com 101 final
coordinating conjunction
"FAN BOYS" For And Nor But Or Yet So
Adverb Clause
-First, it will contain a subject and verb. -You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought. -Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these four adverb questions: How? When? Where? or Why? Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached. How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.
reflexive pronoun
-a pronoun ending in -self or -selves that's used as an object to refer to a previously named noun or pronoun in a sentence. -Reflexive pronouns usually follow verbs or prepositions. -Reflexive pronouns have the same forms as intensive pronouns: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, oneself, and themselves.
auxiliary verb
A main or base verb indicates the type of action or condition, and auxiliary—or helping—verbs convey the other nuances that writers want to express. ex: Since Sherylee is such a klutz, she should have been eating a cake donut, which would not have stained her shirt. Since Sherylee has a pattern of messiness, is dripping communicates the frequency of her clumsiness. The auxiliary verbs that comprise should have been eating and would have stained express not only time relationships but also evaluation of Sherylee's actions. -Be, Do, Have Modal Auxiliaries [Never Change Form]: -can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would
Indicative mood
Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which indicates a fact or opinion: He was here. I am hungry. She will bring her books.
Indirect Object
Rare. When someone [or something] gets the direct object, that word is the indirect object. Look at these new versions of the sentences above: Jim built his granddaughter a sandcastle on the beach. Jim = subject; built = verb. Jim built what? Sandcastle = direct object. Who got the sandcastle? Granddaughter = indirect object.
Subordinate Conjunction
Some sentences are complex. Such sentences have two clauses, one main [or independent] and one subordinate [or dependent]. The essential ingredient in a complex sentence is the subordinate conjunction. after although as because before even if even though if in order that once provided that rather than since so that than that though unless until when whenever where whereas wherever whether while why
Infinitives
To sneeze, to smash, to cry, to shriek, to jump, to dunk, to read, to eat, to slurp—all of these are infinitives. An infinitive will almost always begin with to followed by the simple form of the verb, like this: To + Verb = Infinitive Important Note: Because an infinitive is not a verb, you cannot add s, es, ed, or ing to the end. Ever! Infinitives can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples: To sleep is the only thing Eli wants after his double shift waiting tables at the neighborhood café. To sleep functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence.
subjunctive mood
When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or past perfect tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were rather than was: If he were here... (Implied: ...but he's not.) I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ...but I don't.) It would be better if you had brought your books with you. (Implied: ...but you haven't brought them.)
subordinate clause
a clause, typically introduced by a conjunction, that forms part of and is dependent on a main clause (e.g., "when it rang" in "she answered the phone when it rang").
Clause
a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. may be either a sentence (an independent clause) or a sentence-like construction within another sentence (a dependent or subordinate clause).
independent clause
a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
Adjective Phrase
a group of words that functions as an adjective in a sentence. An adjective headword may be accompanied by modifiers, determiners, and/or qualifiers (all of which are called dependents). Also known as an adjectival phrase. "The prototypical adjective phrase consists of a single adjective, tall in Sally is tall, or an adjective headword and a qualifier, very tall. Even taller than the woman who coaches her volleyball team is more elaborate, but because it can substitute for the single adjective tall (Sally is even taller than the woman who coaches her volleyball team), you can recognize it as an adjective phrase."
Adverb of Frequency
an adverb that tells how often something occurs or did occur. Common adverbs of frequency include always, frequently, hardly ever, never, occasionally, often, rarely, regularly, scarcely, seldom, sometimes, and usually.
direct object
can be nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. Subject + Verb + what? or who? = Direct Object Zippy accidentally kicked Maurice in the shin. Zippy = subject; kicked = verb. Zippy kicked who? Maurice = direct object.
Noun phrase
includes a noun—a person, place, or thing—and the modifiers which distinguish it. You can find the noun dog in a sentence, for example, but you don't know which canine the writer means until you consider the entire noun phrase: that dog, Aunt Audrey's dog, the dog on the sofa, the neighbor's dog that chases our cat, the dog digging in the new flower bed.
complete subject
is who or what is doing the verb plus all of the modifiers [descriptive words] that go with it. Read the sentence below: The big, hungry, green Martian grabbed a student from the back row. Who did the grabbing? The Martian, of course. But this Martian wasn't petite, satisfied, and blue. No, this one was big, hungry, and green. The complete subject, then, is the huge, hairy, hungry, green Martian.
