COM705 Communication Theory

Define Communication

"Communication is the creation of meaning." This allows for both the intentional and unintentional sending and receiving aspects, while noting the creation aspect that I believe is reflected in Christian communication theology. Meaning also encompasses a wide variety of relational connections. I almost said "practice of creating meaning" but often we aren't that aware of the meanings we are creating. I tried to keep it fairly broad and general since pinning it down removes too may nuances of communication phenomena.

COM705 WK11Q2 "What are the strengths and weaknesses of theories found in the critical tradition?"

(see previous responses on critical tradition)

COM705W2Q2 "What is the difference between a field and a discipline? Follow up question: How should one describe communication theories as existing in a field or discipline?"

A field is a much broader and general division, containing potentially more than one discipline within itself.A discipline has "a certain degree of coherence in its objects, plus a certain degree of coherence in its theories." A discipline should have a common body of theories to facilitate this coherence, while asserting that the communication field lacks this, having received input from several different disciplines. I think the literature leans towards communication being more of a field than a discipline, but it is closer to a discipline than it was in the past.

Definition of Theory

Any organized set of concepts, explanations, and principles that depicts some aspect of human experience; or a unified, or coherent, body of propositions that provide a philosophically consistent picture of a subject (Littlejohn).

COM705 W3Q1 "What is the most important rhetorical theory you found in chapter five and why?"

Bitzer's rhetorical situation, a concept I became familiar with in Graves' class on rhetorical criticism. Littlejohn (2011) states that, "the rhetorical situation gives rise to the rhetorical discourse: discourse comes into being in response to a situation and is given significance by that situation" (p. 140). This theory essentially calls attention to context. What events and conversations surround a discourse contribute to whether that discourse connects with an audience and/or persuades them. *Now being modified into a concept called "rhetorical ecology."

COM705 W8Q1 "Please describe and discuss the cultural approach to communication. Next, what are its strengths and weaknesses? Finally, how does it compare to other approaches to communication?"

Citing Dewey, Craig (2007) notes, "Society exists...in communication" (p. 38). From here he addresses two prevalent models of communication -transmission and ritual. The former, which grows from the cybernetic tradition, sees communication as merely transporting information/messages (ibid); while the ritual model is defined in terms of community, sharing, commonness, and culture (p. 40). Craig explores the transmission model but only to contrast it with the cultural/ritual model. He writes that our obsession with the transmission model may be due to the fact that the "concept of culture is such a weak and evanescent notion in American social thought (Ibid). Craig (2007) says, "reality is not given, not humanly existent, independent of language and toward which language stands as a pale refraction" (p. 44). Reality is produced through communication (p. 44), and problems of communication can be linked with problems in community (p. 48). This strongly echoes Berger & Luckmann (1966) who state, "reality is socially constructed and that sociology of knowledge must analyze the process in which this occurs" (p. 1). A cultural approach to communication believes that we help produce, interpret, change, and reinforce social realities with communicative acts—not just transmit information. The strengths of a cultural approach, as noted by Schultze (2000) include the process of communication being highly interpretive, interactive, and creative (p. 55). Cultural theory also maintains a sensitivity to cultural nuances instead of trying to force-feed messages from a sender into a "passive" group. Finally the "inter-dependence of communication and community" help create positive, instead of exploitative, relationships (p. 56). Finally, all communication theories are cultural studies since they explore forms of communication within the human experience—which is always shaped by culture (Crouch, p. 36, 2008). While useful, the transmission model has several flaws. It negates the role of God in the process of communication, assumes passivity in human receivers, diminishes motives, and potentially promises exploitive relationships between those sending messages to passive receivers. Ultimately, a cultural approach seems more holistic to the concept of communication. However, American culture is truly unique. We tend to be very matter of fact, get down to business people so though the transmission model is mechanical and power-driven, it still reflects us culturally.

Socio-Cultural Tradition

Communication is a process essentially involved with concepts such as social structures, identities, norms, rituals, and collective belief systems. Society would be impossible without communication. Has both macro and micro social theories. focus on interactions between people, ways in which people together create the realities of their social groups, organizations, and cultures. Address the ways our understandings, meanings, norms, roles, and rules are worked out interactively in communication. Mead (1934) developed symbolic interactionism which was influenced by Pierce's semiotics. Leads to further theorization about cross-cultural communication. Symbolic interactionism and Structuration theory both belong in this tradition.

Socio-Psychological

Communication is conceptualized as a process of social interaction, and has helped correct naive assumptions about the psychological processes involved in communication. The study of the individual as a social being. Theories share a common concern for behavior and for the personal traits and cognitive processes that produce behavior. Practices empirical research and focuses on particular contexts of communication, leading to interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication theories. History begins in the early part decades of 20th century in the field of experimental social psych. Social psych split into two camps: psych and social. In the 1940s the term "communication" was used to describe the emerging interdisciplinary process. In the 1950s the scientific method as it related to communication became a focus--communication was not yet recognized as a discipline. Berger and Calebrese (1975) presented one of the first socio-psych theories (the problem of forming interpersonal relationships) to address the problem of com theory, a subject never directly focused on at that time. Addressed the need with a testable theory on interaction (Uncertainty Reduction). Bandura (2001) develops mass com theory to address media effects (Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication). Action Assembly Theory and Social Penetration Theory are in this tradition.

Phenomenological Tradition

Conceptualizes communication as dialogue or the experience of otherness. Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) conceived phenomenology as a method for analyzing conscious experience. It involves "bracketing" the contents of an experienced order to reveal the essential structures and transcendental (being experience) conditions that make the experience possible. Rejects distinctions between objectivity and subjective because both involved as we encounter the "other." Later Martin Buber (1878-1965) conceptualized the I-Thou relationship where communication is seeing yourself and others as whole persons who cannot be reduced to any simple characterization. Hans Gadamar (1900-2002) developed communication as conversational "hermeneutical experience." Buber's dialogue emphasize mutual direct awareness, Gadamar's emphasizes the object or subject that brings people together. Gadamer builds on Heidegger's (1889-1976) hermeneutics phenomenology. Philosophers such as Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) deconstruct Husserl by noting the impossibility of "un-bracketing" oneself and relay one's experience in language again.

Cybernetic

Conceptualizes communication as information processing. Scholars talk and think about concepts such as systems, processing, information, messages, senders, receivers, probability, entropy, self-organization, autopoiesis, and feedback; theorizing is often talked about in terms of modeling. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) developed the mathematical theory of information that gave rise to the cybernetic tradition. They theorizes the problem of achieving smooth information flow. Shannon, Weaver, and Wieners coined he term "cybernetics" (1948)--where human communication is parallel to a machine. Gregory Bateson (1972) used semiotics and mathematical logic to extend cybernetic theory to address interaction through signs and symbols in humans and higher animals, "the problem of metacommunication." Five Axioms developed by Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967): (1) one cannot not communicate (2) any communication implies a commitment and thereby defines a relationship/ a communication notably conveys information but at the same time imposes a behavior (3) The nature of a relationship is contingent upon the punctuation of the communicational sequences between the communicators (4) Human beings communicate both digitally and analogical. Digital language has a highly complex and powerful logical syntax but lacks adequate semantics in the field of relationship, while analogy language possesses the semantics but has no adequate syntax for the unambiguous definition of the nature of relationships (5) All communicational interchanges are ether symmetrical or complementary, depending on whether they are based on equality or difference.Excellent for understanding relationships, but less effective in helping us understand individual differences.

COM705 W8Q2 "What is Craig's understanding to communication theory as a field? Do you agree? Why or Why not?"

Craig (2007) opens up the discussion by citing research that survey seven textbooks that found over 200 communication theories, with only 22% of those theories appearing of those seven books (p. 63). He describes the field of communication as a "productive fragmentation" that "borrowed goods leveraged to sustain instructional claims" (p. 66). Because "no active field of inquiry has a fully unified theory" (66) Craig says our goal should be "dialogical-dialectical coherence" (Ibid). Then author spends some time unpacking the differences between a constitutive model (transmission) and a ritual model of communication. Craig states that a ritual model is more reflexive between theory and culture—"creating very phenomena that they purport to explain" (67). This mirrors Berger & Luckmann's (1966) thesis, as well as Gidden's (1984) structuration theory. Craig points out the practical implications of communication theory and how it can only be a discipline by embracing "communicational perspective on social reality that is radically distinct from, but at least equal in status to, such established disciplinary perspectives as those of psychology, sociology, economics, linguistics, etc." (Ibid). Communication as a field must be thought of as the "primary constitutive social process that explains" other disciplines (p. 68). Ultimately, Craig (2007) believes communication as a field requires a "metadiscourse" that allows scholars to speak reflexively (p. 70). He notes the seven traditions within communication and works them into a dialogical-dialectical metadiscourse in the form of a large table that organizes theories by their "underlying conceptions of communicative practice" (p. 72). He concludes with the need for specialists in each tradition who, at the same time, practice a "pedagogy treats entire field as a resource" (p. 90). I concur with Craig, especially in his view of each theory as a resource instead of opposition. The challenge with communication is its parsimony.

Trait Theory

Creator(s): (various Allport, Cattell, Eysenck 40s-50s) but James McCroskey and Michael Beatty created a "communibiological approach" to understanding communication traits. Date: 40s-50s; mid-70s, early 80s. Main Idea: Similar to the role of biology in psychosocial processes, communication is influenced by inborn, neurobiological processes. Taking up a position of biological deter- minism, they see individuals' behavior patterns as reflecting relatively stable differences in people's neurobiological functioning Key Concepts: Individuals' communicative traits are mainly expressions of neurobiological functioning. Accor- dingly, individual differences in communication can be represented by brain functioning.It constitutes one of the main approaches to the study of human commu- nication. Trait theory holds that people tend to exhibit certain communication styles and predicts that these traits make one communicate in a cer- tain way. The characteristics of the trait approach arise from the very definition of a trait—a stable predisposition to exhibit certain behaviors. Human beings are conceived of primarily as bundles of predispositions that are relatively stable across time and across specified contexts.The trait approach contrasts with the situation- ist position. Critique: The trait approach can and has been used with some success to predict either the sender's powers of impact or the receiver's responsiveness to a message. It has certain inherent limitations. Most central of these is that the mechanisms that generate the prediction of traits are missing. Communication researchers, when faced with the complexity of the humans they have tried to describe, have been forced to abandon strictly trait approaches. Unfortunately, there has been little research to resolve the trait versus contextual controversy. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Structuration Theory/Adaptive Structuration Theory

Creator(s): Anthony Giddens Date: 1984 Main Idea: Organizations create structures, which cane interpreted as an organizations rules and resources. these structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization. Organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members use their structures. Power structures guide the decision making that takes place in these organizations. Three assumptions: Groups and organizations are produced and reproduced through the use of rules and resources (1), Communication rules serve as both the medium for, and an outcome for, and an outcome of, interactions (2), Power structures are present in organizations and guide the decision-making process (3). Key Concepts: System, structure, structuration (production and production of social environments), agency/agent, reflexivity, discursive consciousness (ability to articulate personal goals/behavior), practical consciousness (inability to articulate personal goals/behavior), duality of structure (rules and resources that guide organizational decisions), allocative resources, authoritative resources, reward power (perception that other person has ability to provide positive outcomes), coercive power, referent power (another person can achieve because of interpersonal connections), legitimate power, expert power, social integration (reciprocity). "Adaptive" when applied to group contexts to distinguish it from Giddens' original thinking (Poole et. al. 1990s and on). Critique: Good in scope, but it lacks in parsimony. Tradition:

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Creator(s): Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese Date: 1975 Main Idea: When strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their level of uncertainty in the situation because uncertainty is uncomfortable. People can be uncertain on two different levels: behavioral and cognitive. They may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure of what they think of the other person and what the other person thinks of them. High levels of uncertainty are related to a variety of verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Key Concepts: Cognitive uncertainty, behavioral uncertainty, and self-disclosure. Reciprocity. Entry phase, personal phase, exit phase (whether to remain or stay in a relationship). Low-context cultures (like the United States, where most of the meaning is in the code or message), High-context cultures (like Japan, where the meaning of a message is in the context or internalized in listeners). Seven Axioms: 1. As the amount of verbal communication between strangers increases, the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship decreases. As uncertainty is further reduced, the amount of verbal communication increases. 2. As nonverbal affiliative expressiveness increases, uncertainty levels decrease in an initial interaction situation. Decreases in uncertainty level will cause increases in nonverbal affiliative expressiveness. 3. High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information- seeking behavior. As uncertainty declines, information-seeking behavior decreases. 4. High levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decreases in the intimacy level of communication content, vice versa. 5. High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity, vice versa. 6. Similarities between people reduce uncertainty, whereas dissimilarities increase uncertainty. 7. Increases in uncertainty level produce decreases in liking, vice versa. Five Strategies: passive strategies (reducing uncertainties by unobtrusive observation), active strategies (reducing uncertainties by means other than direct contact), interactive strategies (reducing uncertainties by engaging in conversation), reactivity searching (a passive strategy involving watching a person doing something), disinhibition searching (a passive strategy involving watching a person's natural or uninhibited behavior in an informal environment). Critique: Uncertainty may be a flawed assumption, but it is heuristic and good on utility. The only theory to explore initial interactions. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Meaning of Meanings Theory

Creator(s): Charles Kay Ogden and Ivor Armstrong Richards Date: 1923 Main Idea: Understanding comes from within the people rather than from the words they just interpret. They set a model called "The Triangle of Meaning" for better understanding how language works and basically it is a theory of signs. The word means different things to different people in different situations. Any sign or word which has its own meaning is grasped with certain references to it. The process of grasping or understanding words or signs, which already have meaning, with the asserted meanings given by the references is called the meaning of meaning. Key Concepts: The Triangle of Meaning Example: The Word love makes a different sense to different people. The way in which they understand this word must be in reference with their experiences and ideas relating to this word. Tradition: Semiotic

Interpersonal Deception Theory

Creator(s): David Buller and Judee K. Burgoon Date: Mid-1990s (1996?) Main Idea: Deception refers to behavior intentionally enacted to mislead another. Interpersonal deception theory (IDT) is one contemporary communication theory intended to predict and explain deception in the context of interpersonal interactions.Its scope is thus deception during communication, which can include face-to-face, public, computer- mediated, or virtual communication. IDT is not meant to focus on a single cause but instead to provide a comprehensive depiction of the communication-relevant factors in deception message production and deception detection Key Concepts: Assumptions: (1) Interpersonal interactions place all parties in the simultaneous role of sender and receiver. It is a process, a con- tinually changing stream of verbal and nonverbal signals. (2) Sizing up the credibility of other communicators is an inherent part of all interactions. Even though it typically occurs at a subconscious level, gauging another's truthfulness is an implicit part of all human encounters. (3) Deception entails three classes of strategic, or deliberate, activity—information, behavior, and image management. (4) Deception is more cognitively demanding than truth telling. The heart of IDT is its series of 18 intercon- nected and testable propositions. Critique: The propositions lacked the interconnectedness and predictive power of a unifying theory, lacks parsimony. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Genderlects Theory

Creator(s): Deborah Tannen, though influenced by C. Kramarae (1981). Date: 1990 Main Idea: A sociolinguistic theory that suggests male-female conversation is cross-cultural communication. Departs from much of feminist scholarship that claims conversations between men and women re ect men's efforts to dominate women. Thee ARE gender differences in the ways we speak. Key Concepts: "Genderlect" (doesn't originate with Tannen): A term suggesting that masculine and feminine styles of discourse are best viewed as two dis- tinct cultural dialects. Women seek human connection and men are concerned mainly with status. Rapport talk (The typical conversa- tional style of women, which seeks to establish connection with others), and Report talk (The typical monologic style of men, which seeks to command atten- tion, convey information, and win arguments). Tannen notes that men tell more stories than women do—especially jokes. Men aren't trying to be funny, they tell stories in which they are heroes, often acting alone to overcome great obstacles. On the other hand, women tend to express their desire for community by telling stories about others. Cooperative overlap (A supportive interruption often meant to show agreement and solidarity with the speaker). Tag question (short question at the end of a declarative state- ment, often used by women to soften the sting of potential disagreement or invite open, friendly dialogue). Aha factor (subjective standard ascribing validity to an idea when it resonates with one's personal experience). Critique: Tannen's analysis of common misunderstandings between men and women has struck a responsive chord in a million other readers. You Just Don't Understand was on the best-seller list for most of the 1990s. Kunkel and Burleson rejected the different-cultures perspective. They believed it was a myth that had lost its narrative force. Men and women do understand each other, though women tend to fair better. Feminist scholars accuse Tannen of having written a dishonest book that ignores issues of male dominance, control, power, sexism, discrimination, sexual harassment, and verbal insults--excluding power dynamics that shape communication. Tradition: Socio-Cultural

Speech Codes Theory

Creator(s): Dell Hymes Date: Main idea: Building on the idea that culture and communication are inextricably linked, SCT is designed to describe, explain, and predict cultural communication within the context of speech communities—that is, the theory is concerned with understanding how, in particular societies, community members perform, value, and evaluate their own and others' communication in their everyday lives. To orient how to conduct themselves and how to judge that conduct, community members use sets of social rules about how they should and should not communicate in particular contexts. The theory goes beyond simple description of speech codes, however; it seeks to answer questions about the exis- tence of codes, their substance, the ways in which they can be discovered, and their communicative force or effect upon members of a community. speech codes are his- torically transmitted, socially constructed systems of symbols and meanings, premises and rules that pertain to communicative conduct. Codes, in other words, are systems or patterns of language use that are rich with sociocultural meanings for their users. Because the components of codes are inex- tricably woven into communication itself, the components (e.g., terms and phrases) comprise a structure of beliefs and values by which commu- nity members enact social life. Codes, then, com- prise the observable or manifest social infrastructure guiding a people's communication practices and behaviors as well as the ideologies informing those behaviors. Key Concepts: Six Propositions: (1) Wherever there is a distinctive culture, there is to be found a distinctive speech code (2) In any given speech community, multiple speech codes are deployed (3) A speech code implicates a culturally distinctive psychology, sociology, and rhetoric (4) The significance of speaking is contingent upon the speech codes used by interlocutors (communi- cators) to constitute the meanings of communica- tive acts (5) The terms, rules, and premises of a speech code are inextricably woven into speaking itself (6) The artful use of a shared speech code is a suf- ficient condition for predicting, explaining, and controlling the form of discourse about the intelli- gibility, prudence, and morality of communication conduct. Tradition: Rhetorical and Socio-cultural

Muted Group Theory

Creator(s): Edwin & Shirley Ardener Date: 1975-1978 Main Idea: "The language of a particular culture does not serve all its speakers equally, for not all speakers contribute in an equal fashion to its formulation." (Kramarae, 1981). It deals with the power to name experiences, and those of lower status are "muted" because their native language does not provide a good fit their experiences. Key Concepts: men as dominant group that impedes women's free expression, gender polarization, second shift (women work at work and home) Example: Marriage ritual that silences the bride, non-native speakers, men talking over women, etc. Critique: engages in essentialism (every group is all the same), lack of update, needs more empirical research Tradition: Critical

Uses and Gratification Theory

Creator(s): Elihu Katz, Jay G. Blumler, Michael Gurevitch (numerous variations prior). Date: Uses and Gratifications Theory is an extension of needs and motivation theory (Maslow, 1970), but can go back to Herta Herzog's research in 1944. Main Idea: People are active in choosing and using particular media to satisfy specific needs. Emphasizing a limited effects position, this theory views the media as having a limited effect because users are able to exercise choice and control. People are self-aware, and they are able to understand and articulate the reasons they use media. They see media as one way to gratify the needs they have. Uses and Gratifications Theory is primarily concerned with the following question: What do people do with media? Key Concepts: Five Assumptions: (1) The audience is active and its media use is goal oriented, (2)The initiative in linking need gratification to a specific medium choice rests with the audience member, (3), The media compete with other sources for need satisfaction, (4) People have enough self-awareness of their media use, interests, and motives to be able to provide researchers with an accurate picture of that use, (5) Value judgments of media content can only be assessed by the audience. Fraction of Selection (Schramm's idea that people pick media based on reward divided by effort), Parasocial Interaction (relationship we feel we have with people we know only through the media), diversion, personal relationships (subbing media for companionship), personal identity (ways we use media to reinforce identity), surveillance (category of gratifications coming from media use; involves collecting needed information). Audiences are active in their utility (using media to accomplish tasks), intentionality (prior motives determine media use), selectivity (existing interests), imperviousness to influence (constructing own meaning from media content). Critique: Heavy on description but light on prediction. Not overly complex and has a large body of quantitive research. Tradition: Socio-Psychlogical

Spiral of Silence

Creator(s): Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann Date: Early 1970s (from research on media's influence on public opinion in 30s-40s) Main Idea: Because of their enormous power, media have a lasting and profound effect on public opinion. Mass media work simultaneously with majority opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural and social issues in particular. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be the majority view. Every so often, however, the silent majority raises its voice in activism. Key Concepts: Public (legal, social, and social-psychological concerns of people), opinion, public opinion (attitudes and behaviors expressed in public to avoid isolation). Three assumptions: Society threatens deviant individuals with isolation; fear of isolation is pervasive (1), This fear of isolation causes individuals to try to assess the climate of opinion at all times (2), Public behavior is affected by public opinion assessment (3). Quasi-statistical sense (personal estimation of the strength of opposing sides on a public issue), pluralistic ignorance (mistaken observation of how most people feel). Spiral moves from willingness to speak out, to quasi-stat sense, to majority view to silent majority, to fear of isolation. The theory rests on public opinion and relates to media. Ubiquity (belief that media are everywhere), cumulativeness (belief that media repeat themselves), consonance (the belief that all media are similar in attitudes, beliefs, and values). Dual Climates of Opinion (difference between the population's perception of a public issue and the way the media report on the issue). Train test (assessment of extent people will speak out). Last-minute swing (jumping on the bandwagon of popular opinion after opinions have been expressed), hard core (group(s) at the end of the spiral willing to speak out at any cost). Critique: Lack of constant in terms and concepts, fails to acknowledge person's ego involvement in an issue, avoids cognitive dissonance as element, little empirical support people only speaking out of they perceive support for their views. Fear of isolation may not motivate people to express opinion and doesn't acknowledge influence people's communities and references groups have on opinion. Also relies on 1985 media during West German troubles. Can it apply internationally? Noelle-Neuman has sought to defend these in the mid 80s and early 90s, also says Western desire for rationality when not al behave is rational. Very heuristic and applied to variety of media Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Symbolic Convergence Theory

