Colonial Latin America

"Brides of Christ"

"Brides of Christ" is a term associated with Catholic nuns that entered convents as the theological wives of Christ that would act to spread the teachings of Catholicism. Since the nuns were essentially entering a marriage with the Church, they often brought large dowries into the convent itself which would be added to the collective pool of nuns' dowries.[1] Through these collected funds, convents eventually began acting as landlords, providers of loans, and property owners within nearby colonies. As a result of upfront capital gains along with growing profits from interest payments and appreciation of housing and land values, the convents ultimately became very wealthy.[2] Therefore, the Brides of Christ and convents of nuns highlight the immense power, wealth, and status that institutions of the Catholic faith accumulated in the early period of Latin American colonization which presented exterior factors that legitimized the efforts of conversion to Catholicism.

"The Public"

"The Public" was an act of social engineering instituted in Mexico by the newly reigning Bourbon regime which aimed to control the actions of the colonists through the creation of societal standards that aimed form a more productive citizen mindset. The premise behind the standard of "the public" was to create an internal shame within a citizen to prevent them from being drunk, lazy, and unproductive for the Spanish economy.[1] On top of this, the Spanish also instituted direct government supervision aimed at improving productivity and cleanliness of poor colonists within newly created segments of Mexico City along with the creation of the Alcaldes de Barrio neighborhood security.[2] Although the initial intents of "The Public" mindset were well-intentioned for the sake of the Spanish Crown, the negative effects ultimately led to a further division amongst citizens and reinstated a mindset of classism and social hierarchy within the Mexican society.

"Armed Entrepreneurs"

"______________ ______________ " is a term that is used to describe the Spanish soldiers involved in the Conquest of the Americas during the 15th-17th Centuries. These conquerors typically came from a middle-class background that was not tied to royal heritage. Many times, these conquerors possessed skills of trade such as being an artist, blacksmith, carpenter, and even doctors.[1] However, the men saw the opportunity to sail to the Americas as conquerors as an opportunity for adventure and the start of a new life which enticed many craftsmen to enlist as soldiers for the Spanish Conquest. It is also important to realize that many Spanish soldiers were young and had not received formal education which meant that their degree of literacy was likely comparable to those of the indigenous people.[2] When looking into the Spanish Conquest, it is important to realize that these Spanish men utilized their passion for wealth and prestige to use technological and societal advances to conquer the indigenous Americans despite their life skills being in the arts, medicine, etc.

Cortes of Cadiz

*Cortes* of Cádiz was a parliamentary form of governmental representation that was first convened near Leon, Spain in 1810 which contained representatives from the Americas, Spain, and the Philippines. The Cortes of Cadiz became the supreme legislative figure of the Spanish empire and aimed at re-establishing equality and definitions of citizenship in the overseas American colonies through a new constitution. As a result of the initial Cortes of Cadiz meeting, African slaves were not considered citizens along with many other free citizens which harshly affected the number of American representatives within the Cortes.[1] In 1812, the Constitution of 1812 was passed which repealed many exemptions and benefits previously given to peninsulares while also creating newfound local municipal councils which increased government participation by all free citizens within Spanish societies.[2] The Cortes of Cadiz was extremely pivotal in advancing the desire for freedom and independence by Spanish colonies while also creating a sense of political revolution that was previously unheard of in decreasing imperialistic power.

Reconquest

- Time period from 711 - 1492 -Conflicts between the Christians and Muslims that were occupying Iberia -Christian kingdoms expanded their territory south leading to the capturing of Muslims as slaves and expulsion of Islam from Iberia. The ____ ended in 1492 when the Islamic kingdom of Granada surrendered to the troops of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel and led to the formation of modern-day Spain.[2] This time period was extremely rewarding for the glory-seeking conquerors of Iberia and acted as a catalyst for the desire to spread Christianity globally while expanding the territory of the Spanish and Portuguese nations.

Altepetl & Calpulli

After the late 14th century, the Aztec nation began operating with localized ethnic city-states called ______________ . Within each ______________ , there typically consisted a locally run government with a ruler as well as localized markets for trade and commerce as well as temples for religious rituals and practices. Within each altepetl, there were numerous ______________ which can be thought of small regions or neighborhoods each containing slightly different hierarchical status as well as their own markets and places of religious practice.[1] The importance behind the ______________ and the ______________ is understanding that the Aztec was a rather civilized society that thrived on the dispersion of local and regional power to regulate and optimize the well-being of the nation. Therefore, the Aztecs' level of sophistication should have been quite impressive to the Spaniards that reached central Mexico as there are many similarities that can be drawn between Spanish city-states and Aztec altepetl.

Ayllu

An ______________ was an ethnic group formed within the Incan Empire's pyramid of hierarchy that was one step above the immediate family members. The Incan Empire required a cultural homogeneity to allow for the utmost honor to the Sapa Inka, but also allowed for previous kingdoms and peoples to remain culturally intact within their ______________ . Members of the ______________ would work together to ensure that both their own kin as well as the Inca Empire gained goods and riches for prosperity, but also maintained their original culture through worship of their own gods and deities.[1] Allowance of ______________ to exist by the Inca was a brilliant way to allow conquered people to remain content under their new ruler while also providing an outlet of self-expression and cultural identity. The use of ______________ within the Incan Empire was a genius manner of creating regional identity within the overall hierarchy of centralized power that was highly sophisticated for the 15th and 16th centuries.

Missions

Another way that friars legitimized their evangelization efforts were through the creation of sedentary missions which were areas of settlement that mimicked mini societies where friars could learn more about native cultures, dialects, and traditions while also finding the best ways to convey Catholicism to the natives.[1] The friars and their missions were extremely important facets in the legitimization of the Catholic Faith amongst American natives and are also examples of the peaceful attempts at emphasizing conversion to Catholicism by the Spaniards

Antonio de Arriaga

Antonio de Arriaga was a Spanish Corregidor that was stationed near Cuzco and was publicly disliked by the Great Andes Rebellion leaders such as Tupac Amaru due to their practices of enforced labor of natives within mines along with outrageous increases in tax payments to the Spanish Crown and believed embezzlements by corregidores.[1] On November 4th, 1780, Tupac Amaru publicly arrested Antonio de Arriaga in a public showing that was aimed at highlighting to the rise of the common colonists against the Spanish imperialism and Tupac Amaru's claim to becoming the Incan ruler.[2] On top of the public arrest, Antonio de Arriaga was also publicly executed a week later in the "plaza of social justice" which was an event that further fueled the rebellion efforts in hopes of upending societal norms of social and political discrimination and essentially highlighted the start of the revolution against imperial power in Spanish colonies.[3]

Barrios

Barrios were often referred to as the poor neighborhoods within Latin American colonies that consisted of castas, natives, and free blacks along with other small and poor minority groups. The living conditions within the barrios were typically very rugged as they contained poor infrastructure for housing and roads along with containing housing quarters that fit multiple families at a time. Due to the high cost of housing and low wages from manual labor, members of barrios rarely birthed kids and contained very few material possessions.[1] On top of this, the urban barrios were often very dangerous areas that contained many venues of indulgence along with many local artisans and craftsmen shops.[2] Ultimately, the barrios represented a large chunk of the lifestyle for commoners within Latin American colonies. On top of this, poor Spaniards and indigenous political authorities also lived in barrios.

Bartolome de Las Casas

Bartolome de Las Casas believed that the indigenous people were competent enough to accept Christianity without military enforcement and the promotion of equality.[1] These three men are important due to their differing views on indigenous Americans and the European mindset concerning the inferiority, civility, and morality of native Americans in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Beatriz de Padilla

Beatriz de Padilla was a mulatta woman living in the town of Lagos in the mid-1600s that was accused of murdering a priest serving in the Holy Office of the Inquisition and for driving the lord mayor of Juchipila crazy using magic. To prove these acquisitions, the Tribunal of the Inquisition required Padilla to show up to Mexico City to stand trial while an official investigation was underway. During this trial, it was exposed that the lady who brought allegations up against Padilla was ultimately lying and Padilla successfully defended herself and was acquitted of her crimes.[1] Upon release from jail, Padilla lived a very vocal and content lifestyle that highlighted the freedom contained by women of color like herself to live a lifestyle free of societal concerns or regulations that were often of greater concern to White women. Therefore, Beatriz de Padilla was an inspiring, female figure that stood up for herself in court and survived which was an inspiration to women of color and mixed heritages all around her.

