Combined DAT
______ (benzene with just a -CH3 attached) or anisole (______ with just a -OCH3 attached)
toluene benzene
Platyhelminthes: ● E.g. Flatworms, ______, flukes, tapeworm, planaria. ● Body symmetry: Bilateral (right and left halves, axis at sagittal plane) with cephalization (central nervous system - brain). ● Tissue organization: ______ (three germ layers), eumetazoa. ● Circulatory system: None (diffusion). ● Nervous system: Two nerve cords (dense nerve bundle running along length of invertebrates), anterior centralized ganglia (brain), some planarians have eyespots. ● Respiratory system: None (diffusion). ● Digestive system: Gastrovascular cavity (except tapeworms - absorb food). ● Excretory system: ______ (bundles of flame cells - involved in osmoregulation). General Characteristics: reproduce sexually (hermaphrodites) or asexually (regeneration), mainly aquatic habitats, parasitic lifestyles, most primitive of triploblasts, has organs.
trematoda Triploblasts Protonephridia
A ______ organism has three germ layers: the endoderm, the ectoderm, and the mesoderm. A diploblastic organism only has an _____ and _____
triploblastic endoderm and an ectoderm.
Chromosomal disorders - changes to the number or structure of chromosomes a. Down's Syndrome - _____ ___ b. Turner's Syndrome - deletion of ____ ________ → XO genotype c. Klinefelter's Syndrome - _______ ____ chromosome → XXY genotype d. Cri du Chat - deletion on __________ _____
trisomy 21 X chromosome extra X chromosome 5
Microtubules: Made up of protein ______ and serves to provide support and motility for cellular activities; acts as spindle apparatus which guides chromosomes during division Can be found in ______ and ______ of all animal cells and lower plants like mosses and ferns in 9+2 array 9 pairs of microtubules with 2 singlets in center
tubulin flagella and cilia
Phase Contrast Microscope
uses light phases and contrast for a detailed observation of living organisms, including internal structures if thin. Pro: has good resolution and contrast Con: not ideal for thick samples and produces a "Halo Effect" around perimeter of samples
Compound Microscope (light)
uses visible light to view a thin section of a sample. Pro: can view some living samples (single cell layer) Con: may require staining for good visibility
Stereomicroscope (light)
uses visible light to view the surface of a sample. Pro: can view living samples Con: has low light resolution compared to a compound microscope
In electron microscopy, electrons are shot through a _____ at a sample that has been fixed and metal coated. In this way, electron microscopy _____ the cell.
vacuum kills
When the ______ _____ is equal to the pressure at the surface of the liquid (normally atmospheric) bubbles of vapor form in the liquid and is at its ______ _____.
vapor pressure boiling point
Examples of non-colligative properties include color, ________, surface tension, and solubility.
viscosity
the more easily a substance will evaporate. Liquids that are said to evaporate easily, such as diethyl ether, have a high vapor pressure and are very _______.
volatile
Avogadro's Law: This law states that ______ and ______ of moles are directly proportional. Equal volumes of all gasses at the same ______ and _______have the same number of molecules.
volume and number temperature and pressure
Charles' Law: Charles' Law states that ______ and ______ are directly proportional under constant pressure.
volume and temperature
A ____ ____ would react with a strong base to produce a basic salt because in this case, the conjugate base of the weak acid is basic, and the conjugate acid of the strong base is neutral. For example:
weak acid
If your solid dissociates into a anion that is a conjugate base of a _____ _____, then decreasing pH will increase solubility
weak acid
A buffer is a solution of a ____ ____ and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. The best conjugate acid-base pair to use to prepare a buffer is the one whose acid has a pKa at or near the desired pH. Since we want a buffer of pH _______, we would pick a conjugate acid-base pair with a pKa close to this pH. By approximation, we see that ______ has a pKa (-log (1.8 x 10-4)) of somewhere between ___ and ____.