Adjective Clause (adjectival or relative clause)
-First, it will contain a subject and verb. -Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. -Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one? The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns: Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb Whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie Whose = relative pronoun; eyes = subject; pleaded = verb. Why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie Why = relative adverb; Fred = subject; can stand = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].
subordinate conjunction
-it provides a necessary transition between the two ideas in the sentence. This transition will indicate a time, place, or cause and effect relationship. -reduces the importance of one clause so that a reader understands which of the two ideas is more important. The more important idea belongs in the main clause, the less important in the clause introduced by the subordinate conjunction. after, although, as, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order that, once, provided that, rather than, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether, while, why
dependent clause
A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence. Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. -because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon -while he waited at the train station -after they left on the bus
Phrasal Verb
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the original verb. I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. run + into = meet He ran away when he was 15. run + away = leave home
Compound Subject
Every verb in a sentence must have at least one subject. But that doesn't mean that a verb can have only one subject. Some verbs are greedy as far as subjects go. A greedy verb can have two, three, four, or more subjects all to itself. When a verb has two or more subjects, you can say that the verb has a compound subject. Check out the following examples: At the local Dairy Queen, Marsha gasped at the sight of pickle slices on her banana split. Marsha = subject; gasped = verb.
Coordinating Conjunction
FANBOYS And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious. The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon.
intransitive verb
First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving the action. Huffing and puffing, we arrived at the classroom door with only seven seconds to spare. Arrived = intransitive verb.
transitive verb
First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like kick, want, paint, write, eat, clean, etc. Second, it must have a direct object, something or someone who receives the action of the verb. Sylvia kicked Juan under the table. Kicked = transitive verb; Juan = direct object.
Simple subject
In a sentence, every verb must have a subject. If the verb expresses action—like sneeze, jump, bark, or study—the subject is who or what does the verb. Take a look at this example: During his biology lab, Tommy danced on the table. Danced is an action verb. Tommy is who did the dancing.
Adjective
Modifier. Describes nouns by answering one of these three questions: What kind is it? How many are there? Which one is it? An adjective can be a single word, a phrase, or a clause.
subordinating conjunctions
a conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause after although as because before even though if since though unless until when whenever whereas wherever while
Phrases
a group of two or more words that express a single idea but do not usually form a complete sentence.
compound sentence
a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. -Joe waited for the train, but the train was late. -Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus before I arrived.
adverb(ial) phrase
a word group with an adverb as its head. This adverb may be accompanied by modifiers or qualifiers. An adverb phrase can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or even an entire sentence or main clause. The Cheshire Cat vanished (quite slowly), beginning with the end of its tail. The players responded (surprisingly well) to all the pressures of the playoffs.
linking verb
connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. A ten-item quiz seems impossibly long after a night of no studying. Seems connects the subject, a ten-item quiz, with something said about it, that its difficulty depends on preparation, not length.
main clause
contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.
action verbs
expressing action, something that a person, animal, force of nature, or thing can do.
Present Perfect tense
formed with a present tense form of "to have" plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form). This tense indicates either that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the past or that the action extends to the present: I have walked two miles already [but I'm still walking]. I have run the Boston Marathon [but that was some time ago]. The critics have praised the film Saving Private Ryan since it came out [and they continue to do so].
Main/independent clause
must contain a subject and a verb as well as express a complete thought. Diane kicked the soda machine. Diane = the subject; kicked = the verb.
Relative Pronouns
that which whichever who whoever whom whomever whose
Active Voice
the subject is doing the action. A straightforward example is the sentence "Steve loves Amy." Steve is the subject, and he is doing the action: he loves Amy, the object of the sentence.
Direct Object
will follow a transitive verb [a type of action verb]. can be nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object—if one exists—is easy. Just remember this simple formula: Subject + Verb + what? or who? = Direct Object Here are examples of the formula in action: Zippy and Maurice played soccer with a grapefruit pulled from a backyard tree. Zippy, Maurice = subjects; played = verb. Zippy and Maurice played what? Soccer = direct object.
appositive phrase
a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach with hairy legs, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large, hairy-legged cockroach that has spied my bowl of oatmeal, is crawling across the kitchen table.
simple sentence
a subject, a verb, and a completed thought.
pronoun
a word or phrase that may be substituted for a noun or noun phrase ex. I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody
subject complement
the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb. Brandon is a gifted athlete. Brandon = subject; is = linking verb; athlete = noun as subject complement.
Sequence of Tenses
Only two tenses are conveyed through the verb alone: present ("sing") and past ("sang"). Most English tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows writers to re-create much of the reality of time in their writing. Simple Present: They walk. Present Perfect: They have walked. Simple Past: They walked. Past Perfect: They had walked. Future: They will walk. Future Perfect: They will have walked. Usually, the perfect tenses are the hardest to remember. Here's a useful tip: all of the perfect tenses are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.
Relative clause
A relative clause—also called an adjective or adjectival clause—will meet three requirements. -First, it will contain a subject and verb. -Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. -Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one? The relative clause will follow one of these two patterns: Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb Which Francine did not accept Which = relative pronoun; Francine = subject; did accept = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].