Brujas

Brujas were a term often given to people that were deemed as witches who typically offered natural and home remedies typically aimed at being a Spanish colonial version of birth control along with concocting love potions and spells to find lost items. Ultimately, these potions and remedies were very often not effective at achieving their goal of controlling conception of children and were deemed as purely ignorant by Spanish officials.[1] The term brujas was created with an extremely negative connotation due to the Spanish's strong belief in Catholicism that preached the importance of abstinence regarding preventing childbirth.[2] On top of this, the Catholic Church ultimately deemed the witches as simply ignorant beings but did not always aim to persecute the brujas since they were not directly speaking out against the Catholic faith as were the heretics. Therefore, it can once again be seen that the Catholic Church contained a large amount of societal influence on what was deemed socially acceptable or not. Feiticeiras were the Portuguese version of brujas.

Cabildos

Cabildos were established in the Americas as a council in the town that oversaw the development of newfound Spanish colonies through the distribution of land, oversaw construction, and eliminated stealing and fraud in the colony.[1]

Calidad

Calidad refers to the traits that were examined upon placing a Latin American colonist into a specific rank within the casta system which included determining their exterior appearance, degree of wealth, degree of pure-breed Hispanization, and their ancestry. This system was hugely dependent on society's perception of the individual's status in society and therefore could change overtime as the individual gained or lost status in the sight of others.[1] The introduction of the calidad also often involved the use of judicial systems to prove or disclaim one's ancestry which could restore, destroy, or maintain one's status in society. Therefore, in Spanish colonies, the use of calidad created a socioeconomic hierarchy system which created a desire of improving one's degree of societal status for the sake of their improvement and a better life for their family members while also oppressing groups of society based on superficial aspects of judgment.

Casas de recogimiento

Casas de recogimiento were known as houses of seclusion which were sought out by women who wanted to be set free of their husbands due to potentially abusive marriages or ones where they were simply unhappy. Upon arrive at the casa de recogimiento, the woman could then get members of religious and legal authorities which then publicized the faulty marriage and provided means of leverage by the woman.[1] Through this leverage, the woman could then aim for means of the improving the marriage or eventually reaching an agreement for marriage annulment. These casas de recogimiento were open to women of all races and status and allowed for them to seek out help from societal officials with power and social clout which helped improve the woman's overall relationship wellbeing.[2]

Castas Paintings

Castas Paintings refers to the theme of Mexican paintings during the mid-to-late 18th century which were created in hopes of providing insight into the varying racial combinations found within Spanish colonies during this time-period. Often, these paintings were treated as souvenirs and documentation of the Spanish lifestyle in the Americas which would be shipped and brought overseas back to Europe.[1] These paintings often depicted range of emotions and underlying themes ranging from the glorification of diversity and varying culture in the Americas to the depiction of mestizos and mulattos as inferior peoples that need to be domesticated as if livestock and lesser human beings. Through the castas paintings, it can be further seen that the creation of social hierarchies was further legitimized in the presence of artwork and paintings which depicts the everchanging value of an individual as determined by the Spanish society and their peers.

Catalina de Erauso

Catalina de Erauso was a female Spanish conquistador during the early 1600s that dressed up and concealed herself as a man. Through her tactics of cutting her hair and dressing as a man, Catalina was able to become a Spanish conquistador in Peru where she lived a very exotic and luxurious life. In 1615, Catalina was captured by pirates that then turned her over to the Spanish Inquisition.[1] Due to her life of chastity during her time as a Spanish conquistador, Catalina was released and allowed to continue wearing men's clothing with permission from this Inquisition.[2] Therefore, the Spanish Inquisition was largely focused on one's sexual morality far above other aspects of societal gray areas and that Catalina de Erauso herself was a pioneer for cross-dressers in the Spanish colonies.

Cofradias

Cofradias were confraternities that were created by friars during the late 16th century within Latin American communities as a means of unification of groups under a patron saint identity which allowed for members to receive proper burial services as well as community events such as parties and celebrations. These cofradias were central to evangelization amongst natives and helped bridged native conversion from polytheistic religions to Catholicism.[1] Through the importance of patron saints who were venerated as Catholics who had performed God-given miracles, cofradias were rather comforting institutions of religion for natives who had prioritized the importance of religion and beliefs in the supernatural for centuries prior.[2] Therefore, the creation of cofradias were a rather successful institution of conversion to Catholicism due to appealing to natives' cultural heritage and priorities.

Comunero Revolt

Comunero Revolt occurred in 1781 during which a group of creoles living in modern-day Colombia created a list of grievances they had against the Spanish government officials which included hopes of gaining increased self-governance along with decreasing the power of Spanish monopolies that were ravaging local economies on top of numerous taxes that gouged colonists.[1] The Comunero Revolt was initially successful in eliminating Spanish rule in the area of Socorro, but then officials within New Granada received military reinforcements from Spain and were able to extinguish uprising efforts. Ultimately, the Comunero Revolt organizers were arrested and publicly executed as a public showing of the Spanish power and control.[2] The Comunero Revolt was also important in highlighting the fact that the diverse colonist populations could revolt against the imperial power of the Spanish and would be a building block example for future revolutions.

Diego de Landa

Diego de Landa was a Franciscan friar in the Yucatan Peninsula that was tasked with the conversion of Yucatan Mayas to Catholicism during the 1560s. In 1562, de Landa tortured over 4,000 Mayas in hopes of the Spanish Spiritual Conquest while focusing on the expulsion of native idolatry. Due to the extreme torture and coercion of the Mayas, hundreds died and some even committed suicide to escape further torture.[1] On top of this, de Landa was named the official head of the Indian Inquisition in 1571 which further institutionalized and legitimized the Spanish use of torture, coercion, and harassment to further expand native conversions to Catholicism.[2] Therefore, it can be seen that the horrendous acts committed by Spanish friars such as de Landa were used as a means of spreading and imposing Catholicism amongst indigenous populations.

Don Carlos Ometochtzin

Don Carlos Ometochtzin was the ruler of the indigenous Texcoco people found in central Mexico during the 1530s. As part of the Spanish's Spiritual Conquest, native leaders were prioritized as the first converts to Christianity which included Don Carlos Ometochtzin. In 1539, Don Carlos was arrested by the Spanish Inquisition by which he was charged and incriminated on charges of idolatry to the natives' old gods.[1] Due to the evidence of Don Carlos's hidden articles of worship to polytheistic gods, he was burned at the stake outside of the city. This front and center evidence of religious persecution by the Spanish created a long-lasting debate on the ethics and morality regarding Spanish means of conversion and coercion to Catholicism.[2] Therefore, the harsh murder of Don Carlos highlights the vast methods of expulsion, coercion, and conversion used by the Spaniards during the Spiritual Conquest to convert natives to Catholicism.

Emperor Pedro I

Emperor Pedro I became the regent of Brazil in 1821 when Pedro's father departed for Lisbon in accords with the Portuguese cortes's meeting regarding the future of Brazil as a colony. Per the cortes's decision, Brazil would once again cede many commercial privileges and would need to house Portuguese troops within the garrisons of Brazil which created a newborn sense of nationalism within Brazilians that refused to abide by these new regulations and once again become a powerless colony.[1] Therefore, Pedro I refused the orders by the Portuguese cortes and refused to allow Portuguese fleets to dock in Brazil while also requiring many to pledge their allegiance to the power of Brazil under Pedro I. In early 1822, the Portuguese cortes deemed Pedro and his men as traitors which swiftly prompted Pedro I to claim Brazil as an independent nation in mid-1822 and allowed for Pedro I to become the first emperor of Brazil. This is an extremely important event as Brazil could now regulate their own nation and economy while also receiving acknowledgement from Britain that Brazil was an independent nation.

