ComArts100Exam2

discuss key speech texts studied during this units

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be able to evaluate speeches including reasoning, use of supporting materials, language, audience adaption, and argument

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explain why speakers must be audience-centered and what it means to say that audiences are egocentric

-Audience-centeredness- keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation Explain ideas so they will be fit for the audience's background and knowledge -Egocentrism-the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being

three types of examples

-Brief Example-a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point Can pile them one upon the other until the desired impression is created -Extended Examples-a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point -Hypothetical Examples-an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation Usually a brief story that relates a general principle Follow with statistics or testimony to show that the example is not far-fetched

describe credibility, the two primary factors which affect it, the three types of credibility, and the three ways a speaker can enhance credibility

-Credibility-the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic 2 Primary factors -Competence-how the audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject -Character-how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience 3 Types -Initial credibility-the credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak -Derived credibility-the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech -Terminal credibility-the credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech 3 Ways to Enhance -Explain your competence(research or background) -Establish common ground with audience -Deliver speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction(care about topic yourself)

evidence: what is it, why used, what strategies should be followed to use effectively(4)

-Evidence-supporting materials used to prove or disprove something -Can enhance cred, increase immediate and long-term persuasiveness of your message, and help "inoculate" listeners against counter persuasion -Mental dialog w listeners by imagining what they might be thinking, anticipate objections, and give evidence to answer questions -Tips: Use specific evidence Use novel evidence(go beyond what audience knows and present new evidence, usually required hard digging and resourceful research) Use evidence from credible sources(not biased or self-interested) Make clear the point of your evidence(cannot count on listeners to draw the conclusion you want them to reach)

three major kinds of supporting materials

-Examples-a specific case used to illustrate or represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like -Statistics-numerical data -Testimony-quotations or paraphrases used to support a point

testimony, two types and their differences, proper use of testimony(4)

-Expert Testimony-testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields Lends credibility in speeches Even more important w controversial or when audience is skeptical about speaker's point of view -Peer Testimony-testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic More personal Tips: -Direct quote or paraphrase accurately -Use testimony from qualified sources -Use testimony from unbiased sources -Identify the people you quote or paraphrase

identify and describe the ten major logical fallacies

-Hasty Generalizations-a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence -False Cause-a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second -Invalid Analogy-an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike -Bandwagon-a fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable -Red Herring-a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion -Ad Hominem-a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute -Either-Or-a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist -Slippery Slope-a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented -Appeal to Tradition-a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new -Appeal to Novelty-a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

difference between informative speech and persuasive speech

-Informative speech-a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding -Persuasive speech-a speech with the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

role of emotional appeals in persuasive speeches

-Make audience react, more so when the question is one of value or policy -Pathos-the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal

explain why speaking to persuade is especially challenging

-May touch on listener's basic attitudes, values, and beliefs increasing resistance to persuasion -There will always be some people in favor, neutral, and opposed -Persuasion involved any movement by a listener from left to right on the scale no matter where the listener begins or how great or small the movement: strongly opposed, moderately opposed, slightly opposed, neutral, slightly in favor, moderately in favor, strongly in favor

differentiate between mean, median, and mode

-Mean-the average value of a group of numbers -Median-the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest -Mode-the number that occurs the most frequently in a group of numbers

Monroe's motivated sequence

-Monroe's motivated sequence-a method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action Five step sequence: -Attention-gain attention -Need-make audience feel need for change -Satisfaction-satisfy sense of need by providing a solution to the problem -Visualization-intensify desire of plan by visualizing its benefits, vivid imagery -Action-call for action, exactly what you want the audience to do and how

explain the basic issues of need, plan, and practicality and their importance in persuasive speeches on questions of policy

-Need-the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy? -Plan-the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem? (May not have time to explain in great detail, identify major features) -Practicality-the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem, will it create new and more serious problems? (Can provide assurance that a plan similar to yours has been successfully implemented elsewhere)

use of stats in a speech, three questions to ask in judging their reliability

-Often used to clarify or strengthen a speaker's point -Can be used in combination to show a magnitude or seriousness of an issue -Numbers can be easily manipulated or distorted Questions: -Are the statistics representative? -Are statistical measures used correctly? -Are the statistics from a reliable source?

four methods of organization used in persuasive speeches

-Problem-solution order-a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem Can also oppose a change in policy -Problem-cause-solution order-a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem -Comparative advantages order-a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions -Monroe's motivated sequence-a method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action Five step sequence

questions of fact, value, and policy (able to define, identify, and give examples of specific purpose statements)

-Question of fact-a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion, many cannot be answered absolutely Nonpartisan-informative speech where the speaker act as a lecturer or teacher Partisan-persuasive speech on a question where the speaker acts as an advocate Usually organized topically, each main point present a reason why someone should agree with you -Question of value-a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action Value judgements-judgements based on a person's beliefs about what is right or wrong Almost always organized topically Most common-devote first main point to establishing standards for your value judgement and second main point to applying those standards to the subject Justify judgment against some identifiable standards -Question of policy-a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken Involve yet go beyond questions of fact and value Put "should" in question Two types-gain passive agreement or immediate action Need, Plan, Practicality

ways to assess the different types of reasoning, flaws in cases of problematic reasoning

