the Soviet Union would turn over to East Germany complete control of all lines of communication with West Berlin; the western powers then would have access to West Berlin only by permission of the East German government. The United States, United Kingdom, and France replied to this ultimatum by firmly asserting their determination to remain in West Berlin and to maintain their legal right of free access to that city. Eisenhower quickly realized that Khruschev was bluffing on this matter. In May 1959 the Soviet Union withdrew its deadline and instead met with the Western powers in a Big Four foreign ministers' conference. Although the three-month-long sessions failed to reach any important agreements, they did open the door to further negotiations and led to Premier Khrushchev's visit to the United States in September 1959. At the end of this visit, Khrushchev and President Dwight Eisenhower stated jointly that the most important issue in the world was general disarmament and that the problem of Berlin and "all outstanding international questions should be settled, not by the application of force, but by peaceful means through negotiations." Khrushchev came away with the impression that a deal was possible over Berlin, and they agreed to continue the dialogue at a summit in Paris in May 1960. However, the Paris Summit that was to resolve the Berlin question was cancelled in the fallout from Gary Powers's failed U-2 spy flight on 1 May 1960. Meeting with US President John F. Kennedy in the Vienna summit on June 4, 1961, Premier Khrushchev caused a new crisis when he reissued his threat to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany, which he said would end existing four-power agreements guaranteeing American, British, and French access rights to West Berlin. However, this time he did so by issuing an ultimatum, with a deadline of December 31, 1961. The three powers replied that no unilateral treaty could abrogate their responsibilities and rights in West Berlin, including the right of unobstructed access to the city. This eventually led to the construction of the Berlin Wall on August 13, 1961. 1.) Berlin's status - divided city within East Germany, escape route into the West, center for espionage 2.) Khrushchev's demand for a peace settlement, a final determination of its status, sovereignty for East Germany (German Democratic Republic - GDR or by German name, DDR) - threat to sign a peace treaty with East Germany, turning over control to the East Germans of Western access to the city - fears of the East German government's actions 3.) West Germany - Federal Republic of Germany - FRG or by German name, BRD - rearming, question of its nuclear status - Soviets wanted to block any German access to atomic weapons - US feared any interest in German neutrality would undermine the West - support for Adenauer - integrate Germany into the West 4.) Berlin's vulnerability to pressure - another blockade, isolation, symbolism of Western prosperity - Khrushchev compared Berlin to a corn on the West's foot

U-2 Incident

This occured on May 1 1960, during the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower and during the leadership of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, when a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down over the airspace of the Soviet Union. The United States government at first denied the plane's purpose and mission, but then was forced to admit its role as a covert surveillance aircraft when the Soviet government produced its intact remains and surviving pilot, Francis Gary Powers, as well as photos of military bases in Russia taken by Powers. Coming roughly two weeks before the scheduled opening of an East-West summit in Paris, the incident was a great embarrassment to the United States and prompted a marked deterioration in its relations with the Soviet Union. Eisenhower thus became the first president to admit to conducting peacetime espionage, and Khruschev essentially used the summit to wreck the Paris Summit, suggesting that he would wait 6-8 months until a new president took over. Khruschev's authority was seriously undercut, and this played into the hands of Soviet hard liners who wanted a massive military buildup. This helped contribute to Khruschev wanting to strengthen Soviet global posture, triggering the Berlin and Cuban crises of 1961 and 1962, respectively.

Operation Mongoose

This was a covert operation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) developed during the early years of President of the United States John F. Kennedy's administration. On November 30, 1961, aggressive covert operations against Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba were authorized by President Kennedy. The operation was led by U.S. Air Force General Edward Lansdale and went into effect after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. It was a secret program of terrorism against Cuba to remove the communists from power, which was a prime focus of the Kennedy administration, according to Harvard historian Jorge Domínguez. A document from the U.S. State Department confirms that the project aimed to "help Cuba overthrow the Communist regime", including its leader Fidel Castro, and it aimed "for a revolt which can take place in Cuba by October 1962". U.S. policymakers also wanted to see "a new government with which the United States can live in peace" , as with the earlier Bay of Pigs invasion, is widely acknowledged as an American policy failure against Cuba. The plan also featured many different assassination proposals aimed at Castro, the most famous of which being the exploding cigar.

Anwar Sadat

Vice President of Egypt during the reign of Nasser, and his successor when he died of a heart attack in late September of 1970. To the general public, he seemed like a rather indolent, good natured fellow who had dark skin and a deep voice. His apparent lack of condition concealed a shrewd, calculating military officer who earned his rank as a demolitions specialist during WWII. He indulged in a taste for danger repeatedly from his accession to power until his assassination by Islamic fundamentalists in 1981. He recognized that permanent state of war with Israel was unacceptable, and also knew that only the U.S. had the leverage to bring Israel to the bargaining table. Used Yom-Kippur war to get Nixon's attention. Eventually signed a peace treaty and Camp David Accords with Israel in 1978-1979.

Kennedy American University Speech

Titled A Strategy of Peace, was a commencement address delivered by President John F. Kennedy at the American University in Washington, D.C., on June 10, 1963. In the speech, Kennedy announced the development of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and his decision to unilaterally suspend all atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons as long as all other nations would do the same. The speech was unusual in its peaceful outreach to the Soviet Union at the height of the Cold War, and is remembered as one of Kennedy's finest and most important speeches. The speech articulated a peaceful man's abhorrence of war was imperative if humanity hoped to avoid annihilation. It sought to develop broad backing for a test ban treaty and to impress Khruschev with his commitment to detente with the USSR. The speech startled and inspired may within the US and abroad.

Hubert Humphrey

Vice President Lyndon Johnson's Vice President and Democratic nominee for president in 1968. Severely damaged by the Chicago convention, he nearly won the election despite missing an opportunity to reconcile with Robert Kennedy forces by denouncing the war. Humphrey voiced a quick end to the war, and his popularity soared when Johnson haulted Rolling Thunder in deference to the party. Nixon splitting the prowar vote with Wallace had him close within a percentage point of actually winning. Because he declared for the presidency so late, he didn't even enter a primary and yet was nominated. He was also a former senator from Minnesota.