Encomienda-Mitaya

Encomienda-mitaya was a hybrid Spanish institution created in modern-day Paraguay that worked using rotations of Guarani native men that worked in rotational jobs such as logging, mining, farming, and raising cattle for the Spanish.[1] In exchange for their labor, the native Paraguayan populations received support and defense from other native enemies such as bandeirantes.[2] At this time, the native Guarani population largely outnumbered the Spanish which led to interracial marriages for political unity that led to a hybrid Spanish-Guarani culture. The encomienda-mitaya system is extremely important due to the symbiotic relationship that the groups of people contained which eventually led to a beautiful, complex Guarani culture deeply rooted in Catholicism and Spanish culture.

Enlightenment

Enlightenment was a societal mindset and approach to knowledge within Europe throughout the 18th and 19th centuries which aimed to question the importance of strong governments and authorities and improving sciences based on inductive experiments and observations. On top of this, the Enlightenment movement within Spanish colonies also aimed to improve economic wellbeing through investments in education and technology.[1] On top of this, colonists within New Spain began to question and publicly ridicule the economic strategies by the Spanish Crown which further emphasized the citizens' new appeal at publicly questioning actions of government and authority figures.[2] One important development from the Enlightenment period occurred within Brazil as educated individuals brainstormed new ideas on how to reform political and societal structures in order to pivot away from the slave-based plantation system that the colony originally thrived on. Therefore, the Enlightenment began a transition into an era of questioning authority and previous notions of societal order for the betterment of society. The Enlightenment was largely institutionalized and spread due to artwork, colleges, and teachings in Europe that eventually spread throughout the world.

Francisco de Vitoria

Francisco de Vitoria was a Dominican ruler involved in the Spanish Conquest that personally believed that the Spanish could wage war on the indigenous people of the Americas if they refused Christianity, did not allow Spaniards to live peacefully, or continued cannibalism.

Friars

Friars were evangelists of varying orders(Franciscan, Dominican) that emphasized the importance of converting to the Catholic faith and spread conversion efforts by traveling to remote areas of native populations. To legitimize their efforts of expanding Catholicism, the friars would learn native languages to be able to communicate effectively with native populations.[1]

Fueros

Fueros refers to special privileges that were enjoyed members of Spanish and Portuguese societies within the nobles and clerics groups that made up the top 10% most noble of their societies. These fueros often included benefits such as tax exemptions and benefits while also gave them access to special judicial powers that could help protect them from being persecuted or held in trial for potential crimes.[1] As a result of these fueros, the upper-class members of society in Spanish and Portuguese colonies enjoyed lives extremely distinct from commoners that protected their wealth and provided often lived extremely comfortable and isolated lifestyles that were vastly different than that of commoners within the colonies. Therefore, a reoccurring theme can be seen within the Spanish and Portuguese colonies that allowed for rules and laws that benefitted the highest-ranking members of society while exploiting commoners to lifestyles of intense labor and limited economic and status mobility.

General Indian Court

General Indian Court was utilized by the Mexican natives as a means of rebelling against and resisting Spanish enforcement of rules. The General Indian Court was an institution established by the imperial Spanish but was used by the natives to provide free legal aid and guidance to the Spanish in times of litigation when Spanish attempted to encroach on the legal rights of natives.[1] The Mexican natives relied heavily on the use of litigation against the Spanish especially in times where contention over land and water rights existed between the Spanish and Mexican natives.[2] Therefore, it can be seen that the Mexican indigenous people were extremely civil in contending the conquest and imperial reign by the Spanish authorities and utilized available resources to them such as the General Indian Court to deter and eliminate sources of discrimination by the Spaniards.

Governor-Generals

Governor-Generals in the Americas were established by the Portuguese Empire as local representatives that acted on and enforced Portuguese rules, instructions, and guidance delivered directly from Lisbon such as trade, defense, and land ownership.[1] In 1720, Portuguese governor-generals were renamed as viceroys and became in charge of handling and enforcing local laws and regulations which were handed down from the empowered governors themselves.[2] The position of Spanish viceroys and Portuguese governor-generals highlight the Iberian empires' desire to ensure decentralized ruling and empowerment of the newfound colonies in the Americas and their ultimate desire for successful colonization.

Gracias al sacar

Gracias al Sacar was a royal decree that was first introduced by Bernardo Ramirez who served on the Camara and Council of the Indies that pardoned and requested for an exemption from his previous hereditary claim of being a Pardo. Through this pardon, the precedent for attaining the status of "whiteness" was set and became a title that could be bought from the Spanish Crown that acted as a legitimate pardon from the title of being a Pardo.[1] This exemption from heritage and purchased whiteness was first petitioned in 1783 and became an institutionalized title available for purchase in 1795. This institutionalized practice of "white-washing" society was first utilized as a means of allowing for lower class citizens to attain improve status in society and is a precursor for the modern-day conversations regarding the implications of race's role in societal stereotypes and privilege.

Jose de Galvez

Jose de Galvez was a reformist in the Spanish colonies that aimed to improve the lifestyles of the poor with a legitimized wage system for labor during the late 1700's in New Spain. As part of his efforts within the Bourbon reforms, Galvez worked to improve the equality of workers in Mexico through the creation of a Fine Arts Academy, legitimizing payment agreements for wages, and aimed to eliminate inconsistencies within trade and abuse of the poor.[1] On top of this, Galvez also believed that everyone should have a job and should be paid fairly to ensure a greater public welfare and overall benefit to the Spanish societies in the Americas. Within the Spanish colonies, Galvez also helped improve the existing tax collection through the implementation of increased power of government officials and tax collectors which largely benefitted Spain and the American colonies through increased revenue levels.[2] Ultimately, Galvez played an integral role in the restructuring of New Spain's economy in the late 1700's.

Juan Gines de Sepulveda

Juan Gines de Sepulveda believed that the indigenous people contained sinful cultures of idolatry and polytheism which was enough evidence to wage war on and conquer the natives through reference to Aristotle's natural slavery theory.

Junta de Comercio & Junta de Fazenda

Junta de Comercio is the Board of Trade that was created in Lisbon in 1755 by the new prime minister of Portugal named Marques de Pombal as a means of disrupting the Portuguese colonies' current power structures of economy in hopes of cementing Portugal's role as a global economic powerhouse. On top of this, he also created the Junta de Fazenda which was responsible for monitoring the revenues and expenditures of the colonies.[1] Both Juntas (Boards) worked together to legitimize the Portuguese role of global economic dominance and creating an institutional control over finances within the Portuguese empire. These Juntas are important since they point to the tangible actions taken by the Prime Minister in order to reorganize colonial power dynamics through the creation of government-backed Juntas that legitimized the trading infrastructure of Portugal and their colonies through increased slave trade and monopolized trading companies.[2]

La Noche Triste

La ______________ ______________ occurred on the night of June 30th, 1520 as one of the largest victories for the Aztec people in the Spanish Conquest. During the event, Aztec warriors allowed the Spanish to infiltrate Tenochtitlan's walls where the Spanish were then trapped and rendered ineffective against Aztec attacks.[1] During the fighting that occurred, Moctezuma was presumably struck in the head with a rock and would soon thereafter die. During this battle, Cortes attempted to lead a retreat out of the city which was ultimately unsuccessful. As a result of the hundreds of Spanish soldiers as well as thousands of native allies that died in battle, this day was coined as La Noche Triste by the Spanish.[2] This victory proved to be short-lived for the Aztecs but highlighted the continued struggle for indigenous people choosing whether to treat the Spanish as their allies or enemies.

Limpieza de Sangre

Limpieza de Sangre directly translates from Spanish to the English phrase of "Clean of Blood" which consisted of statutes of Spanish religious institutions which created a religious hierarchy in society based on a person's lineage of religion and Christianity. In earlier chapters, the term of conversos was covered to discuss Jews or Muslim people who converted to Christianity in society to escape religious persecution or death. As a continuation of this trend in Spanish society, the Spanish Inquisition was then created along with military orders and colleges to further legitimize the Limpieza de Sangre institution in society which contained largely negative connotations for non-"pure" Christians. A person's lineage could then be traced back many generations to determine their inherent societal value based on their ancestors' religious preferences.[1] The statutes in Spanish colonies were then applied to create obstacles to reach statuses of nobility in society which required proof of generations of Christian ties as legitimization. Therefore, the Limpieza de Sangre statutes were used as a means of further segregating society based on their religious lineage along with their bloodline lineage and legitimized societal class hierarchies.[2]

Mascara`

Mascara was a themed tradition carried out by the lower status citizens of Latin American colonies which often was aimed at rebelling against the strictly enforced culture of Christian Spain that often-eliminated sources of expression for citizens. The creation of the Mascara parade and festival was a means for the commoners to express their desire to contain cultural freedom and these parades often included slandering of societal norms and bashing of sculptures representing Spanish officials through different forms of public humiliation.[1] The Mascara parade also often included provocative insinuations that were aimed at the pushing the barriers of societal norms regarding sexuality and gender roles. Therefore, the Mascara was an incredibly important source of cultural heritage and vocalization of opinions against the ruling Spaniards which allowed for common Latin Americans to express themselves.