Creator(s): Ernest Borman Date: Main Idea: Group members often dramatized events happening outside the group. Sometimes group members respond enthusiastically by adding on to the story or chiming in with their own matching narratives. When the drama was enhanced in this way, members developed a common group consciousness and drew closer together. Sharing group fantasies creates symbolic convergence. Key Concepts: Dramatizing message (Imaginative language by a group member describing past, future, or outside events; creative interpretations of there-and-then). Fantasy chain (A symbolic explosion of lively agreement within a group in response to a member's dramatizing message). Fantasy Theme analysis. Symbolic cue (agreed-upon trigger that sets off group members to respond as they did when they first shared the fantasy). Fantasy type (cluster of related fantasy themes; greater abstractions incorporating several concrete fantasy themes that exist when shared meaning is taken for granted). Symbolic convergence (Two or more private symbol worlds incline toward each other, come more closely together, or even overlap; group consciousness, cohesiveness). Rhetorical vision (A composite drama that catches up large groups of people into a common symbolic reality). Critique: Very heuristic, with objective and interpretive. It is predictive, explanatory, clarifies values, etc. Overall a very solid theory. Tradition: Rhetorical

Queer Theory

Creator(s): Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Judith Butler, Adrienne Rich and Diana Fuss (following Foucault's work) Date: 70s [critical standpoint theory] and then 1990s "Queer Theory" Main Idea: Queer theory is grounded in gender and sexuality. Essentially applies Critical Standpoint Theory to gender and sexuality, arguing against hetero-normativity. Tradition: Critical

Communication Accommodation/Adaptation Theory

Creator(s): Howard Giles Date: 1980s Main Idea: Speakers frequently adjust their behavior to each other. This theory seeks to explain how and why we adjust our communication behaviors to the actions of others. Key Concepts: Convergence, divergence, mutual/non-mutual, convergence may be partial or incomplete. "Linguistic chameleons." Critique: Too much convergence creates artificiality and loss of personal identity. Tradition: Phenomenological or Rhetorical

Groupthink Theory

Creator(s): Irving Janis Date: 1972 book "Victims of Groupthink" Main Idea: Highly cohesive groups frequently fail to consider alternatives to their course of action. When group members think similarly and do not entertain contrary views, they are also unlikely to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others. Groupthink suggests that these groups make premature decisions, some of which have lasting and tragic consequences. Key Concepts: Three assumptions: Conditions in groups promote high cohesiveness (1), Group problems solving is primarily a unified process (2), Groups and group decision making are frequently complex (3). Problem-solving/task-oriented groups, cohesiveness, affiliative constraints (when members withheld input rather than face rejection from group), homogeneity. three conditions promote groupthink: (1) high cohe- siveness of the decision-making group, (2) specific structural characteristics of the environment in which the group functions, and (3) stressful internal and external characteristics of the situation. Group insulation, lack of impartial leadership, lack of decision making procedures, concurrence seeking (efforts to seek consensus). Eleven Symptoms: overestimation of the group includes those behaviors that suggest the group believes it is more than it is (1); illusion of invulnerability can be defined as a group's belief that they are special enough to overcome any obstacles or setbacks (2); belief in the inherent morality of the group (3), they are said to adopt the position that "we are a good and wise group (4); closed-minded (5), it ignores outside influences on the group (5); out-group stereotypes (5), collective rationalization (7), pressure toward uniformity (8), self-censorship (minimize personal doubts) (9), illusion of unanimity (11), self-appointed mind guards (10), pressure on dissenters (11). Whistle-blowing, conscientious objectors. Critique: Janis says only applies to decision making groups in crisis periods, although people have. Validity challenges in testing, initially failed to mention self-esteem in theory, corrected that in 1982. Very heuristic and has stood test of time. Tradition:

Social Penetration Theory (also "Stage Theory")

Creator(s): Irwin Taylor and Dalmas Taylor Date: 1973 Main Idea: Interpersonal Relationships evolve in gradual and predictable fashion. Social Penetration Theory believes that self-disclosure is primary way that relationships progress. It can also leave one or more persons vulnerable. Four Assumptions: Relationships progress from nontintimate to intimate (1), Relational development is generally systematic and predictable (2), Relational development includes depenetration and dissolution (3), Self-disclosure is at the core of relationships development (4). It is grounded in principles of Social Exchange Theory. Key Concepts: Social penetration, trajectory (pathway to closeness), depenetrate, transgression, self-disclosure, public image, reciprocity, dimensions of breadth (various subjects discusses), breadth time, and depth (degree of intimacy), Four Stages of Penetration: Orientation: revealing bit of ourselves (1), Exploratory Affective Exchange: emergence of personality (2), Affective Exchange: spontaneous communication/personal idioms (3), Stable Exchange: efficient communication/personal system (4), dyadic uniqueness Critique: The scope limited and because people constantly change what defines self-disclosure changes--it's not always linear. But it is highly heuristic. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Actor-Network Theory & Co-Orientation

Creator(s): James R. Taylor (drawing on science and tech scholars like Michel Callon, Bruno Latour, and John Law). Date: 1980s Main Idea: [From science] A performative view of the production of science, a view that takes into account not only what scientists accom- plish in their laboratory or fieldwork but also what nonhumans do, whether they be machines, texts, or even objects of study. [From communication] An organization, as any collective, should never be considered the starting point of our studies and reflection but should rather be understood as the product of communication activities. This bottom-up approach thus proposes to study the organizing properties of communica- tion by analyzing various interactional and textual activities that literally constitute what we call an organization. An organization, should be considered as literally filled with agencies in interaction, whether these agen- cies are procedures, managers, computers, architectural elements, workers, or machines. Key Concepts: One of the most important is spokesperson, or macroactor, in that it shows how a given (human or nonhuman) actor can become a network (and vice versa); hence the expression actor-network. Acting and/ or speaking in the name of, on behalf of, and/or in the stead of something or someone else, that is, macroacting, is indeed the main way by which col- lectives or networks are constituted. Once an agent is recognized and acknowledged as acting or speaking in the name of others, whether they are a collection of individuals (a we) or a collective (an it), these others can be said not only to have an identity—they start to exist as a we or as an entity, an it—but also to act from a distance, that is, to tele-act or telecommunicate. Translation concerns. Tradition: Cybernetic

Action-Assembly Theory

Creator(s): John Greene Date: 1984 Main Idea: Examines the way we organize knowledge within the mind and then form messages. People form messages by using content knowledge and procedural knowledge--you know about things, and you know how to do things. In this theory, procedural knowledge is central. Each element of memory is a "node" and they are linked like websites on the Internet. These node systems constantly change, but are not unorganized. Nodes cluster and form "procedural records." Whenever you act you must "assemble" appropriate procedures in order to accomplish desired outcomes. Key Concepts: "Selecting" though some nodes are nearly automatic they are "unitized assemblies" which require little effort. Output representation (the plan your mind has about what you will do in a situation), Coalition (mind pulls together possible procedural records that you will assemble into an action), less relevant records fade away in a process called "decay." No single action stands by itself. Critique: A key point of emphasis in the various empirical and theoretical applications of AAT has been on situations in which people encounter difficulties in assembling action features. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Speech Act Theory

Creator(s): John Searle Date: Main Idea: Theorizes how people accomplish things with their words. Draws on J.L. Austin and L. Wittgenstein. Our words embody/accomplish actions. Propositions, in this theory, designate some quality or association of a thing; they can be evaluated on their truth value, but whats more important is communicating something beyond the truth. Intention of meaning more important than truth. Key Concepts: Uttering act (producing a piece of discourse), propositional act (asserting something about the world you believe is true), illocutionary-act (fulfilling an intention), and perlocutionary act (designed to have an actual affect on people). Illocution is about the listener understanding the intention (promise, request, etc.) and perlocution is the expectation the listener will act. Constitutive rules (how to interpret something) and regulative (guidelines for acting within a game). Five Types of Illocutionary Acts: Assertives (1), Directives (2), Commissives (commit speaker to future act, such as a promise or a vow) (3), Expressives (communicate aspect of speakers psych state) (4), Declaration (performative rhetoric such as firing and hiring, etc.) (5). Three Rules: Propositional Content Rule (specifies some condition of referenced object), Preperatory Rule (presumed conditions in speaker/hearer necessary for action to take place), Sincerity Rule (speaker means what is said). Speech acs evaluate not in terms of truth or validity, but felicity (degree of conditions of the act are met). Critique: Lack of ethical component Tradition: Socio-Cultural/Rhetorical

Social Exchange Theory

Creator(s): John Thibaut and Harold Kelley Date: 1959 Main Idea: Social Exchange Theory posits that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both people's self-interest. Self-interest is not considered nec- essarily bad and can be used to enhance relationships. Interpersonal exchanges are thought to be analogous to economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return for their expenditures. Key Concepts: Costs/Rewards and outcomes. Three assumptions about human nature: (1)Humans seek rewards and avoid punishments, (2), Humans are rational beings, (3) The standards that humans use to evaluate costs and rewards vary over time and from person to person. Two assumptions about the nature of relationships: (1) Relationships are interdependent, (2) Relational life is a process. Comparison Level (CL): a standard for what a person thinks he or she should get in a relationship Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt): how people evaluate a relationship based on what their alternatives to the relationship are. Behavioral sequences (a series of actions designed to achieve a goal), power (the degree of dependence a person has on another for outcomes), fate control (the ability to affect a partner's outcomes), behavior control (the power to change another's behavior). Three Matrixes: (1) Given Matrix (the constraints on your choices due to the environment and/or your own skill levels). (2) Effective Matrix (the transformations you are able to make to your given matrix, by learning a new skill), (3) Dispositional Matrix (the beliefs you have about relationships). Three Exchange Structures: (1) Direct Exchange (an exchange where two people reciprocate costs and rewards), (2) Generalized Exchange (an exchange where reciprocation involves the social network and isn't confined to two individuals), (3) Productive Exchange (an exchange where both partners incur costs and benefits simultaneously). Critique: Some say falls short in terms of scope in examining group solidarity vs focusing on individual fulfillment. Critizied for its utility due to not going an accurate picture of people as they particapet in groups and assumes a great deal of cognitive awareness and extreme self-interest. Testability isa challenge, though not impossible. Very heuristic. Tradition: Semiotic, Phenomenological, Socio-Psychological

Expectancy Violations Theory

Creator(s): Judee Burgoon Date: 1978 Main Idea: Expectancy Violations Theory is concerned primarily with the structure of nonverbal messages. It asserts that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception the receiver has of the violator. Violating another's expectations is a strategy that may be used rather than conforming to another's expectations. Key Concepts: Proxemics, personal space, intimate distance (0-18 inches), personal distance (18 inches to four feet), societal distance (4-12 feet), public distance (12 feet and beyond). Territoriality: primary territories (signal a person's exclusive domain over an area or object), secondary territories (signal a person's affiliation with an area or object), public territories (signal open spaces for everyone, including beaches and parks). Three Assumptions: (1) Expectancies drive human interaction, (2) Expectancies for human behavior are learned, (3) People make predictions about nonverbal behavior. Expectancies, pre-interactional expectations, interactional expectations. Arousal (increased attention when divisions from expectations occur), cognitive arousal (mental awareness of expectation deviation), physical arousal (bodily change resulting from expectation deviation). Threat threshold (tolerance for distance violation), violation valence (perceived negative/positive assessment of unexpected behavior), communicator reward valance (sum of pos/neg characteristics of a person and portal for them to carry out reward/punishment). Critique: Appears too broad but clarified parameters of "personal space." Very practical but challenging testability, but it can be tested. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Burke's Pentad