weak acid 3.5 HCHO2 3 and 4
Van der Waals A combination of ____ ______ forces between all types of molecules. It is caused by random shifts in electron density of particles that create temporary weak poles (charge centers) that attract other particles.
weak intermolecular
London dispersion forces, also called van der Waals force, are the ______ interactions of all. These occur in all compounds. However, unlike polar compounds, ____ _____ compounds only experience London dispersion forces. Dispersion forces arise when the electron ______ between two atoms becomes unequally distributed for a very brief moment, resulting in instantaneous dipole moments in a molecule that doesn't have dipoles. These short-lived dipoles induce short-lived dipoles in other neighboring molecules as well, in a sort of chain reaction. As a general rule of thumb, the number of dispersion forces increases as the molecule gets _____.
weakest non-polar density larger
Conjugation
when one bacteria passes genetic material to another bacteria
Kmno4/heat, H30 and O3,H202
will take alkyne and make it into carbox ozonolysis
If you are told that a reaction is ____ ____ and are asked about the effect of increasing or decreasing the concentration of reactants then the correct answer would be that the rate remains ________
zero order Unchanged
The common ancestor of all human cells is called the _______. Through the process of exponential cell division, a zygote makes two cells, then four, then eight, then sixteen, etc.
zygote
A molecule with more conjugated pi bonds will have a higher _____ _____.
λmax
Factors that influence membrane fluidity: 1. Temperature - _____ temperatures increase fluidity while ↓ temperatures decrease it. 2. Cholesterol - holds membrane together at ____ _______ and keeps membrane fluid at low temperatures. 3. Degrees of unsaturation - saturated fatty acids pack more tightly than ______ fatty acids, which have double bonds that may introduce _______.
↑ high temperatures unsaturated kinks
Under constant _______ and pressure, the density of a pure substance also remains constant.
temperature
1. For solids in liquids, an increase in ________ increases solubility 2. For gases in liquids, an increase in temperatures _______ solubility 3. For gases in liquids, an increase in pressure means an ________ in solubility Note: The process of crystal formation when a dissolved solute comes out of a solution is called ________. Some solutions can become supersaturated; this occurs when solutions contain more solute than found in a saturated solution.
temperature decreases increase crystallization
The Arrhenius equation describes the _____ _____ nature of reaction rates. k=Ae-Ea/RT Where: k = the rate constant A = Arrhenius constant e = mathematical constant (e≈_____) Ea = Activation energy R = Universal gas constant T = Temperature
temperature dependent 2.71
Several factors influence the fluidity of a membrane; they are _______, cholesterol, and fatty acid saturation in the ______ _____.
temperature, phospholipid tails
When a _____ ______ is deprotonated, one of the triple bonded carbons bears a negative charge. The negative charge is relatively stable because the atom is sp hybridized and therefore has very high____ character.
terminal alkyne s
A poly-A signal in coding DNA functions to _____ transcription. In mRNA, the poly-A signal signals to add on poly-A tails to the ______
terminate mRNA
Degree of substitution on substrate: SN2 does not occur with a ______ substrate, but E2 is possible. SN1/E1 are also possible with a tertiary substrate because a tertiary substrate forms a stable carbocation intermediate. A primary substrate cannot form a carbocation, so SN1/E1 will not occur. Thus, for a primary substrate, SN2 and E2 are our only options. All four mechanisms are possible with a _______ ______, so we cannot rule anything out.