Prepositional Phrase
At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the "object" of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it. These are the patterns for a prepositional phrase: Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause Preposition + Modifier(s) + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause ex. At home At = preposition; home = noun. In time In = preposition; time = noun. From Richie From = preposition; Richie = noun. With me With = preposition; me = pronoun.
Gerund
Every gerund, without exception, ends in ing. Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to identify. The problem is that all present participles also end in ing. What is the difference? Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be subjects, subject complements, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. Present participles, on the other hand, complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers. ex. Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion. Swimming = subject of the verb has been. Francisco's first love is swimming. Swimming = subject complement of the verb is. Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his girlfriend Diana. Swimming = direct object of the verb enjoys.
Types of Conditional Clauses
For example, the equilibrium between liquid and vapor is upset if the temperature is increased.(General rule, or law of nature: it always happens.) If you start thinking about this game, it will drive you crazy. (Open future condition: it may or may not happen.) But if you really wanted to be on Malibu Beach, you'd be there. (Unlikely future condition: it probably won't happen.) If I were you, I would go to the conference center itself and ask to see someone in security.(Impossible future condition: it could never happen.) "I would have resigned if they had made the decision themselves," she said. (Impossible past condition: it didn't happen.) If he had been working for three days and three nights then it was in the suit he was wearing now.(Unknown past condition: we don't know the facts.)
Possessive nouns & pronouns
Nouns and pronouns in English are said to display case according to their function in the sentence. They can be subjective or nominative (which means they act as the subject of independent or dependent clauses), possessive (which means they show possession of something else), or objective (which means they function as the recipient of action or are the object of a preposition). Except for the possessive forms (usually formed by the addition of an apostrophe and the letter s), nouns do not change form in English. (This is one of the few ways in which English is easier than other languages.) Pronouns, however, do change form when they change case; these changes are most clearly illustrated among the personal pronouns.
participle
Participles come in two varieties: past and present. They are two of the five forms or principal parts that every verb has. each present participle ends in ing. This is the case 100 percent of the time. past participles do not have a consistent ending. The past participles of all regular verbs end in ed; the past participles of irregular verbs, however, vary considerably. If you look at bring and sing, for example, you'll see that their past participles—brought and sung—do not follow the same pattern even though both verbs have ing as the last three letters. see grammar bytes table
Preposition
Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually, prepositions show this location in the physical world. On, in, and beside are all prepositions. They are showing where the puppy is. Prepositions can also show location in time. Read the next three examples: At midnight, Jill craved mashed potatoes with grape jelly. In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes but end up buying them at the supermarket. During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained with sharp pains shooting up his thighs. At midnight, in the spring, and during the marathon all show location in time.
The Object of the Preposition
Prepositions often begin prepositional phrases. To complete the phrase, the preposition usually teams up with a noun, pronoun, or gerund, or the object of the preposition. Here are some examples: At noon At = preposition; noon = noun or the object of the preposition. Behind them Behind = preposition; them = pronoun or the object of the preposition. Without sneezing Without = preposition; sneezing = gerund or the object of the preposition.
Appositive
a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these appositive examples, all of which rename insect: The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.
compound-complex sentence
a sentence with two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. -"His blue eyes were light, bright and sparkling behind half-mooned spectacles, and his nose was very long and crooked, as though it had been broken at least twice."
Conditional Clause
a type of adverbial clause that states a hypothesis or condition, real (factual) or imagined (counterfactual). A sentence containing one or more conditional clauses and a main clause (which expresses the result of the condition) is called a conditional sentence (also known as a conditional construction). A conditional clause is most often introduced by the subordinating conjunction if. Other conditional subordinators include unless, even if, provided that, on condition that, as long as, and in the case of.
adverb
a word or phrase that modifies or qualifies an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a word group, expressing a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc. (e.g., gently, quite, then, there ).
adverbial noun
a word which serves the function of either a noun or an adverb depending on the sentence in which it is used. Nouns dealing in measurements of some kind, such as time frames or distances, are usually adverbial nouns. Like adverbs, these nouns normally modify verbs but can also modify adjectives. For example, in the sentence "I drove north," the word "north" is an adverbial noun. It is giving additional detail about the direction in which speaker drove and answering the question of "where." Likewise, "I drove for an hour" indicates a length of time, answering "how long?," making "an hour" also an adverbial noun. The sentence "I drove my car," however, answers a question of "what." The words "my car" are, therefore, the object of the sentence.
Articles
an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article. the = definite article a/an = indefinite article For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.
complex sentence
an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses connected to it.
absolute phrase
combines a noun and a participle with any accompanying modifiers or objects. The pattern looks like this: Noun + Participle + Optional Modifier(s) and/or Object(s) Legs quivering Legs = noun; quivering = participle. Her arms folded across her chest Arms = noun; folded = participle; her, across her chest = modifiers.