Creator(s): Kenneth Burke Date: 1945 "Grammar of Motives" Main Idea: In addition to devising the theory of Dramatism, Burke (1945) created a method for applying his theory toward an understanding of symbolic activi- ties. He called his method the pentad because it consists of five points for analyzing a symbolic text like a speech or a series of articles Key Concepts: Act (one prong of the pentad; that which is done by a person). Scene (one prong of the pentad; the context surrounding the act), Agent (one prong of the pentad; the person performing the act), Agency (one prong of the pentad; the means used to perform the act), Purpose (one prong of the pentad; the goal the agent had for the act). Attitude (a later addition to the pentad; the manner in which the agent positions himself or herself relative to others). Dramatistic ratios (the proportions of one element of the pentad relative to another element). Application: "Hunting and Heritage On Trial: A Dramatistic Debate Over Tragedy, Tradition, and Territory" (1993). Critique: Scenes may also contain agency, and Burke struggles with parsimony and too much scope. Tradition: Rhetorical

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Creator(s): Leon Festinger Date: Mid-1950s Main Idea: Cognitive dissonance theory is concerned with how perception and cognition influence and are influenced by motivation and emotion. When an individual holds two or more elements of knowledge that are relevant to each other but inconsistent with one another, a state of discomfort is created. He called this unpleasant state dissonance. Festinger theorized that the degree of dissonance in relation to a cognition = D/(D + C), where D is the sum of cognitions dissonant with a particular cognition and C is the sum of cognitions consonant with that same particular cognition, with each cognition weighted for importance. Festinger theorized that persons are motivated by the unpleasant state of dissonance to engage in cognitive work so as to reduce the inconsistency. Key Concepts: To reduce the dissonance, individuals could add consonant cognitions, subtract dissonant cogni- tions, increase the importance of consonant cogni- tions, or decrease the importance of dissonant cognitions. One of the ways of reducing dissonance assessed most often is change in attitudes. Attitude change in response to a state of dissonance is expected to be in the direction of the cognition that is most resistant to change. Critique: Elliot Aronson proposed that dissonance is not due merely to an inconsistency between cognitions. Instead, he posited that dissonance occurs when a person acts in a way that violates his or her self-concept, that is, when a person performs a behavior inconsistent with his or her sense of self. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Bona Fide Group Theory

Creator(s): Linda Putnam and Cynthia Stohl Date: 1990 Main Idea: Emphasized that naturally occurring (bona fide) groups have stable but permeable boundaries, are interdependent with the immediate context, and have links between the boundaries and context. So unlike artificially created groups, in bona fide groups, group membership frequently changes, the group's internal dynamics are influenced by the external environment, and its members are influenced by their simultaneous membership in other groups. Tradition: Socio-Cultural

Rhetorical Situation

Creator(s): Lloyd Bitzer Date: 1968 Main Idea: The rhetorical situation gives res to rhetorical discourse: discourse comes into being in response to a situtionand is given significance by th situation. Key Concepts: Four major aspects: exigence (imperfection marked by urgency, something other than it should be and can be modified by discourse) (1), a controlling exigence that functions as an organization principle (2), audience capable of being influenced (3), constraints that the rhetor must manage but also harness to affectively address the exigence (4). These constraints relate to Aristotle's "inartistic proofs" (people, objects, relations, attitudes) that inhibit the possibilities for rhetorical action. The rhetor can imply Aristotle's "artistic proofs" such as character, style, ethos, etc. to meet the constraints. Critique: Concern whether situation is created by external material conditions or linguistically constructed by rhetor. Some feel the rhetor gives the meaning to the situation. The theory has been also challenged and modified into a "rhetorical ecology" which recognizes the micro-rhetorics that all influence various texts/speeches and situations (Edbauer, 2005). Tradition: Rhetorical

Co-Cultural Theory

Creator(s): Mark Orbe Date: 1996 Main Idea: Grew out of muted group and standpoint theory. A framework designed to provide insight into the communication behaviors of individuals with little societal power. Focuses on various segments of society that have traditionally been described as being a part of subcultural or minority groups ("co-culutral" preferred term). Co-cultural group members will communicate strategically in a way that reflects a particular communication orienta- tion, and not all members of one co-cultural group will have the same communication orientation. Key Concepts: Five Assumptions: (1) A hierarchy of power exists in each society whereby certain groups of people have greater access to power than others do. (2) Dominant group members occupy most posi- tions of power throughout society; these positions of influence are used to create and maintain soci- etal structures that inherently benefit their interests. (3) The reality of dominant group power impacts members of nondominant groups overtly and covertly against individuals whose cultural realities are different from the cultural realities of those in power. (4) Differences exist within and between different co-cultural groups; however, it simultaneously recognizes the similarities that also exist within and across groups that occupy similar social positions. (5) Co-cultural group members will be more aware of the importance of strategically adopting communication behaviors that help them negotiate dominant societal structures. Six Factors: (1) Field of experience, (2) Situational context, (3), Abilities to enact different practices, (4) Perceived costs and rewards, (5) Preferred outcome (assimilation, accommodation, or separation), (6) Com-munication approach (nonassertive, assertive, or aggressive). Critique: Effective lens (doesn't generalize and avoids stereotypes), but lacks parsimony--identifies 26 practices co-cutural groups use and 9 different orientations (such as "assertive separation orientation"). Tradition: Phenomenological/Critical

Media Ecology

Creator(s): Marshall McLuhan & Neil Postman (who coined the term). Walter Ong also contributed much. Date: 1964, 1968 Main Idea: The forms of media, not just their content, impacts consciousness. There are various ecologies such as oral, print/literary, electronic, and digital that shape the way we view and interact with reality. Key Concepts: media extension and amputation of the self, McLuhan's tetrad, "the medium is the message." Tradition: Cybernetic, Socio-Psychological and Phenomenological, though it also finds applications within rhetoric as well

Media Agenda Setting Theory

Creator(s): Maxwell McCombs & Donald Shaw Date: 1972 (thought others expressed media concerns earlier than this, such as Lippmann). Main Idea: The mass media have the ability to transfer the salience of issues on their news agenda to the public agenda. Key Concepts: Media agenda (the pattern of news coverage across major media platforms), public agenda (most important public issues as measure by surveys), index of curiosity (measures extend which individuals' need for orientation motivates them to let media shape their views), framing (selection of restricted stories thematically related for inclusion in media when particular issue is discussed), Two levels: attitude object (1) and attributes with the object (2), interest aggregations (clusters of people who demand center stage for their concerns), communitarian ethics (responsibility to promote community, mutuality, and persons in relation who live for each other), agape love (from Christian perspective). Critique: broke sharply with "limited effects model" without quite going back to "magic bullet" model; but studies show this doesn't always work. Furthermore, recent social media studies show people agenda in "agenda-melding"--being selective of what influences them. The theory does well in meeting criteria of predicting, explaining, testability, and practical utility. Tradition: Socio-Psychological

Social Judgment Theory

Creator(s): Muzafer Sherif Date: Main Idea: We hear a message and immediately judge where it should be placed on the attitude scale in our minds. This subconscious sorting out of ideas occurs at the instant of perception. We weigh every new idea by comparing it with our present point of view. He called his analysis of attitudes the social judgment-involvement approach, but most scholars refer to it simply as social judgment theory. Key Concepts: Attitude is an amalgam of three zones: Latitude of acceptance (The range of ideas that a person sees as reasonable or worthy of consid- eration" (1), Latitude of rejection (The range of ideas that a person sees as unreasonable or objectionable) (2), Latitude of non-commitment (The range of ideas that a person sees as neither acceptable nor objectionable) (3). Ego involvement, contrast (A perceptual error whereby people judge messages that fall within their latitude of rejection as further from their anchor than they really are), assimilation (Assimilation A perceptual error whereby people judge messages that fall within their latitude of accep- tance as less discrepant from their anchor than they really are), Boomerang Effect (Attitude change in the opposite direction of what the message advo- cates; listeners driven away from rather than drawn to an idea), Reference groups ( Groups that members use to define their identity), Pluralistic ignorance (mistaken idea that everyone else is doing or thinking something that they aren't). Critique: It is very practical, yet due to cognitive processes being unseen it tends to be a complex theory. It requires quantitative research and has a small research base. Locating the three attitudes can be tedious, but they are testable. Boomerang effect is not often found. Tradition: Socio-Pyschological

Critical Standpoint Theory

Creator(s): Nancy Harstock Date: 1807 with Hegel's discussion of master-slave relationship; 1983 (essay) and 1998 (book) by Harstock Main Idea: People's experiences, knowledge, and communication behaviors are shared in large part by the social groups to which they belong (standpoint) Highlights the relationship between power and knowledge.There is no objective standard for measuring standpoints. Those who share a standpoint will share certain communication styles and practices. Started as feminist but moved to racial and queer theory. Key Concepts (5x): Material life structures and limits understandings of social relations. When material life is structured in two opposing ways for two diff. groups, the understanding of each will be an invasion of the other. When there is a dominant and a subordinate group, the understanding of the sub. group will be partial and harmful. Vision of dom. group structures material relations in which all groups participate. Vision for oppressed group is struggle and achievement. The potential understanding of the oppressed makes visible the inhumanity of the existing relations. Outsider within (marginalized who gains privilege), accuracy (seeing one's standpoint), situated knowledge (knowledge grounded in context and circumstance), sexual division of labor (work basis of sex). Example: #MeToo, Black Lives Matter Critique: essentialism, dualisms that become gendered

Distanciation Theory

Creator(s): Paul Ricouer Date: Main Ideas: The text is more important than speech. Once speech is recorded it becomes divorced from the actual speaker and situation in which it was devoured. Texts cannot be interpreted the same way as live discourse. This separation of text from situation is called "distanciation." The text has a meaning irrespective of the author's original intention, making it accessible to anyone which makes it more unerring than the live event, like interpreting a score of music, an artist will render it slightly different, but it is still recognizable. . Key Concepts: The meaning of a text, then, always refers to the overall pattern formed by all of the interpretations that are a part of its meaning. Hermeneutic circle consists of explanation and understanding (empirical and analytical). Understanding is synthetic and an intimate interaction exists between text and interpreter. The act of being open to a meaning of a text is called "appropriation." Interpretation begins with distanciation but ends with appropriation. Critique: Differs from Fisher in the role of the text, Ricouer says readers testing interpretations while Fisher says readers project their own meanings. Tradition: Phenomenological/Rhetorical

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Creator(s): Richard Petty & John Cacioppo Date: Main Idea: deals with the ways in which communicators process persuasive mes- sages. The theory describes two cognitive levels through which communicators process issue- related arguments and explains how these two routes differ. The Central Route (Message elaboration; the path of cognitive process- ing that involves scrutiny of message content.)and the Peripheral Route (A mental shortcut process that accepts or rejects a message based on irrel- evant cues as opposed to actively thinking about the issue.) Key Concepts: Elaboration ("the extent to which a person carefully thinks about issue-relevant arguments contained in a persuasive communication"). Six Cues that trigger a programmed response. (1) Reciprocation—"You owe me." (2) Consistency—"We've always done it that way."(3) Social proof—"Everybody's doing it." (4) Liking—"Love me, love my ideas." (5) Authority—"Just because I say so."(6) Scarcity—"Quick, before they're all gone. Need for cognition (Desire for cognitive clar- ity; an enjoyment of thinking through ideas even when they aren't personally relevant). Two Types of Elaboration: (1) Biased elaboration Top-down thinking in which predetermined conclusions color the supporting data (2) Objective elaboration Bottom-up thinking in which facts are scrutinized without bias; seeking truth wherever it might lead. Critique: Lacks parsimony, sometimes vague; but leading theory of persuading and attitude change. Tradition: ?