tertiary secondary substrate
Pseudogenes
the human genome contains many types of DNA that do not actually code for proteins or RNA, and because most of the genome appears to be repetitive DNA, there are lots of transposable elements present as well. 1. Pseudogenes are former genes that have accumulated mutations over a long time and no longer produce a functional protein
Law of Independent Assortment
the migration of homologues within one pair of homologous chromosomes does not influence the migration of homologues of other homologous pairs
Epistasis
the process in which one gene affects the phenotypic expression of a second gene. A common example of epistasis is fur pigmentation in mice → one gene controls the production of pigment by either turning on or turning off and the second gene controls the color or amount of color deposited in the fur. Therefore, if the first gene codes for no pigment, then the second gene has no effect
There are ____ main types of microtubules in the spindle apparatus: Kinetochore microtubules (K-fibers) are produced by the mitotic spindle, and they attach to a chromosome's _______. _______ microtubules extend from the centrosomes to the cell membrane. They are involved with spindle apparatus orientation, because they pull the MTOCs toward the opposite poles of the cell. In this way, astral and polar microtubules are similar. Polar microtubules emanate from each _____ and connect with each other. As they continue to grow after connecting, they help push the MTOC to opposite ends of the cell.
three kinetochore Astral MTOC
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an RNA nucleoside triphosphate, meaning it has _____ _______ covalently linked to a ribose sugar. The ribose also connects to an adenine nitrogenous base. As a whole, ATP molecules are ______ because the three phosphate groups are all ________ charged and repel each other.
three phosphates unstable negatively
The setup of a titration experiment is shown in the image on the right. The ______ is added until the reaction is completed at a certain "_____ ____". In acid-base titrations, the equivalence point is the point at which the moles of H+ ions in solution is equal to the moles of _____ _____.
titrant equivalence point OH- ions
______ contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms (CHO), like carbohydrates. They have long hydrocarbon tails that make them very hydrophobic.
Lipids
Guard cells
The two cells that flank the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of the pore.
green house effect
The warming of the surface and lower atmosphere of the Earth that occurs when water vapor, carbon dioxide, and gases absorb and radiate thermal energy.
Metals
Malleable, lustrous Good conductors of elec/heat Form basic oxides Lose electrons to form cations Usually solid at room temp High melting and boiling points
Oxymercuration-demercuration is a _______ ______. However, unlike acid-catalyzed hydration, the mechanism does not involve a _________ ______, so rearrangements do not occur. The reaction is also stereospecific because it is an anti-addition.
Markovnikov hydration carbocation intermediate
Oxymercuration-demercuration reactions follow ______rule for regioselectivity, as the H adds to the less-substituted carbon. These reactions also proceed with both ___-_____ stereospecificity.
Markovnikov's anti-addition
_______ _____ is an analytical tool used to determine the mass of a compound. These fragments are sent through a long tube, where they are deflected to varying degrees by a magnetic field and thus separated according to their ______ to_____(m/z) ratio.
Mass spectrometry mass to charge
______ are motile Cnidarians, such as a jellyfish. Medusa only reproduce sexually.
Medusa
Hg2 (2+)
Mercury (1)
______ _____, housed in the stratum basale, are specialized mechanoreceptors cells that can respond to ____ _____ sensations (which makes them extremely abundant in fingertips).
Merkel cells light touch
____ _____ string together individual chemical reactions, where the product of an earlier reaction serves as the reactant for the next
Metabolic pathways
______ ______ increases as you go from right to left across a period and top to bottom of a family.
Metallic character
_____ _____ are held together by a sea of free electrons flowing around a lattice of metal cations. Properties of metallic solids: ________, ductile, conductive, high luster (shiny!), and variable melting points and hardness.
Metallic solids malleable
_____ describes cell division in all body cells, or somatic cells, except for germ/reproductive cells. The microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), or centrosomes, are key players in cell division. A pair of MTOCs lay outside the nucleus in animal cells, and each MTOC contains a pair of ______. Recall that plants have MTOCs called centrosomes, but are not composed of centrioles.
Mitosis centrioles
The second checkpoint is at the end of G2, where the cell checks for sufficient ____ ____ ____ (MPF) levels to proceed to mitosis a. The accuracy of DNA replication is also evaluated
Mitosis Promoting Factor
______(m) is the concentration in terms of moles of solute per mass (in kilograms) of solvent. Molality is typically used when ______ is involved because molality does not change with temperature, as opposed to_______ which does change.