Mem de Sa

Mem de Sa was the Governor-General of the Portuguese colony, Brazil between 1558-1572. During this period, native peoples were uniting to resist the colonization and suppression from European colonizers. The natives had a few victories until Mem de Sa united the Brazilian forces utilized their advantages of horses, armor, and long-range weapons to destroy bands of native groups that spanned the coast Brazil.[1] Next, Mem de Sa's force overthrew French forces and fortresses near Rio de Janeiro and along the coast of Brazil. Eventually, Mem de Sa led the conquest and successful elimination of French settlers and natives found in Brazil.[2] Mem de Sa's leadership is noted as key in providing stability and prosperity to the Portuguese colony of Brazil during the late 16th century.

Mestizaje

Mestizaje is used to signify the topic of societal mixing which was achieved through birthing a child born of both European and African or native descent which was associated with an idea that this mixing would lead to a detriment in society through loss of character and intelligence within the offspring. Therefore, the creation of Mulattos and Mestizos further segregated citizens within Spanish societies as the importance of one's genealogy and heritage grew within the subjective means of Sistema de Castas that controlled social hierarchies.[1] In Spanish colonies, the sense of being a pure-bred Spanish Christian was part of the institutionalized Sistema de Castas which held down generations of mixed citizens in the Spanish colonies from progressing and reaching positions of royalty and high status in society. Therefore, the Mexican and Spanish term of Mestizaje was created and further institutionalized through legitimization by churches and citizens of power in these colonies which further oppressed descendants of mixed cultures.

Mestizos

Mestizos was used to signify colonists of native and Spanish heritages and translated to the term "Mixed". The term mestizo also originated from a zoological connotation which created a sense of societal inferiority for those in this category.[1] These three categories within the Sistema de Castas highlights the Spanish heightened sense of superiority that was legitimized through demeaning classes and associated social implications of being lesser humans.

Miguel Hidalgo

Miguel Hidalgo was a Mexican priest in the cities of Valledolid and Dolores that created a public outcry that demanded for the Mexicans' revolt against the Spanish imperial rule. Miguel Hidalgo himself desired for a greater political authority and autonomy by the Mexican people along with greater equality for Mexican creoles within public offices of authority on top of increased exposure to international goods and markets.[1] On top of this, Hidalgo believed in true equality amongst Spanish-born and American-born citizens in Mexico which acted as a large rallying call for underserved populations. Hidalgo himself organized a militia of around eighty thousand colonists that raided and attacked Mexico City and Guadalajara. Eventually Hidalgo was captured, tried, found guilty on a plethora of charges, and executed by hanging in 1811.[2] Miguel Hidalgo was pivotal in organizing the Mexican colonists' efforts against the Spanish rule and ignited an internal passion amongst the Mexican population that would eventually lead to Mexican independence.

Mining

Mining was another important facet of labor imposed in the Americas due to the valuable metals such as gold and silver which could be mined and then shipped back to the European mother country. Gold mining itself contained mainly practices of panning and washing in soil and riverbeds and required little infrastructure.[1] On the other hand, silver production required large amounts of machinery and labor to isolate and purify the silver from large ore chunks which limited silver production.[2]

Mita

Mita was a laborious system that the Spanish adopted to make native populations work in the mines as laborers to produce precious metals. In response, Tupac Amaru led the Great Andean Rebellion in response to this to protest this long-forbidden imposition on native populations and was even explicitly stated within the Spanish Laws of the Indies.[1] On top of this, Tupac Amaru also highlighted the huge inefficiencies within the mining system due to its dependence on the mita system and claims that mining output for the Spanish Crown was be more fruitful if it depended on other forms of labor such as slavery.[2] Tupac Amaru also specifically appeals to the Spanish government by highlighting numerous Ordinances and Decrees of Spanish rulings that support his claims in eliminating mita labor within the mines. Therefore, this shows that native groups attempted to appeal to Spanish sovereignty through civil reason but were forced to resort to forceful rebellions when petitions for reasonable change failed.

Mixton War

Mixtón War began in 1540 and lasted until 1542 as an act of rebellion by the Mexican natives located in New Galicia where there was a strong hatred present for the Spanish due to an extensive history of forced labor and economic "extortion" of American native populations. This uprising first began due to the preaching of native priests that proclaimed Christianity as a religion that should be abandoned and replaced by the pantheon of native gods which enticed large populations of Mexican natives. Therefore, the Mixton War was ultimately a war against Christianity and Spanish culture.[1] The result of the months of fighting between the Spanish and Mexican natives was an ultimate victory for the Spanish conquerors, but also a newfound spark of rebellion within the Spanish colonies that would spread and grow across other colonies and native populations while also emphasizing the importance of religion amongst native populations.

Mulatto

Mulatto was created to signify someone of a black-white heritage which often carried largely negative undertones. The term mulatto was also derived from relation to ugly mules which created a social stereotype for mulattos as being animal-like.[1]

Padroado

Padroado was the Portuguese council that oversaw the actions of the Catholic Church amongst the natives which included the control of missionaries and evangelization efforts as determined by papal decrees.[1] The Patronato Real and the Padroado were both important due to the papal decrees and councils that legitimized the power and status of the Catholic Church in the colonization efforts of the Americas.

Pardos

Pardos signified someone of mixed African-European descent living within Brazilian cities that often worked as lower-class wage workers and artisans. These workers were the backbone of the Brazilian economy while working labor-intensive jobs along with dealing with low economic and social mobility.[1]

Patronato Real

Patronato Real is the Spanish phrase for "royal patronage" which stood for the Spanish Crown's control of the Church in the newfound colonies in the Americas through the inspiration of being responsible of the conversion of natives while also overseeing the finances and education of the Catholic Church in the Americas.[1] Laid out in a series of papal bulls, the Spanish Crown was also in charge of founding new churches, hospitals, and providing licenses for clerics to travel to the Americas.[2]

Peninsulares & creoles

Peninsulares was the name given to Spaniards residing in the Spanish colonies that were born in Spain whereas Creoles were colonists of Spanish descent which were born in the Americas. This distinction between the two classes of people were highlighted and emphasized by the Spanish Monarch's desire to retain the pure-blood Spanish lineage in the colonies.[1] Within the Spanish colonies, the peninsulares were first-class citizens and the creoles were deemed second-class citizens. In 1776, the Spanish King ordered for allocations of equal amounts of creoles and peninsulares to hold positions within the Mexican Church which created a minimum quota system that ultimately angered many creoles as they felt the peninsulares were already heavily favored in society.[2] Therefore, the Spanish Monarchy including figures of reformation such as Jose de Galvez aimed to diversify the roles and hierarchical statuses of Spanish societies within the Bourbon reforms during the late 18th century.

Regalism

Regalism was a trending policy that Spain and Portugal pushed during the late 1700's which aimed to expand the power and control of the monarchies at the expense of other organizations and groups within the colonies. One of the ways that this power was expanded was through the expulsion of groups such as Jesuits from the Church to create a secular society that no longer connected the church and state as one unified power.[1] One example of this can be seen through the expulsion of Jesuits by Charles III since the Society of Jesus refused to acknowledge the supreme authority of the Spanish Crown which posed an immediate threat to Spanish authority. The Spanish Monarchy demonstrated their power in dismantling the power of the church through powers such as placing peninsulares as priests and bishops directly into power which highlighted an additional facet of the discrimination and power dynamics existing in Spanish society during the later 18th century.