Invitational Rhetoric

Creator(s): Sonja K. Foss and Cindy L. Griffin Date: 1995 Main Idea: Patriarchal bias undergirds most systems of rhetoric, defining it as persuasion. This means an embedded ideology of domination and control. But a more feminist approach defines an invitational rhetoric as an invitation to understanding as a means to create equality, immanent value, and self-determination. Constitutes an invitation to the audience to enter the rhetor's world and to see as the rhetor does. In presenting a particular perspective the rhetor does not judge or denigrate others' perspectives but is open and tries to appreciate and validate those perspective, even if they differ dramatically from the rhetor's own. Key Concepts: Offering an opening/proposal, Critique Tradition: Rhetorical/Critical

Reader-Response Theory

Creator(s): Stanley Fish Date: Late 60s/Mid70s. Main Idea: Denies that any meaning ca be fund in text. Meaning lies strictly in the reader. Asks "What does the text do?" not "What does he text mean?" Assigning meaning not individual matter, readers are members of interpretive communities. There is no correct or objective reading of a text. C.S. Lewis published an essay exploring the reader's role in 1961, 1967 Fish published "Surprised by Sin" which is the first large literary work where reader response was analyzed. Key Concepts: The author of the text is not the source of meaning, hermeneutical circle, a text is like a Rorschach test. Unlike Ricoerur, Fish says distanciation is senseless. Variations of the Theory: Transactional Reader-Response Theory (Louise Rosenblatt, Wolfgang Iser) involves a transaction between the text's inferred meaning and the individual interpretation by the reader influenced by their personal emotions and knowledge; Affective Stylistics (Fish) believe that a text can only come into existence as it is read; therefore, a text cannot have meaning independent of the reader; Subjective reader-response theory (David Bleich) looks entirely to the reader's response for literary meaning as individual written responses to a text are then compared to other individual inter-pretations to find continuity of meaning; Psychological Reader-Response theory (Norman Holland) believes that a reader's motives heavily affect how they read, and subsequently use this reading to analyze the psychological response of the reader, Social Reader-response theory (Stanley Fish) extension of his earlier work, stating that any individual interpretation of a text is created in an interpretive community of minds consisting of participants who share a specific reading and interpretation strategy. Critique: Negates role of inspiration (Christian view), formalists view it as an anarchic subjectivism, fails to account for a text being able to broaden a reader's understanding. Tradition: Phenomenological

Identity Negotiation Theory

Creator(s): Various, but Stella Ting-Toomey Date: 1986 General Idea: Identity is defined as the cultural, societal, rela- tional, and individual images of self-conception, and this composite identity has group member- ship, interpersonal, and individual self-reflective implications. The study of identity and communication issues is a challenging and yet rewarding enterprise. By understanding how individuals define themselves and how others define them on multiple grounds, persons can communicate with culturally different others with more interpersonal sensitivity and understanding. Main Idea of IN: Human beings in all cultures desire identity respect in the communication pro- cess. However, what constitutes the proper way to show identity respect and consideration varies from one culture to the next. The IN perspective emphasizes particular identity domains in influenc- ing individuals' everyday interactions. Cultural identity salience is defined as the emotional sig- nificance that members attach to their sense of belonging or affiliation with the larger national culture. Ethnic identity salience is defined as the subjective allegiance and loyalty to a group—large or small, socially dominant or subordinate—with which one has ancestral links. Key Concepts: Five themes that are relevant to the study of contemporary cultural identity issues from the critical theory perspective to the social science perspective. These include intraper- sonal processes, intercultural communication competence, adaptation to a new culture, cultural identity in intercultural contexts, and power inequalities in intercultural settings. The IN theory assumes that human beings in all cultures desire both positive group-based and positive person-based identities in any type of communicative situation. Tradition: Socio-cultural

Coordinated Management of Meaning

Creator(s): W. Barnett Pearce Date: Main Idea: Comprehensive approach to social interaction that addresses the ays in which complex meanings and actions are coordinated in communication--from micro-interaction to cultural and societal interactions. We assigning meaning and take action in communication, but there is never a 1-to-1 relationship between meaning and action, it is mediated trout a series of contexts. Key Concepts: Meaning and Action, Interaction, Stories. Contexts affect others and we shift them (context of self, relationship, episode, and organizational culture). Two types of rules: constitutive (which help meaning) and regulative (rules of action)that create "logical force." There four types logical force: (1) Prefigurative/causal force which is antecedant-to-act, is being made to act because of prior conditions, you see yourself as "hot headed" so you act angrily, (2) Practical force, act-to-consequence, act to achieve a future condition, (3) Contextual force natural part of the context you are in, (4) Implicative force pressure to change context in some way. Interaction: (when entered person near certain what rules the other will be using, so primary objective is to accede a level of coordination). Coordination involves organizing interpersonal actions so you can proceed in a logical/appropriate way. Seven Aspects of Story that create coherence: (1) Stories Lived, (2) Stories Untold, (3)Stories Unheard, (4) Stories Unknown, (5) Stories Untellable, (6) Stories told, (7) Story telling. Critique: Parsimony, but all should be read as heuristics. Tradition: Cybernetic + Socio-Cultural

Narrative Logic Paradigm

Creator(s): Walter Fisher Date: 1978 introduced concept of "good reasons" and then intro'd narrative paradigm in 1984. Main idea: Symbolic actions—words and/or deeds—that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create, or interpret them. Paradigm is an interpretive lens (Kuhn). The narrative paradigm is not a specific rhetoric. Rather, he sees it as "the foundation on which a complete rhetoric needs to be built. This structure would provide a comprehensive explanation of the creation, composition, adaptation, presentation, and reception of symbolic messages." It is a move away from the rational "logos" governing rhetoric since Aristotle and Plato, locating itself between logos and mythos. A theoretical framework that views narrative as the basis of all human communication. Key Concepts: Five Assumption of RATIONAL view: People are essentially rational (1), We make decisions on the basis of arguments (2), The type of speaking situation (legal, scienti c, legislative) determines the course of our argument (3), Rationality is determined by how much we know and how well we argue (4), The world is a set of logical puzzles that we can solve through rational analysis (5). Five assumptions of NARRATIVE view: People are essentially storyteller (1), We make decisions on the basis of good reasons, which vary depending on the communication situation, media, and genre (philosophical, tech- nical, rhetorical, or artistic) (2), History, biography, culture, and character determine what we consider good reasons (3), Narrative rationality is determined by the coherence and delity of our stories (4), The world is a set of stories from which we choose, and thus constantly re-create, our lives (5). There must be narrative rationality (way to evaluate stories based on coherence and fidelity), narrative coherence (Internal consistency with characters acting in a reliable fashion; the story hangs together.); Narrative fidelity (Congruence between values embedded in a message and what listeners regard as truthful and humane; the story strikes a responsive chord), Ideal audience (An actual community ex- isting over time that be- lieves in the values of truth, the good, beauty, health, etc.) Critique: Balances need for experts and ordinary people to interpret, but his theory is a story and not everyone "accepts his tale" suggesting he is over optimistic, and others use narratives (such as Hitler) to do horrible things. Fisher thinks this confuses effective discourse with good discourse. Some say a standard of narrative rationality implies that good stories cannot and perhaps should not go beyond what people already believe and value. Fisher says his critics only bolster his case but criticizing the apparent incoherence or infidelity of his position. Tradition: Rhetorical

Identity Management Theory

Creator(s): William R. Cupach and Tadasu Todd Imahori Date: On the basis of Erving Goffman's Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior (1967) and formalized in the 1990s Main Idea: Presenting one's face shows facets of an individual's identity. Whether an interlocuter is able to maintain face or not, reveals his or her interpersonal communication competence. The use of stereotypes in intercultural conversations often results from the ignorance of each other's culture; the application of stereotypes, however, is face threatening. Being able to manage the resulting tensions, is part of intercultural communication competence. For becoming competent in developing intercultural relationships, the following three phases have to be passed: "trial and error": act of looking for similar aspects in certain identities (1), "mixing up" the communicators' identities to achieve a relational identity acceptable for both participants (2), renegotiating the distinctive cultural identities with the help of the relational identity that was created in phase 2 (3). Cupach and Imahori call these phases "cyclical" as they are gone through by intercultural communicators for each aspect of their identities. Key Concepts: intercultural communication and intercultural communication, personal identity which affects social identity. Tradition: Socio-Cultural

Cross-Cultural Adaptation Theory

Creator(s): Young Yun Kim Date: 1988 Main Idea: Individuals are open systems that must adapt to larger environments, and they do so by a cybernetic process in which inputs from the larger system are transformed into actions that lead to change. Change happens incrementally through a back and forth movements involving stress and adaptation. Key Concepts: Stress (tension between new and familiar), adaptation (development of new behaviors and ideas), functional fitness (how well adaptation has taken place), psychological heath, intercultural identity (more complex sense of self). The immigrant relies on "host communication competence" until they develop their own affective and operational confidence. Three Key Environmental Factors: host receptivity (1), host conformity pressure (2), ethnic group strength (3). Factors such as level of preparedness, ethnic proximity, and personality affect adaptation time as well. Tradition: Cybernetic

Problematic Integration Theory

Creator(s):Andrew Babrow Date: 1992 Main Idea: An attempt to illuminate the process of sense-making in situations that defy easy understanding. All meaning is associational: Human beings make sense of, find meaning in, or understand the world of things, people, events, ideas, and so on by associating these objects in their minds with various characteristics, causes, effects, and so on. People form these associations with varying levels of certainty. Some are seen as doubtful, some as possible, and some as probable or even certain. Thus, the theory terms such associations probabilistic orientations. Key Concepts: PI theory is distinct in its emphasis on common dilemmas that arise in efforts to make sense of the world and one's experience of it. More specifically, the theory posits several major forms of integrative difficulties, or challenges to deciding what something means. The most fre- quently noted of these is uncertainty, which the theory defines as troubled association: elusive, unstable, or otherwise doubtful. The theory fur- ther differentiates between ontological and episte- mological uncertainties. PI is at once an individual psychological process, but it is also inherently a communicative phenomenon. PI entails processes by which a particular meaning is formed, sustained, transformed, sedimented, or perhaps resolved. These eventualities occur when PI chains out in a variety of different directions. For example, problematic meanings can chain from one focal issue to other related issues (chaining across foci). Tradition: Socio-Psychological/Phenomenological

Relational Dialectics Theory

Creator(s):Leslie Baxter and W. K. Rawlins Date: 1988 Main Idea: When making decisions, desires and viewpoints that often contradict one another are brought up and lead to dialectical tensions. Key Concepts: Relational dialectics assumes that (1.) relationships are not linear, (2.) relational life is characterized by change, (3.) contradiction is the fundamental fact of relational life, and (4.) communication is central to organizing and negotiating relational contradictions." The four core concepts of relational dialectics include: 1. Contradiction (are the core concept of relational dialectics. It is the dynamic interplay between unified oppositions. A contradiction is formed "whenever two tendencies or forces are interdependent (unity) yet mutually negate one another (negation)".For example, in a relationship one can simultaneously desire intimacy and distance. 2. Totality: contradictions in a relationship are part of a unified whole and cannot be understood in isolation. 3. Process: Relational dialectics must be understood in terms of social processes. Movement, activity, and change are functional properties. 4. Praxis: Philosophical term for the concept of 'practical behavior' or sometimes 'the experience of practicing'. In praxis the dialectic tensions are created and re-created through the active participation and interaction Tradition: Socio-Cultural (?)