Molality temperature molarity
______= Mass of Sample (g)/Molar Mass ( g mol)
Moles
Blastopore (body part) is formed first? mouth ______ (snails, cephalopods) - Radula (toungue) like strucutre used for ______ -Open circulatory system, Hemolymp, and _______exceptions (body organs help move blood aka hemolymph)
Mollusca feeding cephalopod
_______: ● E.g. Clam, snail, ____, squid, octopus, cephalopod, gastropod. ● Body symmetry: Bilateral. ● Tissue organization: ______, eumetazoa. ● Circulatory system: Mainly open; hemocoel (spaces inside an organism where blood freely flows around organs). ● Nervous system: Ventral nerve cords and brain. ● Respiratory system: Gills. ● Digestive system: Complete (alimentary canal and accessory glands), mouth and anus, radula (tongues covered in tiny teeth - unique to mollusks). ● Excretory system: Nephridia (pairs of osmoregulatory 'kidneys' in invertebrates). ● Embryonic development: Protostome
Mollusca slug Triploblasts
Coelamate
Mollusca Analida Arthropoda
the boiling points of hydrocarbons are much more straightforward. ______ branching always leads to a ______ boiling point.
More lower
____cells can give rise to some, but not all, of the 3 germ layers ______ cells can give rise to any of the three germ layers ____ cells can differentiate into any cell type. Only this one can produce an entire organism
Multipotent Pluripotent Totipotent
_____ _____ - include cosmic rays, X-rays, UV rays, radioactivity, chemical compounds including ______ and mustard gas that can cause genetic mutations. Mutagenic agents are generally also carcinogenic i. Colchicine functions by inhibiting spindle formation, which can cause polyploidy, as mentioned earlier in this chapter
Mutagenic agents colchicine
To get normality, one simply multiplies the molarity (M) of a solution by the number of H+ or OH- ions per molecule (n):
N = M x n
Sharp peak to the left of 3000 (around 3200-3500)
N-H (one peak for NH, two peaks for NH2)
Glycolysis: 2 atp added; 2 ______, 4ATP, and 2 pyruvated formed (net 2 ATP) _____ ________ glucose, important step and irreversible Phosphofructokinase (PFK) adds 2nd _______, forming fructose 1,6- Bisphosphate which is irreversible and commits the glucose to _______
NADH Hexokinase phosphorylates phosphate glycolysis
A conjugate acid is equivalent to a base with an additional H, for example if ______ were the base in an acid-base reaction then NH4+ would be its conjugate acid.
NH3
Vampire teeth at 1500-1600 and 1300-1400
NO2-
The salt bridge is crucial in balancing the charges created in the half-cells as the redox reactions proceed (it essentially completes the circuit). The bridge is a tube connecting the two solutions and is filled with a nonreactive electrolyte such as _______ or KNO3. The NO3 - anions will flow towards the _______.
NaNO3 anode
Carboxylic acids extract with aqueous ______ or______ _____ extract with aqeuous NaOH Amines extract with aqeuous _____
NaOH or NaHCO3 Phenols HCl
At the equivalence point, the concentration of the analyte in the acid-base titration can be determined by using the following equation:
NaVa = NbVb
______ and Rotifera are considered pseudocoelomate ('fake" coelomate). This pseudocoelom helps with nematode motility; they use the pseudocoelom as a hydrostatic skeleton. A _______ (hydrostatic skeleton) provides rigidity through fluid pressure.
Nematoda hydroskeleton
______ has the highest ionization energy because it is a noble gas. It is essentially impossible to extract an electron from neon's valence shell because it is completely filled and therefore VERY stable. Noble gases are chemically inert because their high degree of stability makes it unlikely for them to lose or gain electrons.
Neon
___ _____ are found in organisms without a central nervous system and cephalization (head and brain). Nerve nets contain neurons that are quite spread apart and are typically found in organisms with radial symmetry.