Linking Verb
do not express action. Instead, they connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. Look at the examples below: Keila is a shopaholic. Ising isn't something that Keila can do. Is connects the subject, Keila, to additional information about her, that she will soon have a huge credit card bill to pay. A ten-item quiz seems impossibly long after a night of no studying. Seems connects the subject, a ten-item quiz, with something said about it, that its difficulty depends on preparation, not length.
Imperative mood
expresses commands or requests. Though it is not stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you. Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here at seven o'clock.) Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an omelette.) Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring your books with you.)
present progressive tense
indicates continuing action, something going on now. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the present tense, plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): -"I am buying all my family's Christmas gifts early this year. She is working through the holiday break. Dierdre is being a really good girl in these days before Christmas".
Compound Predicate
tells us two (or more) things about the same subject (without repeating the subject). -This is a simple predicate: Adam lives in Bangor. (This tell us just one thing about the subject (Adam). This is not a compound predicate.) -Adam lives in Bangor, and he speaks Welsh. (This is a compound sentence. It has two subjects (Adam and he). Each subject has one simple predicate.)
verb phrase
the activity or condition continues over a long stretch of time, happens predictably, or occurs in relationship to other events. In these instances, a single-word verb cannot accurately describe what happened, so writers use multipart verb phrases to communicate what they mean. As many as four words can comprise a verb phrase. -Selena should have been driving with more care, for then she would not have gotten her third ticket this year. -Since Selena has an inclination to speed, is disobeying [a two-word verb] communicates the frequency of her law breaking. The auxiliary verbs that comprise should have been driving [a four-word verb] and would have gotten [a three-word verb] express not only time relationships but also evaluation of Selena's actions.
Possessive case
the case (or function) of an inflected form of a noun (Santa's, the boss's) showing ownership, measurement, or source. In addition to the -'s ending (a clitic), the possessive can be expressed with of, particularly when the possessor is not alive (the top floor of the building, the base of the statue). Possessive case also refers to a type of pronoun (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs) or determiner (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) that indicates ownership, measurement, or source.
objective case
the case of a pronoun when it functions as one of the following: -the direct or indirect object of a verb or verbal -the object of a preposition -the subject of an infinitive -an appositive to an object The objective (or accusative) forms of English pronouns are me, us, you, him, her, it, them, whom and whomever. "Please don't eat me. I have a wife and kids. Eat them." This land was made for you and me."
Subjective Case
the case of a pronoun when it functions as one of the following: -the subject of a clause -a subject complement -an appositive to a subject or a subject complement The subjective (or nominative) forms of English pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who and whoever "My mother had a great deal of trouble with me, but I think she enjoyed it."(Mark Twain) "I had a friend who was a clown. When he died, all his friends went to the funeral in one car."(Steven Wright)
predicate
the part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject (ex. went home in "John went home").
Passive Voice
the target of the action gets promoted to the subject position. Instead of saying, "Steve loves Amy," I would say, "Amy is loved by Steve." The subject of the sentence becomes Amy, but she isn't doing anything. Rather, she is just the recipient of Steve's love. The focus of the sentence has changed from Steve to Amy.
gerund phrase
will begin with a gerund, an ing word, and will include other modifiers and/or objects. Gerund phrases always function as nouns, so they will be subjects, subject complements, or objects in the sentence. Eating ice cream on a windy day can be a messy experience if you have long, untamed hair. Eating ice cream on a windy day = subject of the verb can be.
participle phrase
will begin with a present or past participle. If the participle is present, it will dependably end in ing. Likewise, a regular past participle will end in a consistent ed. Irregular past participles, unfortunately, conclude in all kinds of ways Since all phrases require two or more words, a participle phrase will often include objects and/or modifiers that complete the thought. Here are some examples: Crunching caramel corn for the entire movie Washed with soap and water Stuck in the back of the closet behind the obsolete computer Participle phrases always function as adjectives, adding description to the sentence. The horse trotting up to the fence hopes that you have an apple or carrot. Trotting up to the fence modifies the noun horse.
Subordinate/dependent clause
will begin with a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb. This combination of words will not form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want additional information to finish the thought. After Amy sneezed all over the tuna salad After = subordinate conjunction; Amy = subject; sneezed = verb.
infinitive phrase
will begin with an infinitive [to + simple form of the verb]. It will include objects and/or modifiers. -To kick the ball past the dazed goalie -To lick the grease from his shiny fingers despite the disapproving glances of his girlfriend Gloria
Adjective/Relative Clause
will meet three requirements: -First, it will contain a subject and verb. -Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. -Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one? The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns: Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb examples: Whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie Whose = relative pronoun; eyes = subject; pleaded = verb. Why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie Why = relative adverb; Fred = subject; can stand = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].