Symbolic Interactionism

Creator: George Herbert Mead Date: 1934 Main Idea: People are motivated to act based on the meaning they assign to people, things, and events. These meanings are create in the language people use both in communicating with others and in self-talk. Language allows people to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in community. Several researchers believe a body of theories, rooted in two branches: The Chicago School (qualitative) and the Iowa School (quantitative) Key Ideas: the importance of meaning for human behavior, the importance of the self-concept, relationship between individual and society, self-fulfilling prophecy, mind (ability to use symbols), language, thought, role taking, looking-glass self (ability to see ourselves as others see us), Pygmalion effect (living up to another's expectations of us), I (spontaneous, creative self), Me (reflective socially aware self), society, particular and generalized others, ethical echo Critique: Solid for more than 70 years, but some complain too broad and that its "utility" focuses too much on the individual, sometimes ignores how externals influence the self, doesn't explain emotional dimensions of interaction, hard to test, but it is meant as a framework not a single theory Tradition: Socio-Cultural

Dramatism Theory

Creator: Kenneth Burke Date: 1945 in "A Grammar of Motives" (book) Main Idea: Compares life to a play and states that life requires an actor, a scene, an action, some means for the action ti take place, and a purpose. The theory allows a rhetorical critic to analyze a speakers movies by identifying and examining these elements. Burke believes guilt is the ultimate motive for speakers and Dramatism suggests that rhetors are most successful when they provide audiences with a means for purging their guilt. Key Concepts: Substance, identification, division, consubstantiation (appeals made to increase overlap), guilt, order of hierarchy, the negative, victimage (way we attempt to purge guilt), mortification (purging guilty by blaming ourselves), scapegoating, redemption. The Pentad: Act (1), Scene (2), Agent (3), Agency (4), Purpose (5). "Attitude" added later to pentad, and Dramatistic ratios. Critique: Too wide in scope, lack parsimony (Burke is hard to read even for supporters). It's utility could be improved if it addressed gender and culture more expansively. However, it is been very heuristic and helpful. Tradition: Rhetorical

Bakhtin's Theory of Dialogics

Creator: Mikhail Bakhtin Date: Published as a whole in 1975 "The Dialogic Imagination: Chronotope and Heteroglossia" Main Idea: A dialogic is communication presented in the form of dialogue. The dialogic work carries on a continual dialogue with other works of literature and other authors. It does not merely answer, correct, silence, or extend a previous work, but informs and is continually informed by the previous work. The previous work of literature is as altered by the dialogue as the present one is. Whereas dialogic processes, especially those involved with regular spoken conversation, involve a type of listening that attends to the implicit intentions behind the speaker's actual words. Unlike a dialectic process, dialogics often do not lead to closure and remain unresolved. Key Concepts: Heteroglossia: Any language, in Bakhtin's view, that stratifies into many voices: "social dialects, professional jargons, generic languages, languages of generations and age groups, tendentious languages, languages of the authorities, of various circles and of passing fashions". This diversity of voice is, Bakhtin asserts, the defining characteristic of the novel as a genre. Chronotype: (literally, "time space") to the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed in literature. Tradition: Rhetorical

Fantasy Theme Analysis

Creator: Robert Bales (original work) adapted by Earnest Bormann Date: 1985 Main Idea: Bales discovered that dramatizing was a signi cant type of communication that often fostered group cohesiveness. Propelled by Symbolic Convergence Theory, FTA is a form of rhetorical criticism that seeks understand how shared realties in groups influence the way people think and act. "Fantasy" is the creative and imaginative shared interpretation of events that fulfills a group's psychological or rhetorical needs. Key Concepts: One must select an "artifact" that has evidence of symbolic convergence. Then must be coded for setting (where did action take lace and what are the characteristics of where it took place), character (know as much about the people involved, how are they viewed by others, what are demographics, behaviors, and attitudes?), and action themes (how were the actions conveyed to the rhetor, what actually happened?). Followed by constructing a rhetorical vision from those fantasy themes. Fantasy chain (A symbolic explosion of lively agreement within a group in response to a member's dramatizing message), Fantasy type (A cluster of related fantasy themes; greater ab- stractions incorporating several concrete fantasy themes that exist when shared meaning is taken for granted). Critique: Very heuristic, with objective and interpretive. It is predictive, explanatory, clarifies values, etc. Overall a very solid theory. Tradition: Rhetorical

Communication Privacy Management

Creator: Sandra Petronio Date: 1991 Main Idea: A systematic research theory designed to develop an evidence-based understanding of the way people make decisions about revealing and concealing private information. "Privacy boundaries" is a metaphor for how people view public and private information. Key Concepts: Five core principles: People believe they own and have a right to their private information (1), People control their prater information trough the use of personal privacy rules (2), When others are told or given access to a person's private information, they become co-owners of that information (3), Co-owners of private information need to negotiate mutually agreeable privacy rules about telling others (4), When co-owners of private information don't effectively negotiate and follow mutually held privacy rules, boundary turbulence is the likely result. Rule-based theory. Five factors play into our rules: culture (1), gender (2), motivation (3), context (4), and risk/benefit ratios (5). Collective privacy boundary (intersection of privacy boundaries for co-owners), mutual privacy boundary (synchronized collective boundary that co-ownrs share because they have negotiated rules). Boundary ownership, shareholder, deliberate/reluctant confidant, boundary linkage (alliance as to who else should know private info), boundary permeability (extent which 3rd parties are permitted to know), boundary turbulence, confidentiality dilemma (moral dilemma when collective privacy boundary must be breached to promote welfare of original owner). Critique: A good theory, but aesthetically fails as it is full of lists that aren't organized. Petronio addressed this in 2004. Yet, does not offer how to conduct negotiations when privacy has been breached. The how-to is missing. Tradition:

Face-Negotiation Theory

Creator: Stella Ting-Toomey Date: Main Idea: A model of negotiation that maximizes the chance of people's reaching a mutually acceptable agreement. It helps explain cultural differences in responses to conflict. Assumes that people of every culture are always negotiating face. The term is a metaphor for our public self-image, the way we want others to see us and treat us. Key Concepts: Face (The projected image of one's self in a relational situation). Facework (Specific verbal and non- verbal messages that help to maintain and restore face loss, and to uphold and honor face gain). "Collectivistic culture" (Wherein people identify with a larger group that is responsible for providing care in exchange for group loyalty; "we-Identity;" a high-context culture. "Individualistic culture" (wherein people look out for themselves and their immediate families; I- identity; a low-context culture). Self-construal (Self-image; the degree to which people conceive of themselves as relatively autonomous from, or connected to, others). Face concern (Regard for self-face, other- face, or mutual-face). Face-restoration (The self-concerned facework strategy used to preserve autonomy and defend against loss of personal freedom). Face-giving (The other-concerned facework strategy used to defend and support another person's need for inclusion). Avoiding, obliging, compromising in conflict. Dominating, integrating, emotional expression (venting), passive aggressive, third-party help, power distance (ways cultures deal with status differences/social hierarchies.), and mindfulness. Path: culture--self-construal--face concern--conflict style. Critique: Strong testability and predictability. Tradition: Socio-Cultural

COM705 W1Q1 "What is a theory? How many different definitions can you identify?"

Creswell (2014) suggests that theory provides an "orienting lens" that "shapes the types of questions asked, who participates in the study, how data are collected..." etc. (249). West & Turner (2010) suggest a theory is "a formalized extension of everyday sense-making and problem solving" (45). Griffin (2012) uses several metaphors such as "nets" that "catch what we call 'the world';" "lenses" which "shape our perception" of the world; and "maps" that guide is through unfamiliar territory" like a "scenic atlas" (5-6). In the quantitative realm, Field (2013) says a theory is, "a hypothesized general principle or set of principles that explain known findings about a topic" that leads to making new hypotheses (885). Perhaps as many metaphors and definitions for theory exist as do definitions for the word "communication." .

COM705 W2Q1 "Why is it important to examine theories through the lens of ontology, epistemology, and axiology?"

Each of these three categories relates directly to communication activity. Ontology, the study of being, fits squarely within communication studies since Berger & Lockman (1967) point out that, "reality is socially constructed" (p. 1). Axiology concerns itself with the study of values. Littlejohn (2011) notes the debate over whether or not academic studies should be "value free" (23). Some believe science should be value free and others believe such a task is not only impossible-but also unhelpful in unpacking the fine nuances of human experience. Finally, epistemology explores how we know what we know-or how we obtain knowledge. Berger & Lockman (1967) write that, "An understanding of language is thus essential for any understanding of the reality of everyday life" (p. 37). Moreover, "knowledge is socially distributed" (Ibid, p. 77). Communication involves the transmission of knowledge about the world. What comprises that knowledge, how it's mediated, and how that knowledge leads to more communication are mission critical questions for communication scholars.

Metatheory

How we theorize about theory itself. Four Different Types of Metatheoretical Assumptions: (1) Ontology: assumptions about existence (2) Epistemology: assumptions about knowledge (3) Praxeology: assumptions about the practice of theory such as how it should be structured and presented (4) Axiology: assumptions about the values that determine the worth of a theory. Every theory has metatheoretical assumptions such as a preference for empircial, hermeneutcial-interpretive, or instrumentalist approaches. .

COM705 W10Q1 "On Phenomenology: Identify and discuss what Husserl, Buber and Gadamer contribute to the Phenomenological tradition. Which do you think has made the most important contribution and why? Reference Unit V from Craig."

Husserl takes a scientific approach to phenomenology trying to "bracket" the contents of experience to reveal, "essential structures...that make experience possible" (Craig, 2007, p. 217). For this scholar others must not be experienced as extensions of ourselves. In the short selection he writes that phenomenology "looks for a path from the immanency of the ego to the transcendency of the Other" (p. 223) Buber develops the I-Thou formulas focused on experiencing the other even without words. He walks through the concepts of being an "observer," and "onlooker," and finally "becoming aware" as a progression of deepening connection with the other. From here Buber describes the three realms of dialogue: genuine, technical, and monologue disguised as dialogue. Essentially Buber says, "the basic movement of the life of the dialogue is the turning towards the other" (p. 231). For Buber, there exists an "otherness" that moves beyond mere words and gestures that we must be open to experiencing as we come in contact with entities outside of ourselves, but also remain ourselves at the same time. Gadamar explores the idea of a hermeneutical experience as it relates to tradition. Tradition is seen as a "partner in dialogue" and a "moral phenomenon" since tradition is gained through the experience of the "other"—or the "language of a Thou." The author writes that people who "reflect themselves out of a living tradition" annihilates its "moral bond." He moves into a discussion of the "question" and how the act of asking right questions, in Socratic dialogue, is more difficult than giving answers. Gadamar suggests that we don't "conduct" conversations so much as "fall into" or "become involved in" them. He goes on to cover acts of translation, interpretation, hermeneutical dialogue between self and the other, and language. His essay is rather full, but basically he focused on the dialogical nature of human experience/tradition between us and an "other" mediated by language. I am not sure if one of these can be singled out as making a greater contribution than the other. However, I am drawn to the idea of a hermeneutic of experience and tradition, as it seems to encompass the other author's ideas—while expanding the typical approach to tradition.