Nerve nets CNIDARIANS
NO3-
Nitrate
N (3-)
Nitride
NO2-
Nitrite
________ _____: ionic readius larger than atomic radius Forms ______
Non metals anions
______ __________ Light dependent reaction that occurs as ADP + Pi+ light -> ATP Electrons trapped by ______ in PSII are energized by light Two excited electrons are passed to a primary electron acceptor Excited electrons enter the electron transport chain which consist of ______ that contains ____ _______ and Fe2+ as cofactor Two electrons move the chain and about ____ ______ used Electron transport terminates with PSI/P700 where electrons are reenergized by sunlight and passed to another primary acceptor, they can go noncyclic or cyclic If non- two electrons pass down a short electron with proteins like ferrodoxin to combine with NADP + H to form ______
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation P680 PSII Cyt proteins 1.5 ATP NADPH
_______ (N) is defined as the number of mole equivalents (n) per _____ of solution. Like molarity, normality relates the amount of solute to the total volume of solution; however, normality is specifically used for ____ and bases.
Normality liter acids
_____ ______ occurs when a very heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei of almost equal mass, releasing _____ in the process. This is also the process by which nuclear bombs are detonated. Some common heavy elements that undergo nuclear fission include _____-238, Uranium-235, and _____-232.
Nuclear fission neutrons Uranium/Thorium
____ _____ ____ ____spectroscopy is a powerful tool for the determination of molecular structure. NMR spectra are acquired on a special instrument called an NMR spectrometer. There are two types of NMR spectroscopy: 1H NMR spectroscopy and 13C NMR spectroscopy.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
______ _______ have mutations that create an inactive, or 'useless' version of a gene that lacks its normal function. For example, a null allele in a person's melanin gene loci (at both homologs) would result in ___ _______ of functional melanin pigment.
Null alleles no production
elements in standard states Noble gases, Cl2, F2, ____, N2, H2 - gases _______, Hg - liquid Everything else solid
O2 Br2
Large broad trough far to the left for alcohols and on top of 3000 CM for carboxylic acids
OH
Polar solvents
OH, NACl, KI, etc. NO3, CIO4, C2H3O2; and NH4 salts
Strong nucleophile/strong base
OH, RO
CNS-
Thiocynate
S2O3 (2-)
Thiosulfate
Na/NH3
Trans or E alkene
______ ______ genes follow a two hit hypothesis. This means that loss-of-function mutations are required in both of their genes in order to be cancer-causing. This is because tumor suppressor genes are ________ (one gene copy is enough to maintain normal function). A loss-of-function mutation creates a ______ ______.
Tumor suppressor haplosufficient null allele
Dicotyledons
Two Cot Broad leaf Network of veins Vascular bundles in a ring Floral parts in multiples of 4 or 5
Electron transport Takes place in inner membrane/ cristae (folds increase surface area for more ETC) ______ _______ occurs here where ADP goes to ATP with the process of NADH and FADH2 via carrier proteins Energy doesnt accompany the phosphate group but comes from the electrons in the ETC establishing H gradient that supplies energy to ATP synthase Final electron acceptor is _______, which combines with H+ to make water Coenzyme Q/ubiquone is a soluble carrier dissolved in membrane that can fully reduced/oxidize as it passes electrons _____ ____is a protein carrier in ETC, common in living organisms Has non protein parts like ______ that donate or accept electrons ETC couples flow of electrons with endergonic pumping of H+ across cristae membrane
Oxidative phosphorylation oxygen Cyt C iron
_______ agents promote the oxidation of another molecule and are themselves reduced. Reducing agents promote the ______ of another molecule and are themselves oxidized.
Oxidizing reduction
________ are acids that contain ____. Strong oxoacids include HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4, HBrO4, and HIO4. A general rule for oxoacids is that acidity increases with a greater number of oxygen atoms (H2SO3 < H2SO4). Also, for oxoacids with the same number of oxygen atoms, acid strength increases with the electronegativity of the central atom (HClO4 > HBrO4 > HIO4).