Repartimiento

Repartimiento was a societal system in the Spanish colonies that began flourishing in the 1570s which allowed for native peoples to buy mules, goods, and food on credit from the corregidors on credit while completing forced manual labor.[1] The implementation of the repartimiento system also allowed for mutually beneficial relationships between corregidors, natives, and local elites as they began to operate in manners that were helpful to all aspects of their colony and reduced tensions between social classes.[2] On the other hand, the repartimiento system, in some parts called mita, required extremely labor-intensive work that often decimated native populations due to continued spread of disease.[3] Therefore, the use of the repartimiento and mita systems further decimated native populations due to horrific labor and lethal diseases which in turn made slave labor more valuable and sought after.

Reparto

Reparto was a system passed in the mid-18th century within Spanish colonies which forced native populations to buy goods from merchants and was enforced by the corregidores within the colonies. Refusal to buy these often unnecessary and expensive items from the merchants were punishable by jail time or being forced into slave work labor to "pay" for owed debts to the Spanish Crown.[1] This abomination of an injustice against the native populations were heavily employed to exploit the populations at the benefit of the Spanish Crown. Therefore, the reparto system was another source of extreme exploitation and manipulation of the native populations within Spanish colonies along with the regional enforcement by corrupt provincial corregidores.[2]

Republic of Indians

Republic of Indians was a term used to describe the political division of citizens within their newfound American colonies between the native "Indians" and the Spanish. Therefore, each group lived in their own segment of society that was self-regulated and relatively independent of the other ethnic group. Within the Republic of Indians, most natives lived in semi-autonomous pueblos that were small and respected the traditional cultures of indigenous peoples which prioritized the importance of religious elders as well as a patriarchy-oriented election of local leaders.[1] The implementation of the Republic of Indians by the Spanish allowed for native groups to retain their hereditary culture and collect tributary payments from native groups while maintaining relatively peaceful relations between the natives and Spanish.[2] Ultimately, the Republic of Indians system provided unity between the colonists and natives which allowed for prosperity of the newfound colonies.

Sheep

Sheep were first introduced to Mexico in the 1520s as part of animals that Europeans brought to the Americas in the Columbian Exchange. The sheep were first introduced to the Valley of Mezquital which was a lush farmland for agriculture that included crops such as corn, beans, and cactus. After their introduction, the population of sheep in the area grew by millions which devastated local crops, led to deforestation, and even displaced native populations while completing changing the local ecology.[1] In another instance, large sheep populations led to erosion of cliffs and edges due to the overgrazing from sheep which destroyed large chunks of land in the Andes.[2] The ecological destruction due to the rapid population boom of sheep in new environments highlights the devastation that was brought to the Americas through the Columbian Exchange that would forever reshape the Americas and change the lifestyles of the indigenous inhabitants.

Sirvinacuy

Sirvinacuy was a practice common to the native people in the Peruvian Andes that allowed for young men and women to undergo "trial marriages" that would be tested through the birthing of a child to see if the couple were compatible for a long-term marriage.[1] However, this practice was highly discouraged by the Catholic Church within Spanish colonies since pre-marital sex and childbirth outside of marriage was considered a sin. The practice of sirvinacuy was believed by the natives to be a bonding experience between a couple and an important aspect within their native religion regarding childbirth.[2] Therefore, it can once again be seen that there is a huge difference in ideology between natives and the Spanish Catholic Church regarding childbirth and families during the age of Spanish colonialism in Latin America.

Sistema de Castas

Sistema de Castas was a societal system that began to flourish during the mid-1500's due to the presence of a largely expanding Spanish society that was vastly intermixing with native and African populations while more Spanish colonists arrived in the American colonies. The Sistema de Castas was influenced by a desire to segregate society in a way that provided a low-wage labor force that was deemed inferior by society to accommodate for the declining native population.[1] On top of this, hierarchical levels were created such as "Mestizos" and "Mulattos" which worked as a way of grouping people together based on their outwardly appearances, heritage, and bloodline. The Sistema de Castas was also further legitimized by the practice of Mexican churches creating separate files of birth, marriage, and death documents depending on the person's classification.[2] Therefore, the Sistema de Castas was a means of societal organization for the sake of creating low-wage labor that was further legitimized thanks to the enforcement of church records and organizations based on classification.

Smallpox

Smallpox was a disease brought overseas by the Spaniards and Portuguese to the Americas during the 16th century which first arrived in Hispaniola by 1518, reached Peru by 1527, and reached Brazil in the 1620s. Smallpox was incredibly infectious and spread very easily among the indigenous populations due to their ultimate isolation from different cultures and peoples which often allows for immunities to be built by humans' immune systems. Europeans, Africans, and Asians had been trading for centuries due to the Silk Road and presence of infrastructure in the vast Roman Empire which allowed for typical immunities to pathogens like smallpox.[1] Therefore, smallpox decimated large portions of indigenous populations due to rapid transmission and lack of immunity which ultimately aided the Spanish Conquest in the Americas.

Sodomy

Sodomy is the act of anal intercourse that often involves homosexual relations and, in some cases, also includes bestiality. This classification of sexual activities became increasingly important after the declaration of the Edicts of Trent which further defined what was acceptable means of sexual relations which simply limited God-pleasing relations to those of a man and woman aiming to achieve childbirth.[1] The aim to eliminate sodomy within society was further institutionalized through the Spanish Inquisition which would investigate allegations against those performing immoral sexual acts especially amongst commoners.[2] Once again, the importance of looking into the act of sodomy within the Spanish colonial time period is due to the institutionalized role that the Catholic Church played in controlling the lifestyles and family dynamic of colonial citizens that was enforced by the Spanish Inquisition. Executions for sodomy were common in 17th century Peru.

Sugar

Sugar was a largely valuable good produced mainly on plantations in Brazil. Due to the intensive labor and upfront capital costs for sugar production, the slave trade was expanded to suit increased demand for sugar in the Americas as well as in Europe.[1] Over time, sugar became the staple product of Brazil which required a continual investment in the growth of slave imports.

Caracas Company Monopoly

The Caracas Company monopoly was created during the Bourbon reforms as a means of strengthening the economic output of the Spanish colonies in this case within the cacao industry. However, the colonists highly disliked the Caracas Company monopoly since it was extremely inefficient at supplying imports and goods to the colonies and oftentimes would provide low market prices for goods. Therefore, this monopoly company led to a rise in the price of consumer goods along with the prevention of imported goods from other European countries which would have lowered goods costs for the colonial consumers.[1] In response to these atrocities against the colony, a group of cacao producers rebelled against the Caracas Company in 1749 in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to disband the Caracas Company. However, one important result of this uprising by cacao producers was the belief that common colonists could stand up against the imperial Spanish powers which would be a pivotal growth in mindset in the coming years throughout the Spanish colonies.

The Council of the Indies

The Council of the Indies was created in 1524 as a localized form of ruling in the Americas which was the 3rd most powerful council in the Spanish Empire. This council worked to make decisions regarding politics, finances, legislation, and oversaw the Catholic Church in the Americas.[1] The Council of the Indies is another example of Spain's creation of decentralized power in the Americas that functioned to improve the Spanish Monarchy.

French and Haitian Revolutions

The French Revolution began in 1789 and largely affected Spain and its colonies due to the Spanish Crown's fall to potential bankruptcy along with the ceding of Louisiana to France and Trinidad to Britain. Once Napoleon Bonaparte took control of France, Spain lost a firm grip on the Spanish colonies in the Americas which was then followed by a new constitution written in 1812 which allowed for increased power of colonial locals in Spanish colonies.[1] On top of this, the Haitian Revolution began in 1791 as an African slave-led uprising that was led by Toussaint Louverture and eventually led to Haiti's independence in 1804. The English, French, and Spanish armies all tried to suppress the Haitian Revolution but were all unsuccessful.[2] Therefore, the French Revolutions political revolution through their drafted constitution by 1793 along with the newfound Spanish constitution in 1812 due to the French Revolution and the Haitian's "revolution of the masses" sparked an inspiration and vision of independence from European imperialism across many American colonies.