COM705 W6Q1 "What theories, that you have studies in this text, have the most value and meaning for you? Also, why do they have meaning for you? Finally, have any of the theories made a dramatic change in your life? Have they changed your perspective or approach to communication and how you communicate?"

I have enjoyed immensely are agenda-setting theory, the rhetorical situation, and the entire critical theory tradition. Each of these theories has changed my approach to communication. Agenda setting makes me wary of news media, and I am more reluctant to weigh in on issues, at least initially, out of a suspicion that I am not hearing everything. It also has made me a bot more "judgy" regarding people who grab news items, particularly on social media from one favored source, and make dogmatic endorsements of their reporting. Rhetorical situation reminds me to shape my messages with audience and audience contexts in mind—always keeping on eye on the biblical text and one eye on the world for unique experiences that need to be factored in. Finally, the critical tradition has created a fresh interest in linguistics and coded language, and I find myself perusing and reading materials I would not have considered a few months ago. This (hopefully) lets me shape my language more inclusively and precisely.

Theory Textbook Outline (Littlejohn)

I. Foundations a. Communication Theory and Scholarship b. The Idea of Theory -Dimensions of Theory -Nomothetic Theory -Practical Theory -Evaluating Communication Theory -What Makes a Good Theory c. Traditions of Communication Theory II. Theories (with examples from various traditions underneath each heading) a. The Communicator b. The Message c. The Conversation d. The Relationship e. The Group f. The Organization g. The Media h. Culture and Society Applications and Closing Thoughts

Craig's Constitutive Metamodel

In 1999 Craig pointed out how surveys revealed 249 "distinct" theories working in a "productive fragmentation." Because of this theoretical mass, Craig created a framework to bring theories into better dialogue with each other. In his view, theory is a is "a coherent field of metadiscursive practice, a field of discourse about discourse" and a "family of related concepts." He organizes theories into seven traditions: rhetorical (practical discourse), semiotic (mediation by signs), phenomenological (experiencing otherness), cybernetic (information processing), sociopsychological (interaction and influence), sociocultural (reproduction of social order), and critical (discursive reflection). In 2007 he reflected on the model and upheld it stating it fostered dialogical-dialectical coherence. It is meant to be useful, not absolute. in 2015 he continued to defend its ongoing use by noting it's approaching 800 Google citations.

Sapir-Worf Hypothesis

In the early 1921, Edward Sapir described language as a product of culture. In other words, culture or society was a fixed reality that produced language. This line of thought separated him from social constructionism As Sapir examined the phenomenon of language, his definition of language emerged from a "non-instinctive, cultural function," to "a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols," (Sapir, 1921, pp. 4-8). Sapir's work caught the attention of Benjamin Whorf, who would soon become a protégé of Sapir at Yale University. It holds that the structure of a language affects its speakers' world view or cognition. Popularly known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined to include two versions. The strong version says that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories, whereas the weak version says that linguistic categories and usage only influence thought and decisions. However, the hypothesis does have its critics and this review will list three critiques. First, as this review has already pointed out, there is no definite "hypothesis" articulated by Sapir or Whorf. Secondly, Stubbs (1998) points out that Whorf's work has been understood as racist and bigoted toward other cultures because he pointed out how people in various cultures think differently. Third, Stubbs (1998) states that the real weakness of this hypothesis is that in this view reality is already determined so "people are confined to evolutionary origins, socioeconomic forces, the unconscious, or its language.

COM705 WK12Q1 "Please comment on something you learned from this weeks readings about our field that you did not know before you began this weeks reading and that you feel is important for a communication scholar to know."

In the second reading the authors point out that, "most communication research is increasingly insular" (Dervin & Shields, 28). They suggest treating communication theories as "theoretical discourses" (29) and making communication studies not more "coherent" but more "cohesive" (Ibid). This was an interesting observation as it acknowledges the confusion of the communication disciplines multiplicity of theories and unique language within each. They state, "to be accepted in a discourse community one must be able to show allegiance to the community's rhetorical orthodoxy" (30). The reason I felt I should have had this observation previously tucked away was due to reading Kuhn's (2012) work on scientific revolutions. Kuhn notes the potential of scientific paradigms to "insulate the community" from important societal issues (p. 37). He also proposes that current education within the scientific community can be "narrow and rigid" more than any other field "except perhaps in orthodox theology" (p. 165). For some reason I never applied this to social science research, but thought in terms of chemistry, biology, astronomy, etc. However these authors demonstrate that maybe it's a general disciplinary problem.

Theory Textbook Outline (Craig & Muller)

Introduction *sections are readings from the traditions (source material for theories) I. Historical and Cultural Sources of Communicating Theory *samples from history that influence theory *suggested projects II. Metatheory *Theorizing About Theory *Craig's Constitutive Metamodel II.-XI. The Seven Traditions (Rhetorical, Semiotic, Phenomenological, Cybernetic, Socio-Psychological, Socio-Culltural, Critical) A. Introduction to each tradition B. 3 Sample Essays Germane to the Tradition C. Suggestions for Further Theorizing Concluding Reflections

Critical Tradition

Investigates how power, oppression, and privilege are the products of certain forms of communication throughout society. 1. Seeks to understand the taken-for granted systems, power structures, and beliefs-or ideologies-that dominate society. 2. Uncovers oppressive social conditions and power arrangements. 3. Fuses theory and action "to read the world with an eye towards shaping it." Has its roots in philosophy (Plato's "dialectic") as well as Marxist thinking (ideology, etc.) and Adorno and Horkheimer's Frankfurt School (20a-30s, "culture industry"). Jürgen Habermas's consensus theory of truth (1971) and Stanley Deetz build the problem of "discursive closure" (all communication is distorted to some degree). Lead to Harstock's Critical Standpoint Theory, as well as critical race theory, post-modernism, post-colonial, and queer theory.

Rhetorical Tradition

It conceptualizes communication as an art of discourse, all of the ways humans use symbols to affect those around them and to construct the worlds in which they live. Rhetoric involves a rhetor, or symbol user, who creates a text or for a particular audience. Concepts concepts like audience, persuasion, enthymeme, agency, argument, and identification. Plato wrote Gorgias to critique the problem of rhetoric as practiced by the Sophists. Then Aristotle's students wrote the first collections rhetoric dealing with logos, pathos, and ethos, as well as deliberative oratory (considered legislative), judicial oratory (translates as forensic), and epideictic oratory (deemed as ceremonial or demonstrative). Various rhetoricians such as Cicero (5 canons) and Augustine (de Doctrina) expanded on rhetoric and applied it to preaching as well as other professions. During WW2 rhetoricians such as Kenneth Burke explored the problem of propaganda. Many other theorists and theories have followed.

COM705 W5Q3 "In response to the article I placed in the Course Content section: What do you think of the incarnational alternative to the integration model? Please explain your answer!"

Kevin D. Miller (2014) suggests that "if scholarship is the pursuit of truth...then scholarship should not be seen as foreign to faith but as a natural part of it" (p. 131). Lamenting the dichotomy implied in terms such as "Christian Education" and tasks such as writing an "integration of faith and learning" statement, Miller seeks to find a more holistic approach to research done by believers. He proposes a "religionless scholarship" with "incarnational humility and prophetic meekness" (p. 132). Miller's concept of religionless scholarship means that believing researchers seek to do work from a standpoint of solidarity with non-religious scholars. Bottom line, Miller wants to remove Christian qualifiers to a believer's approach to research and reframe it as a human enterprise—using the incarnation of Christ as a metaphor and emphasizing more local subject findings rather than empirical statements. While his goal is admirable, and Christians often have "escapist theology" reflected in their vernacular (placing them on the outside of humanity instead of inside it), Miller's analogy struggles. The incarnation is not completely a human event

COM705 W5Q2 "What does the Critical Tradition contribute to your understanding of media studies? Stated another way one might ask: Are these theories really useful for our understanding of media use and effects? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the theories emerging from the Critical Tradition?"

Littlejohn (2011) notes five major branches within the tradition including Marxism, political-economic media theory, Frankfurt School (media constructing culture), hegemonic theory, and cultural studies (p. 361). The author states that media "are players in ideological struggle" (p. Ibid). Essentially this tradition views media as a tool used by dominant cultures to shape society in certain ways, almost akin to McCluhan's observation that "the medium is the message," (Griffin, 2012, p. 321); except this tradition places an emphasis on who is using the medium and how that might affect certain groups. One challenge this tradition may have is committing what Muehlhoff & Lewis (2010) call "fundamental attribution error"—which assigns internal motives to external actions (p. 58). In other words, the use of media by dominant groups may not always be because they are sinister control freaks, but rather they are simply exercising power in ways they might not always be aware of. The strength of critical theory is that it does seek to uncover the power structures in play within media environments. Kincheloe and McLaren (2005, p. 303) outline three weaknesses of critical scholarship: 1. A plethora of critical theories 2. An evolving and changing tradition3. Lack of specificity in critical theories due to disagreement among critical scholars Therefore, while critical scholars present underlying messages in media to empower individuals, they typically do not agree on the research, causing confusion and inconsistency amongst themselves.

COM705 W4Q1 "What is Martin Buber's contribution to communication theory? In responding to this question discuss how Buber's ideas of "dialogue" and "I-Thou" and how they challenge some of our Christian values and beliefs."

Martin Buber challenges the "Sender-Message-Receiver" model of communication. In this schema, the sender is the active party and the receiver is the passive party. Buber would call this the "I-It" relationship. In an "I-It" relationship there is intermediate communication between the subject and the object.The subject can use the object. Buber breaks down the subject-object dichotomy to propose a new way to understand communication between two persons. Buber gives two challenges for Christian values and beliefs. First, positively Buber's thought has enhanced the idea of a "personal God." In classic Christianity, God has been thought of as completely transcendent and other that humans had no capacity to communicate with God. Some, such as the early Roman Catholics, suggested that the only way to relate to God is to go through an intermediary such as a priest. However, in the nature of the Trinity, there is no intermediary necessary for Jesus, who is God, serves as that intermediary between God and humanity. This all means that we can communicate directly with God! Secondly, Buber's thought has negatively challenged the classic Christian idea of God. In the classic idea of God, people understood God as immutable, or that He does not change. Christians say, God just "is." He is being par excellence. Buber's thought challenges this notion because in an I-Thou relationship it never 'is' but is always becoming. In this sense, is not, but is becoming. A number of difficult philosophical debates have ensued to resolve this notion but that is for another field and post.

COM705 W5Q1 "Are McLuhan's theories still relevant for media studies today? If so, how so? If not, why not?"