Oxoacids oxygen
Process ends when energy is absorbed by _______ and ______ P700 forms cluster 1, PSI P680 forms pigment cluster 2, PSII _____ _____ (Chlorophyl b, carotenoids, phycobilins, xanthophylls) capture wavelengths that chlorophyll does not and pass energy to chlorophyll a where direct light reaction occurs
P680 and P700 Antenna pigments
CAM Photosynthesis- Crassulacean acid metabolism; another process similar to C3 and identical to C4 ____ _______ fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA, forming _____ ____ Malic acid shuttled to vacuole of the cell At night, when stomata open, PEP carboxylase is active, causing malic acid to accumulate in vacuole During day, stomata closed. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to ______, which requires 1 ATP, and releases CO2 that moves onto Calvin cycle with ______ and PEP Beneficial to cacti and crassulacean
PEP carboxylase malic acid OAA Rubisco
______ ______ cells conduct most photosynthesis. They contain many chloroplasts and are well organized as a single layer below the upper epidermis.
Palisade mesophyll
Odd: _______ Even: Paramagnetic and diamagnetic
Paramagnetic
______ - describes animals without true tissues (tissues, organs, and a digestive cavity); such as, the Porifera (sponges).
Parazoa
________ refers to the proportion of individuals who exhibit the phenotype of an allele for a given gene. These proportions can vary, which is why some alleles are said to be completely penetrant, while others are said to be incompletely penetrant.
Penetrance
Photosynthesis ____ Process that evolved from normal photosynthesis, or C3 photosynthesis, and is a type of spatial separation When _____ enters the leaf, its absorbed by _____ _____ and moved to bundle sheath cells Instead of being fixed by rubisco into _____, CO2 combines with PEP to form Oxaloacetate by PEP carboxylase in mesophyll OAA has 4C, therefore it follows Photosynthesis OAA is converted to ______ and transferred through plasmodesmata into bundle sheath cell, which is requires conversion of 1 ATP to 1 AMP Malate is converted into pyruvate and CO2 CO2 can be used in ____ _____and pyruvate go back into mesophyll and converted back to PEP
(C4) CO2 mesophyll cells PGA malate calvin cycle
BrO4=
Perbromate
_______ _______ = Mass of Element in Formula (g)/Molar Mass ( g mol) *100 %
Percent Compostion
CIO4-
Perchlorate
HCIO4
Perchloric acid
IO4-
Periodate
_______ ______ microscopes allow the visualization of thin samples containing live cells. Cells do not have to be fixed, stained, or tagged because phase contrast microscopes have tremendous contrast.
Phase contrast
Autosomal recessive conditions a. _______(PKU) - inability to produce the proper enzyme for phenylalanine breakdown, causing degradation product phenylpyruvic acid to accumulate b. Cystic fibrosis - fluid buildup in ____ ______ c. Tay-sachs - lysosome defect in which cells can't breakdown ______ for normal brain function
Phenylketonuria respiratory tracts lipids
PO4 (3-)
Phosphate
_________ bonds connect the phosphate group of one nucleotide (at the 5' carbon) to the hydroxyl group of another ________ (at the 3' carbon). A series of phosphodiester bonds create the sugar-phosphate backbone, with a 5' end (free _______) and a 3' end (free _______).
Phosphodiester nucleotide phosphate hydroxyl
This question requires the understanding of three concepts: ______ are only emitted from an atom when electrons fall in energy level. The differences between different energy levels (n) decreases as you increase in _____ ____. As the wavelength of a _____ decreases, the energy of that photon increases. We should then evaluate the relative differences in energy levels in the remaining three choices. Knowing the energy gap ______ as the levels increase, [E] has a smaller energy gap (5 to 4) than [B] (2 to 1) and [C] (4 to 3), meaning [E] will emit a photon with the lowest energy and thus the longest wavelength.