Great Andean Rebellion

The Great Andean Rebellion was an uprising that occurred in 1780 and lasted until 1784 in large portions of South America along the Pacific Coast that aimed to expel the ruling of Spanish peninsulares and government officials which represented the imperial control of the Spanish government. One of the Great Andean Rebellion leaders was Tupac Amaru whom claimed to be a descendant of Inca royalty along with other rebellion leaders such as Tomas Katari and Tupac Katari also led revolts against the brutal and tyrannous actions of Spanish regional leaders.[1] All three of these leaders were relatively unsuccessful in their rebellions but ignited a passion for mixed and underserved communities to revolt against the imperial power of the Spanish government. One of the most important and inspiring results of the Great Andean Rebellion was the newfound age of imperial rebellion that was fueled by the understand that Spanish colonies were extremely diverse and multi-ethnic, and that "inferior" minorities were extremely powerful when they acted together in unison.

The Inquisition

The Inquisition was an effort by Spaniards during the 1570s to eliminate the impurities present within the newfound forms of the Catholic faith that were often created due to the convergence of Protestant faiths with Catholicism. As a means of enforcing religious purity, the Spanish created tribunals which were institutions that functioned using judges, investigators, and examiners which heard trials of heresy and false teachings against the Catholic faith. However, the Inquisition exempted natives from such trials due to the Spanish Crown's belief that natives did not possess mental or moral capacity to understand the full capacity of Catholic teachings and traditions.[1] Portugal also established an Inquisition system in the 1590s that was much smaller and less widespread than the Spanish Inquisition.[2] Therefore, it can be seen that the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions were a means of further legitimizing the grasp of Catholicism in newfound American colonies while expelling any traces of supposedly inferior religions such as Protestantism or Judaism.

The Intendancy System

The Intendancy System was created and instituted through the help of Jose de Galvez within Spain and the Spanish colonies to eliminate the hierarchical abuse of district administrators through the creation of a more transparent and orderly layer of colonial administration. This system was instituted in a number of colonies such as Cuba, Louisiana, Peru, Chile, and many others during the late 1700's.[1] The goal behind the intendancy system was to create the position of delegates and subdelegates to help organize tax collection, finances, and overall societal order. This system saw a variety of successes such as the implementation of more diverse city councils and improvement of public services as well as ultimate failures in Peru and in the countryside of New Spain.[2] Therefore, the intendancy system highlighted another attempt within the Bourbon Reforms to legitimize control over the colonies' economy and civil statuses of rank in hopes of improving the wellbeing of the Spanish Crown.

The Middle Passage

The Middle Passage was the journey across the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to the Americas by ship which often lasted months at a time. The route was used to refer to the slave trade of African men and women to the Americas as slave labor. Often, the Africans were chained up and clustered together in tight groups on tiny boats with miniscule rations and water.[1] On top of the lack of proper nutrition, these voyages often included large amounts of diseases which easily spread due to poor sanitation and close living-quarters of slaves on the ship.[2] Through the expansion of slave trade during the 18th century, prominent cities and ports were created along the coast to allow for reception and nursing of slaves that had recently undergone the voyage across the Middle Passage. The months-long journey was deadly for most and highlights one of many inhumane facets of trans-Atlantic slave trade.

The Overseas Council

The Overseas Council was created by the Portuguese in 1642 which cooperated with council members in Lisbon to review and influence political affairs for the entire Portuguese Empire including Brazil.[1] The Council of the Indies and the Overseas Council are both examples of how the Iberian empires attempted to ensure successful management and colonization of the newfound civilization in the Americas despite being physically separated by the Atlantic Ocean.

Spiritual Conquest

The Spiritual Conquest is a term used by historians to describe the efforts of the Iberian empires to spread Christianity through the Latin American colonies, especially Mexico, during the 16th-18th centuries. To achieve their goal of total conversion by native to Catholicism, the friars largely focused on converting noblemen and local leaders so that they in turn would inspire native commoners to convert as well.[1] Ultimately, the friars and missionaries of the Catholic faith desired to eliminate traces of inferior religions and idolatry in native religions which led to the creation of the Indian Inquisition. To enforce the expulsion of idolatry and polytheistic beliefs, the Spanish often resorted to violent methods of conversion which included torture, coercion, and public humiliation.[2] As a result of the Spiritual Conquest, many native religions converged with Catholicism to create localized, hybrid religions that differed amongst regions because of the regionalized efforts of conversion by the Spanish friars that helps explain today's large variability of Catholicism throughout Latin America.

War of Spanish Succession

The War of Spanish Succession lasted from 1703-1713 which featured sides of the Spanish and French versus the British, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the Roman Empire. This war was fought due to the ailing Spanish Emperor Charles II's choice of a French prince named Phillipe of Anjou to become the heir to the Spanish throne. The other European countries believed that this heir would lead to a mighty and unified Spanish and French powerhouse nation.[1] As a result of this war, the British colonies gained access to the markets in Spanish colonies and access to contracts for Trans-Atlantic slave trade while King Philip V was crowned as the Spanish Monarch and began the era of Bourbon Spain.[2] This war further highlighted the Spanish's poorly managed control of their American colonies along with set the stage for the Bourbon reforms of the Spanish colonies while further decaying relations between the British and Spanish.

Inca

The ______________ Empire existed in modern-day South America and stretched from Ecuador south to Chile and reigned during the 15th and 16th centuries. The ______________ emperors contained a desire to expand their empire as far as possible to ensure that all inhabitants of the Andean region could be as civilized as the Incans.[1] The ______________ Empire favored the form of a centralized ruler and required that all conquered tribes paid tribute to the emperor in the form of manual labor, military service, as well as forced migrations and civil service project completion. There was a desire for homogeneity within the massive Incan empire to maintain control over previously conquered peoples. The most fascinating piece about the ______________ Empire is the use of the Inca Road to facilitate regional travel, trade, and transportation of goods.[2] The ______________ were an incredibly sophisticated people for their time that understood how to expand an imperial empire for the sake of their emperor's glory and power.

Encomienda System

The ______________ system was institutionalized by the Spanish in the indigenous colonies and kingdoms that they conquered which involved encomenderos as protectors of the natives who were then required to be laborers and pay tribute to the Spanish monarchy. As a reward for their successful conquests, Spanish conquistadors often received ______________ systems in their name as tribute to their success which would allow for native laborers and a source of local income.[1] The ______________ system was successful in suppressing native people and often led to their extermination due to extended periods of contact with the Spanish which led to transmission of deadly diseases. The ______________ system further perpetuated social hierarchies found in the Americas which boosted the status and wealth of Spanish encomenderos at the expense of native laborers.[2]

Mexica & Aztecs

The ______________ were a strong, warlike people that existed in central Mexico and were rising in power during the 12th and 13th centuries. Eventually, the Mexica people traveled south and ended up settling on land in the middle of Lake Texcoco to soon form the powerful capital Tenochtitlan.[1] From around 1325-1425, the Mexica acted as local mercenaries and expanded their power by aiding in other people's war affairs. In 1427, the king of Mexica formed the Triple Alliance with the cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan leading to the formation of the ______________ Empire. The formation of the ______________ led to a period of regional dominance as the ______________ required neighboring tribes to pledge allegiance to the Aztecs while also demanding tributes in the form of goods as well as blood sacrifices.[2] The dominance of the Aztecs in modern-day Mexico is an important example of regional imperialism that thrived on allowing for cultural heterogeneity while requiring a common allegiance to the reigning king of the Aztecs.

Tlaxcalans

The ______________ were one of the first groups that the Spanish fought against on their road to conquer Tenochtitlan. In 1519, the Tlaxcalans and the Spanish battled for eighteen days which resulted in the massacre of hundreds of indigenous warriors. Ultimately, the war chiefs of Tlaxcalan decided to save their people and form an alliance with the Spanish conquerors.[1] The Tlaxcalans are important since they are the first group of indigenous people to decide to work together peacefully with the Spanish as allies. In 1535, a formal reward and official documents of allegiance to the Spanish Crown reached the Tlaxcalans in a new era of formalized, mutually beneficial arrangements between natives and the Spanish that were made official through the offering of women in arranged marriages to symbolize unity between the two groups.[2]

Choco

The ________________lived in western Colombia and resisted conquest from Francisco Pizarro and other conquerors who were in search of gold. The ________________'s strong military forces as well as tactics such as poisoned arrows and surprise attacks were the source of their strength in resistance.