McCluhan's most famous work, The Medium is the Massage, was released in 1967. In this work, and elsewhere, McCluhan, wrote about the influences of technologies such as clocks, televisions, radios, movies, telephones, and even roads and games" and the "social impact of these primary mediated forms of communication" (West & Turner, 2010, p. 428). He essentially wanted to know how media shaped the cultures people live in, leading some scholars to describe his theories as "media ecology" (Ibid, 429). His famous dictum "the medium is the message" still holds true, perhaps even more so, nearly 50 years later, (Griffin, 2012, p. 321). To go through all the examples of how technology has increasingly encroached upon human beings daily life since the 60s is an impossible task. Every since Socrates chastised Lysias about how writing will ruin human being's capacity to remember things, various mediums have shifted the ways in which we act and relate to one another. People now manage several public personas on mediums such as Facebook and Instagram, video call their grandkids, and have introduced terms such as "Google," used as a verb, into the vernacular. McCluhan's general observation about how media environments shape our cultures still stands with examples literally at our fingertips.

COM705 Syllabus Outline

Mission Statement Title Professor Contact Information Communication Policy Course Description Program Outcomes Relationship to Institution's Mission Course Requirements Integration of Faith and Learning Attendance and Participation Required Texts: Berger & Luckmann (1966), Craig & Muller (2007), Littlejohn & Foss (2010) Methods of Evaluation (Class Participation, Critical Reviews, Annotated Bibliography, Major Paper) & Grading 16 Week Course (one modular week) I. Weeks 1-6 Read 2 chapters of Littlejohn & Foss each week and reflect on questions beginning with definitions of theory, field/discipline, and traditions; and then reflecting on 1 or 2 theories from each week's reading II. Week 7 Read Berger & Luckmann with a critical review III. Weeks 8-11 Read 2x Units of Craig & Muller per week and respond on various traditions/theorists' essays; annotated bibliography due week 10 IV. Week 12 Readings V. Week 13 Term paper discussions VI. Week 14-16 Research paper work and personal reflection essays on theory/what was learned

COM705 W1Q2 "What is the difference between these two scholarly terms: theory and model?"

Models are "simplified representations of complex interrelationships among element in the communication process, which allow us to visually understand a sometimes complex process." Most textbooks, not only on communication, but on other disciplines as well, offer a variety of charts, tables, and diagrams to help unpack complex theories and concepts to make them more accessible. Working with this definition would place "models" somewhere between taxonomy and explanation, or perhaps in tandem with explanation, in Littlejohn (25). However, models take on another facet in quantitative studies. In statistics models provide the framework for testing a hypothesis linked to a theory.

COM705 W6Q2 "Please discuss modernism and postmodernism. In doing so compare the strengths and weaknesses of each critical tradition."

Modernism is a philosophy that arose around the Enlightment that placed human reason and progress due to that reason's ability to master the world, at the center of life (Greez, p. 57, 1996). As various industrial revolutions and advances in technology took place, subjective experience and religion fell out of vogue. The rise of science over religion relegated faith to the private sphere, and science now lays almost exclusive claim to being the methodology for discovering truth. Reason is presented as the prime epistemology and the inevitable narrative of human progress, through science. Postmodernism is a philosophical reaction to the primacy of reason and the narrative of human progress. While initially a late 19th century architectural term, the philosophical reaction came to a head in the 1960s through the writings of Derrida, Lyotard, and Foucault (Smith, p. 21-23, 2006). These writers called into question the auto-legitimization of reason, the metanarrative, and the power mechanisms involved in the creation and use of language. Postmodernism has affected everything from art to biblical interpretation (Adam, 1995).

COM705 W7Q1 "Please discuss if your view of the field has changed since the start of the class. If so how? If not why not?"

My views on the field of communication have definitely been influenced by the readings and discussions thus far. Perhaps the largest influence involves just how deeply our communication goes into shaping reality. Craig & Muller (2007) note that advanced communication scholars should pursue a "pedagogy that treats the entire field as a resource for reflecting on practical problems and, in moving from a sketchy overview more deeply into the field (p. 90). This articulates something I've felt for a while processing the seven traditions within the field of communication. I have never felt these traditions were as diametrically opposed as some make them out to be; and was glad for a paradigm that demonstrates how complimentary the traditions and theories are—though the text still encourages researches to specialize.

Who-Whom Theory

Origin/Creator(s): Unknown as it could be related to the Bolshevik phrase ascribed to Lennin asking, or it is from Harold Laswell's model of communication (1948). I found it used in a conversion article by Benson Ohihon Igboin. Date: 1948 or 2013 Main Idea: Igboin states, "The "who-whom' theory states that conversion is dependent on the presenters of the message and the thought and feeling of the respondents about them. This is seen in the aping of the presenters by their converts. It is not infrequent to come across 'Christians' whose only evidence of spiritual birth is to talk, dress, gesticulate or do things generally like their pastors." Critique: Can't find a source that says this Tradition: Phenomenological/Socio-cutural (?). It may also be related to the concept of "mimesis" in classical rhetoric.

Traditions and Select Theories

RHETORICAL Burke's Dramatist/Pentad Bitzer's Rhetorical Situation Fisher's Narrative Paradigm Foss & Griffin's Invitational Rhetoric SEMIOTIC Sapir-Worf Hypothesis Peirce's Meaning of Meaning Theory Baudrillard's Simulacra/Semiotics of Media CYBERNETIC Gidden's Structuration Theory Weick's Organizational Information Theory Actor-Network Theory PHENOMENOLOGICAL Coordinated Management of Meaning Cognitive Dissonance Theory Expectancy Violations Theory Uncertainty Reduction Theory SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL Spiral of Silence Theory Uses, Gratifications, and Dependency Theory Social Penetration Theory SOCIO-CULTURAL Symbolic Interactionism Agenda Setting and Framing Identity Management Theory CRITICAL Muted Group Theory Standpoint Theory Co-Cultural Theory

Semiotic Tradition

Semiotics foregrounds understanding rather than persuasion as the essential problem of communication, thinking and talking about communication with metadiscursive concepts such as sign, meaning, cognition, code, medium, and discourse. John Locke (1632-1704) was first to pose the problem of communication in semiotic terms, as the problem of sharing ideas through signs. Later 19th century Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914) pursued abductive reasoning and the problem of reasoning through signs. He had a triadic process involving sign, object, and idea--also called semiosis with the elements of representamen (sign), the object, and interpretant (idea that connects sign and object). Early 20th century Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) said language studied as a socially instituted system of signs that exists outside the individual who can never create nor modify it by himself. The structure of language is an autonomous object. Next Roland Barthes extends this to examine non-linguistic but language like signs (like photographs), blending in some literary theory. John Durham Peters blends semiotics with phenomenology-- we share the dissemination of signs.

COM705 W4Q2 "Choose your favorite group theory and explain why it's useful. Then identity strengths and weaknesses."

Structuration Theory Littlejohn (2011) unpacks this idea well stating, "as communicators act strategically to achieve their goals, they do not realize that they are simultaneously creating forces that return to affect future actions" (p. 275). Giddens (1984) says, "Human activities, like some self-reproducing items in nature, are recursive...they are not brought into being by social actors but continually recreated..." (p. 2, 17). In other words, individuals and structures influence each other. nstitutions represent "deeply embedded structural properties" that have exceptional "time-space extension" (Ibid). Everyone operates in a "duality of structure" where the "rules and resources drawn upon in the production and reproduction of social action are at the same time the means of system-reproduction" (Ibid, 19) and "the further removed the consequences of an act are in time and space from the original context of the act, the less likely those consequences are to be intentional" (Ibid, 11). It suffers from a lack of parsimony and does not incorporate emotional elements into the theory which would further complicate it. Callahan explains: "Giddens himself chose to avoid actively addressing the role of emotion in structuration. His approach treats emotions as issues or problems to be dealt with (Mestrovic, 1998) rather than substantive components of the structuration process" (Callahan, 2004).

Iowa School

The department of Sociology at Iowa played a key role after World War II in the development of the symbolic interactionism paradigm. Manford Kuhn, a leading symbolic interactionist of his time, taught at Iowa from 1946 until his death in 1963. He developed here what would be called the "Iowa school" of symbolic interactionism, and which was differentiated from the "Chicago school" developed through the work of Herbert Blumer. The Iowa school became distinctive for its emphasis on operationalizing symbolic interactionist concepts (such as self, reference group, or social object) in a standardized way so that hypotheses could be developed and empirically tested. The ultimate goal was to be able to put forth generalizable statements about human behavior. In 1950 Kuhn developed the twenty statements test (TST) as a research instrument. It became a very widely used research tool, garnering its own session at the 1958 American Sociological Association Meetings.

COM705 W11Q1 "Please explain in general the strengths and weaknesses between the sociopsychological and the sociocultural traditions. Now, drawing from the material in Units 7 and 8, take one specific theory examined in each tradition and compare them. In so doing examine the strengths and weaknesses of each.

The sociopsychological tradition, according to Craig and Muller, is the newest tradition within communication theory but is a strong source of theory production. This tradition is ensconced in empirical testing and hypotheses must be grounded in a "coherent model of communicative functioning" (p. 314). The sociopsychological tradition examines various angles of communication including interpersonal, organizational, and media just to mention a few. While it tests the causal effects of social influence and looks for specific communicative events, this rigidity could be a weakness. Craig and Muller ask if other methods can be used to evaluate communication theories within this tradition and also the question if there must be such specific, exact theories or if general theories are allowed (p. 317). The sociocultural tradition is broad, complex, and not organized as compared to the other traditions especially when compared to the sociopsychological (p. Craig & Muller, 2007, p. 365). It does however, examine communication on a macro and micro level allowing theorists to explore the effects of culture in broad or specific scenarios. On the other hand, this tradition appears to shape shift when changes in society occur. Therefore, establishing a strong foundation on which to build this tradition seems to be nearly impossible as what was studied previously may no longer be relevant to the present or the future.

Chicago School

Though not yet named as such, media studies' roots are in the Chicago School and thinkers such as John Dewey, Charles Cooley and George Mead. These authors saw American society on the cusp of positive social change toward pure democracy. Mead argued that for an ideal society to exist, a form of communication must be developed to allow the unique individual to appreciate the attitudes, viewpoints and positions of others unlike himself, and allow him to be understood by others as well. Mead believed that this "new media" would allow humans to empathize with others, and therefore moves toward an "ideal of human society."Where Mead sees an ideal society, Dewey names it the "Great Community," and further asserts the assumption that humans are intelligent enough for self-government, and that that knowledge is "a function of association and communication." By contrast, Blumer's Chicago School relied more heavily on participant observation research. The Chicago school was more anthropological in that it strived to understand the meaning system of an individual or group of people, without the emphasis on uncovering generalizable patterns in human behavior

Theory Textbook Outline (West & Turner; Griffin)

While there is slight different content, each of these texts uses communication context as the organization principle for chapters I. Setting the Stage -Thinking about com. definitions/models -Traditions and Contexts in the Field -Theory and Research -Criteria for Good Theory -Tradition, Com. Context, Approach of Knowing, Evaluation Criteria II. Understanding the Dialogue (several theories per communication context) A. The Self and Messages B. Relationship Development C. Groups and Organizations D. The Public E. The Media F. Culture and Diversity III. On the Horizon...

COM705 W3 "What does Speech Act Theory and Symbolic Interactionism tell us about communication? What was your favorite rhetorical theory From ch. 5?"

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