Photons energy levels photon decreases
______ are small short "hairs" called fimbriae on the surface of bacteria that can be used in the exchange of genetic material between bacteria and in ____ ____.
Pili cell adhesion
The fact that the hormones are _____-_____ means they are dissolved in a liquid. ______ is a form of endocytosis (transport of molecules into the cell) when the substances engulfed are dissolved in a liquid. Pinocytosis is known as "cell drinking".
Pinocytosis water-soluble
______ - short, circular DNA outside of chromosomes that carry genes that are beneficial, but not essential for survival i. _______ - plasmids that can incorporate into bacterial chromosomes
Plasmids Episomes
_________ Narrow tunnels between plant cells that exchange material through cytoplasm surrounding the desmotubules
Plasmodesmata:
______ are membrane-bound organelles commonly found in the cells of plants and algae
Plastids
________ is many partners at once. Polygyny is one ______ with multiple female partners.
Polygamy male
______ ______ is when multiple genes affect one trait with continuous variation. For example, consider a person's height. This varies tremendously from person to person. As such, it is a single phenotype that is influenced by separate genes.
Polygenic inheritance
______: ● E.g. Sponge ● Body symmetry: Asymmetrical ● Tissue organization: Parazoa (no true tissues) ● Circulatory system: None (diffusion) ● Nervous system: None ● Respiratory system: None (diffusion) ● Digestive system: ______ digestion via amoebocytes (totipotent cells contribute to structure, digestion, regeneration, move via pseudopodia) General characteristics: sessile (non-motile), suspension feeders, aquatic habitats, earliest animals, reproduce _______ (budding) or sexually (hermaphrodites - has male and female sex organs).
Porifera Intracellular asexually
Animalia is derived from domain eukaryotes Tissues? - No= _____(sponges) - Spicules - structural elements of sponges. Provide structural support ______- control the amt of water that enters a sponge Choanocytes- help sponge ____ food particles
Porifera porocytes trap
_______ - are not viruses or cells, but are infectious, mis-folded versions of proteins in the brain that cause normal versions of proteins to also become mis-folded. Prions are fatal, and are implicated in diseases such as _____ ______ ______, kuru, scrapie in sheep, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Prions Mad Cow disease
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) -
Pro: view surface of 3D objects with high resolution Cons: can't use on living samples, preparation is extensive as sample needs to be dried and coated; is costly
______ have one origin of replication while eukaryotes have multiple origins of replication
Prokaryotes
Iodoform test
-Is it ketone of a methyl ketone -deprotonation by base...attack by I....occurs 2 more times..HCI3 precipitates (+) yellow precipitate means there is a methyl ketone
_______ has radicals on both sides of the equation
Propagation
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
Pros: can observe very thin crosssections in high detail, and can observe internal structures with very high resolution Cons: cannot be used on living samples, preparation of sample is extensive, and technique is costly
The subshells of the azimuthal quantum number carry a letter designation such that subshell l = 0 is "s," subshell l = __ is "p," subshell l = 2 is "d" and subshell l = 3 is "f." These subshells can hold ___,____,____, and 14 electrons, respectively.
1 2, 6, 10
VIRUSES parasites
Protein coat (Capsid) Contains DNA or rRNA but never both Obligate ______ Pass on genetic material through transduction lysogenic vs lytic
Phenol
10 pka
Quaternary amine
10-11 pka
1L = 1000mL = _____ Cm^3
1000
H20
15.7 pka
R-OH
16 pka
When evaluating a Fischer projection, we can rotate it _____, but we cannot rotate it 90° because all the _____ ____ become dash bonds and vice versa.
180° wedge bonds
_____ (green algae and amoeba) type of eukaryote -Single celled organisms with plant and animal like features They are moving using ______ (feet like) Amoebocytes are motile, and ______ cells
Protista pseudopodia totipotent
______ are a kingdom of (usually unicellular) eukaryotic organisms, which means they contain membrane bound nuclei and organelles. Protists are not _____, plants, or animals.