Izta

The ________________people were an independent Mayan kingdom that resisted conquest by the Spanish through isolated existence in far removed villages and colonies deep within forested lands. The Spanish had deemed the homeland of the ________________as ultimately uninhabitable which partially led to the Iztas extended reign of independence.[1] The ________________, ________________, and ________________people were all impressive kingdoms that resisted Spanish Conquest for centuries.

Tooth Pullers' Conspiracy/*Inconfidência Mineira*

Tooth Pullers' Conspiracy/*Inconfidência Mineira* was known as the first true cry for independence within Brazil and began in 1789 within the capital of Minas Gerais. This conspiracy for independence was organized by a group of twelve men that were inspired by the American Revolution and teachings from the European Enlightenment.[1] Ultimately, the uprising was supposed to take place through an assassination of the royal governor along with a decree of independence. However, the plan was eventually ousted and betrayed which led to authority suppression by the Portuguese. One of the twelve conspirators Jose de Silva Xavier was ultimately charged with crimes punishable by death and was publicly executed in 1792.[2] Silva Xavier became a martyr figure for the independence of the Brazilian people and further ignited a desire for freedom from imperialism for all members of the social hierarchy in Brazil. The Toothpullers' Conspiracy would become yet another pivotal moment in the desire for freedom from European rule within the Americas.

Viceroys

Viceroys in the Americas were established by the Spanish Monarchy that oversaw the general improvements of Spanish societies in the Americas. The viceroys acted as tax collectors, project managers for public works, peacekeepers, and religious officials supporting the Catholic faith.[1]

Alcaldes Mayores/Corregidor

Within the Spanish colonies, there were also roles as the provincial administrator known as Alcaldes Mayores or Corregidor which were a single-term position that was sold by the Spanish Crown to men of high status which often included trade skills or military experience. Often, these men would have to borrow money from local businesses and residents to raise enough capital for the appointment to become Corregidor.[1] Therefore, Cabildos and Corregidors are examples of high-ranking officials and councils created to ensure the successful construction, expansion, and functionality of newfound Spanish colonies in the Americas.

"A kingdom made of cities"

______________ ______________ is a saying that was coined by Juan Pablo Martir Rizo who was a Spanish historian.[1] This phrase was used to signify the fact that Castile operated as a kingdom of city-states that regulated their own local government, but also engaged and cooperated with the national government. This engagement between local and national governments is extremely impressive for the 15th and 16th centuries and was first incorporated during the Roman occupation of Iberia centuries before. The importance of this type of governing body found in Castile is an early precedent for ensuring all people and nations are represented in the national government which allowed for the reigning monarchs to maintain peace and unity within Spain.[2]

Sebastian Toral

______________ ______________ was a black, African conquistador who lived in the Spanish colony of Yucatan in the mid-16th century. ______________ was a special man due to his role as a previous slave that fought alongside the Spanish conquerors in aiming to fight and conquer the Mayans.[1] As a citizen of African descent, ______________ was required to pay a special tax to the Spanish monarchy. Infuriated, Toral sailed to Spain to protest this tax that placed him as low as the Mayans that he had fought against in aid of the Spanish. ______________ is an incredibly important man as he wished to positively change relations between African slaves and European colonizers by advocating for a sense of equality through the title of a Spanish Conqueror and the elimination of the tribute tax.[2] ______________ is an inspiring man that fought to improve the lives of his descendants and those from a similar background as himself which makes him a civil rights activist of his time.

Hernando Cortes & Francisco Pizarro

______________ ______________ was the leader of the Spanish forces that dismantled and destroyed the Aztec Empire using horses, steel armor, cannons, and native American allies such as the Tlaxcalans. In the skirmishes with the Aztecs, ______________ 's soldiers used guerilla warfare tactics such as burning villages, attacking in the middle of the night, and forming blockades to weaken the Aztec defenses.[1] Ultimately, in 1521, ______________ ______________ led the Spanish to defeat the Aztec empire in Tenochtitlan. ______________ ______________ was a Spanish conqueror who was pivotal in expanding the Spanish conquest south from Panama to challenge the Inca Empire. Upon arrival in Peru, Pizarro encountered the emperor Atawallpa and captured him in a surprise attack that was fatal for the Incans. Pizarro's use of horses, Spanish armor, and technological advances led to the continued success for Spanish conquerors in South America and cemented Pizarro in a similar light as Cortes as one of the greatest Spanish conquerors of all time.

Atlantic Creole Cultures

______________ are communities of native African peoples who had extensive contact with European culture during the 15th and 16th centuries. The term "Atlantic creole" was used to describe the mixing of African and European cultures and the spread of Christianity, European cuisine, and Portuguese within these native African groups.[1] This mixing of cultures led to Africans gaining European traits especially in Angola and Kongo, where the Portuguese were most prevalent. Initially, the elites and nobles in these kingdoms desired to gain access to European culture as a sign of increased status and nobility. However, once Portugal ramped up the slave trade within West Central Africa, the Atlantic Creole cultures simply became a highly desirable group who had already been introduced to and homogenized into the Portuguese culture before being sold in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.[2] This injection of European culture into African culture prior to the booming industry of slave trade in the Americas highlights how European countries such as Portugal were able to spread their language, religion, and culture so effectively by using their wealth and status to their advantage.

Nonsedentary

______________ are truly nomadic and constantly traveled in pursuit of access to untouched geographical advantages such as rivers and included the Tehuelche and the Mexica.[1]

Concentrated Sedentary

______________ is a permanent lifestyle that depended on stationary housing and agriculture to thrive as part of a larger empire-like nation. Examples of concentrated sedentary cultures include the Aztecs and the Incas

West Central Africa

______________ is a region far south of the Saharan desert and along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. This region was mainly inhabited by the Kongo kingdom in the 15th and 16th centuries which consisted of a conglomeration of local, Bantu tribes.[1] The Kongo rose to power during the 15th century due to the kingdom's close ties and involvement with Portugal. At first, the Kongo and Portugal started out as diplomatic, trade, and religious allies that worked together in hopes of creating a mutually beneficial alliance. However, over time the Portuguese government and military began expanding their influence by manipulating the Kongo and exploiting their citizens as slaves in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. The Portuguese ignored all complaints of an expanding slave trade market and even began setting up slave-trade ports south of Kongo. Eventually, West Central Africa would be the origin place of nearly 5 million slaves involved in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.[2] The Portuguese deceived a local, African kingdom with promises of wealth, power, and prestige and exploited millions of native Africans creating a slave trade economy between ______________ and the Portuguese colony of Brazil over the span of multiple centuries that led to the downfall of Kongo.

Conversos

______________ is a term used in both Spain and Portugal used to label citizens who had chosen to convert from either Judaism or Islam to Christianity. ______________ were also labeled as "New Christians". However, the reason that these citizens converted to Christianity was out of fear for losing their belongings and lifestyles in Iberia. In 1492, Queen Isabel and King Ferdinand of Spain issued a decree requiring that all Jews either convert to Christianity or face expulsion from the country.[1] Manuel I of Portugal also issued a similar decree in 1497 requiring Jews to become baptized and accept Christianity of be expelled from the country.[2] In 1502, Muslims were also forced to become ______________ in Spain. The importance of this forced-hand conversion is the social impacts in society as new tiers of a societal hierarchy were created that created turmoil and tension between "original" Christians and New Christians. This newfound form of discrimination was being catalyzed by the actions of the Iberian governments and led to the further normalized justification of social discrimination based on religion.

Hispaniola

______________ is one of the islands found within the Greater Antilles chain of islands. Hispaniola was discovered by Christopher Columbus, an explorer sailing under sponsorship by the Spanish kingdom, in 1493. Columbus's initial goal was to reach the continent of Asia by sailing west from Europe but encountered the land of modern-day Bahamas.[1] As a result of his misconception, Columbus began referring to the native Taino population as "Indians" since he believed he had landed in India. Hispaniola would become home to the first European town formed in the Americas and news of this successful exploration across the Atlantic Ocean would be the start to decades of exploration, conquest, and colonization by European nations for decades to come. Hispaniola was also led by Columbus to be modeled after Spanish city-states and Portuguese trading posts which also highlights the theme of colonizing the Americas as a way of bringing honor and glory to the respective mother country.