-Reasoning from specific instances-no matter how many instances you give, it is always possible that an exception exists, make sure samples are large enough to justify conclusion, instances should be fair, unbiased, and representative, reinforce argument with stats or testimony -Reasoning from principle-progress from general principle to minor premise to a conclusion, may need to provide evidence for general principle and minor premise -Causal reasoning-relationship between cause and effect is not always clear, closeness of events may be coincidental, be aware of assuming that events only have one cause -Analogical reasoning- especially used when dealing with a question of policy, if you argue against a policy, check whether the proposed policy has been implemented elsewhere, used on both sides of an issue

four basic methods of reasoning (identify, apply, and evaluate)

-Reasoning from specific instances-reasoning that moves from particular facts -Reasoning from principle-reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion -Causal reasoning-reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects -Analogical reasoning-reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second

difference between passive agreement and immediate action as goals for persuasive speeches on questions of policy

-Speeches to gain passive agreement-a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy -Speech to gain immediate action-a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

evaluate the use of supporting materials in a speech

-Supporting Materials-the materials used to support a speaker's ideas, the three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimonies -Listeners always ask the speaker: "What do you mean""Why should I believe you" "So what"

target audience and its role in persuasive speaking

-Target audience-the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade Can use questionnaires to find out where your audience stands on the topic -Can cater speech towards target audience

explain what it means to say that audiences engage in a mental dialogue with speakers

-The mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech(nonverbal feedback) -Imagining what they might be thinking, anticipate objections, and give evidence to answer questions(anticipate before speech)

three methods to generate emotional appeal

-Use emotional language- Use words w strong emotional power Too much in one part of speech may take away its impact -Develop vivid examples- Let emotional appeal grow naturally out of context of your speech A rich, vivid example will stick in our minds and may call to action -Speak with sincerity and conviction- Emotion can show through what you say and do as well as through tone of voice, rate of speech, gestures, and facial expressions

how to use examples effectively in a speech(5)

-Use examples to clarify your ideas- Helpful for audience if unfamiliar with topic -Use examples to reinforce your ideas- Make sure example is representative, not rare or an exceptional case -Use examples to personalize your ideas- Abstract becomes more meaningful when applied to a person -Make your examples vivid and richly textured- The more vivid, the more impact they will have on audience -Practice delivery to enhance your extended examples- Use voice to get listeners involved, pitches, faster to create a sense of action and slower to build suspense, eye contact Should be natural as if telling a story to friends

four key reasons listeners are persuaded by speakers

-evidence -credibility -reasoning -appeal to emotions

major demographic(6) and situational traits of audiences(5)

Demographic factors to consider: -Age Each generation has more or less common values and experiences that set it apart from other generations -Gender Old gender stereotypes no longer apply Failure to take account of current gender attitudes and practices will provoke negative reactions among listeners Differences and similarities between sexes -Religion Most emotionally charged and passionately depended of all human concerns Consider religious orientations of listeners -Sexual Orientation -Racial, ethnic, and cultural background May addressing listeners for countries other than your own Gauge those other perspectives and how they're likely to affect the audience's response to your message -Group membership Greek life, organizations, volunteering, etc Group affiliations of audience may provide excellent clues about your listeners' interests and attitudes Situational traits: -Size The larger the audience, the more formal the presentation must be May also affect language, choice of appeals, and use of visual aids -Physical Setting Temp, seating, location of podium, etc Some factors cannot be controlled and must be adapted to -Disposition toward the topic Pick topic that suits the audience and you (interest, knowledge, attitude) -Disposition towards the speaker More competent listeners believe a speaker to be, the more likely they'll accept what he or she says(or if they believe speaker has best interests at heart) -Disposition toward the occasion Occasion also usually has time limit Audience expects that you will conform to assignment and will observe appropriate standards of taste and decorum

use of audience-analysis questionnaires including three basic types of questions and guidelines for effective use(4)

Three types: -Fixed-alternative questions-questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives (ex yes, no, not sure) Limited responses produces clear answers, but superficial(surface deep) answers -Scale questions-questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers Useful for seeing strength of attitudes -Open-ended questions-questions that allow respondents to answer however they want Guidelines: 1. Plan it carefully to elicit precisely the info you need 2. Use all three types 3. Make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous 4. Keep it relatively brief

how can speaker adapt to the audience while preparing speech and delivering speech (2 ways)

Two major stages: -Audience adaptation before the speech Assessing how your audience is likely to respond to what you say in your speech Adjusting what you say to make it as clear, appropriate, and convincing as possible Anticipate how audience will respond at any time -Audience adaptation during the speech Keep an eye out for audience feedback