"Indian"

______________ is the coined phrase that originated during the late 15th century upon Columbus's arrival to the modern-day Greater Antilles islands used to identify and group together the native, indigenous people in the Americas. This term is one used out of ignorance to group together all indigenous people as an act to deem the natives as an inferior group that is not worth paying close attention to.[1] This phrase is rooted in incorrectness as the term was created due to Columbus believing that he had found a western sea route to India and East Asia. Therefore, this derogatory term created a superiority complex within the European explorers as they deemed themselves to be God-sent saviors for the indigenous people that the Europeans ultimately knew little about. This term highlights the reoccurring theme of ignorance and self-imposed superiority by European settlers upon their arrival in the Americas.

El Cid

______________ is the pseudonym of Reconquest mercenary Rodrigo Diaz who soon became the hero in one of Castile's epic poems.[1] During this epic, Diaz is depicted as a strong, mighty warrior who rides on a beautiful horse while exterminating Iberian Muslims. The epic of El Cid was used as a source of nationalism and expansionism for the Christian Iberians and aimed to depict the removal of Muslims from Iberia as a goal for the glory of Christianity.[2] Another source for religious nationalism was Santiago who was depicted as a war hero that helped the King of Asturias defeat Iberian Muslims. Santiago became a source of inspiration for conquistadors looking to exterminate and conquer inferior civilizations and cultures for hundreds of years.[3] Both El Cid and Santiago are crucial to understanding the desire of expansion and conquest by Iberian Christians both during and after the Reconquest that was fueled by an extreme sense of nationalistic pride for their kingdoms and their Christianity.

Segmented Sedentary

______________ lifestyle also relies on stationary, permanent housing, and agriculture to survive, but were not part of a larger empire. Some examples of segmented sedentary societies include the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs

Semisedentary

______________ lifestyles involved some sustained agriculture, but also included hunting and gathering as needed for consumption and religious rituals. These groups would occasionally move to a new location in pursuit of wild animals and crops and include the Tupi as well as the Taino

Maya

______________ was a civilization that existed from around 200 A.D. to the 16th century upon when European explorers arrived and was in central America ranging from Honduras up to southern Mexico. This civilization consisted of numerous city-states that acted as regional rivals competing for increased power, land, and authority within the Mayan civilization.[1] The Mayan empire is one of most impressive civilizations in Mesoamerica at this time due to their ability to engineer specialized irrigation systems, buildings and monuments used in religious rituals[2], as well as a complete, sophisticated writing system using hieroglyphics.[3] The significance behind the Mayan Empire is the fact that they were a well-sophisticated people contrary to the European settlers' beliefs that had been thriving in the arts of agriculture, architecture, language, and religion for centuries.

Treaty of Tordesillas

______________ was an agreement signed in 1494 between the Spanish and Portuguese governments to agree upon a newfound north-south demarcation line which denoted that all land east of the line belonged to Spain and all land west of the line belonged to Portugal. This treaty was signed out of a negative reaction to a previous declaration in 1493 by Pope Alexander VI which gave Portugal significantly less territory than Spain.[1] Spain was willing to sign this treaty to avoid conflict and war with the Portuguese so that they themselves could focus on further conquest and colonization in the Americas. This treaty was ultimately effective is alleviating tension between Spain and Portugal and gave significant land in South America that is part of modern-day Brazil as a colony to Portugal.[2] This treaty acted as a significant example of successful, international diplomacy between European countries during this newborn age of exploration and colonization within the Americas.

Atawallpa

______________ was the Sapa Inka of the Incan Empire in 1532 after a contested throne between him and his brother Huascar threw the Incans into further civil war. Atawallpa possessed the mighty army of the Incas that he used to trample his brother's power. Later, Atawallpa crossed paths with Francisco Pizarro's troops in the valley of Cajamarca.[1] The Incans were expecting a friendly encounter with these Spanish and even sent them peaceful offerings of food and housing. However, the Spanish deceived the indigenous people and held ______________ as a captive. To pay ransom for his life, ______________ ordered large amounts of gold and silver to be delivered to Pizarro for the freedom of the Sapa Inka.[2] However, in a treacherous act, Atawallpa was executed in 1533. This sad legacy of Atawallpa highlights the decline of native American power relative to Europeans and once again demonstrates the sickening actions undertaken by the Spanish conquerors in pursuit of wealth, power, and prestige.

Tenochtitlan

______________ was the capital city of the Mexica people found in central Mexico near Lake Texcoco which thrived from the 15th to 16th centuries as a land of commerce, power, and religious gatherings. Ruled by Emperor Moctezuma, the Aztec empire had many neighboring allies as well as many foes who despised the Aztecs. In 1519, direct interactions between the Spanish conquerors and the people of Tenochtitlan began as Hernando Cortes planned on seizing and capturing the capital city of the Aztecs.[1] Tenochtitlan was the battleground between the Aztecs and the Spanish and their indigenous allies for about two years before the Spanish were victorious in killing Moctezuma and wiping out the Aztecs living there. The fall of Tenochtitlan was significant in highlighting the significant rise in power for the Spanish and the continued demise of the indigenous people as a powerful Mesoamerican empire was demolished at the hands of the Spanish weapons, disease, and military power.[2]

Huiztilopochtli

______________ was the patron god for the Aztecs and specifically the city of Tenochtitlan as part of their polytheistic pantheon. ______________ led the Aztec people south during their migration in 1325 to the infamous Lake Texcoco which would become the heart of the Aztec empire for the next century.[1] As the Aztec's power expanded through imperial domination, the art of making human sacrifices to Huiztilopochtil also grew as these tributes to the patron god of the Aztecs became more important. The sacrifices of human hearts and heads to ______________ became the driving force of motivation for the Aztecs to continue their expansionism and the means of justification for conquering neighboring nations.[2] This is yet another example during the 15th century in the world that religion is being used as a means of justification for conquest, expansionism, and violence that is very similar to the Castilian Reconquest concurrently happening in Iberia.

Tupac Amaru I

________________ I was the last surviving Sapa Inka and resided in the remaining Inca kingdom that was found in Vilcabama. In 1572, the Peruvian viceroy named Francisco de Toledo aided in the surprise attack and capturing of Tupac Amaru as part of a swift change in ideology of Spanish policy regarding indigenous people.[1] Eventually, Francisco de Toledo placed the Sapa Inka on trial where he was convicted and sentenced to death. In 1572, Tupac Amaru I was executed in the central plaza of Vilcabama in a gruesome death that illustrated and signified the completed conquest of the South American Incan Empire by the Spanish.[2] The gruesome execution signified the final defeat of the Incan Empire that had resisted the Spanish conquerors for over 40 years and resulted in Spanish colonies spanning the entirety of South America.

Bandeirantes

________________ were Brazilian conquistadors during the 1600s that would act as mercenaries on slave-capturing missions to find indigenous group in the interior regions of Brazil. These captured slaves would then be sold to large cities to work as field workers especially in sugar plantations.[1] The ________________also acted as law enforcement officers and would chase down and capture any runaway slaves that had escaped and then destroy their community. The ________________ initially focused on supplying slaves to the sugar plantations in the northeast, but eventually found gold in the interior region sertao which led to further colonization of inland Brazil.[2] The bandeirantes role in the Portuguese colonization of Brazil was extremely important due to submission of indigenous peoples into slavery which created an economy and society based off social hierarchy and status from one's bloodline that persisted for centuries.

Mapuche

________________lived in southern Chile and were linguistically connected warriors that resisted the conquest attempts of the Incas, Spanish, and Chile for centuries. The ________________found their strength in military teaching at a young age to defend their homeland and gold.

Quauhquechollan

________________was a Nahuan town in central Mexico during the 16th Century which comprised of a strong warrior people that befriended Hernando Cortes's troops through the promise of a mutually beneficial allegiance. Per the agreement, the Spanish would allow for Nahuan leaders to be deemed Spanish conquistadors and in return, the Nahua warriors would fight alongside the Spanish in conquest of Mexico.[1] Ultimately, the Nahuan army aided the Spanish in the successful conquest of the Maya, Mexica, and the eventual land of Guatemala. This instance of allegiance between an indigenous American group and the Spaniards highlights the individual motivations that each group of native people contained to either resist or fight alongside the Spanish. In this instance, the Nahua people wanted to expand their local power and kingdom, so they chose to fight alongside the Spanish conquistadors.[2]