Protists fungi
___________ follow a one hit hypothesis, meaning that a gain-of-function mutation in just one of their genes is enough to produce an oncogene that causes cancer
Proto-oncogenes
Arthropoda (all): ● Body symmetry: Bilateral. ● Tissue organization: Triploblasts, eumetazoa. ● Circulatory system: ______, hemolymph (equivalent to blood). ● Nervous system: Fused ganglia (masses of nerve tissue), ventral nerve cord. ● Digestive system: one-way digestion, some have salivary glands. ● Embryonic development: ______.
Protostome open
______ ______ In mitochondrial matrix Pyruvate and acetyl coa combine to produce 1 NADH and 1 CO2 Reaction is catalyzed by Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Pyruvate decarboxylation
We are given the equilibrium constant. We can calculate for the reaction quotient, ____, by counting the reactants and products in each diagram. If Qc < Kc, then the reaction will proceed to the right to achieve equilibrium. QC does not mean _____
Qc equilibrium
DNA fingerprinting is a technique that may be used in paternity and forensic cases. This is because it identifies individuals through aspects of unique DNA, including ______ and ______ ____ ______ (STR's).
RFLPs short tandem repeats
Primase is an enzyme that creates a small strip of_____off of which DNA polymerase can work since it can only add to an existing strand - i. DNA Replication requires an RNA ______ ii. Every Okazaki fragment has an RNA primer, and these RNA strips are later replaced with DNA by _____ ________ ___ a. DNA polymerase I replaces base pairs from the _____ ______ and functions in DNA repair b. DNA polymerase III is purely for ________
RNA primer DNA polymerase I RNA primers replication
Density = (P)(Molar Mass)/ _____
RT
Roman Men Invented Very Unusual X-Ray Guns
Radio waves Microwave IR Visible spectrum UV X-ray Gamma rays
____ _____ occurs when the nucleus of an unstable element is spontaneously converted into a ____ _____ element and a radioactive particle.
Radioactive decay more stable
rate of change vs rate of consumption
Rate of consumption is just absolute value
_____ _____ is the process of powering an energy-requiring reaction with an energy-releasing one. It allows an unfavorable reaction to be powered by a favorable reaction, making the net ___ ______ (exergonic = releases energy + spontaneous).
Reaction coupling ∆G negative
What happens to the rate of the reaction as we increase Ea?
Recall Ea is the energy "barrier" that must be overcome. Here, we are increasing that barrier so logically we would expect the rate of the reaction to slow down and hence "k" would decrease as well (i.e., comparatively smaller rate constant).
_____ _______- serve as binding sites for hormones and other trigger molecules
Receptor proteins
Light microscope
Red blood cell animal cell Plan cell Pollen Human egg Frog egg
________ is possible when atoms can accommodate the movement of pi electrons. Each resonance structure must be a valid Lewis Dot structure.
Resonance
Once bound, ____ moves along the RNA transcript in the 5' → 3' direction, which is the same direction that RNA polymerase is extending the transcript.
Rho
_________ - a five carbon monosaccharide.
Ribose
___ ____ ________, energy cannot be created or destroyed (conservation of energy). It can only be transformed or transferred from one location to another.
1st law of thermodynamics
net products of krebs cycle?
2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP
If Mi is 2, what are the possible values for I?
2 or 3
you should know that for elements with an atomic number of ≤ _____ , elements decay to reach a N/Z ratio of 1. Heavy elements like Uranium-235 almost always undergo either ______ or ______ decay.
20 alpha or gamma
Down's syndrome is a trisomy at chromosome _____; people with Down's have _____ chromosomes. _______ is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell.
21 47 Aneuploidy
Terminal Alkyne
26 pka
1K = 1C + _____
273
_____ ______ of thermodynamics: The entropy of the universe is always ______ (the universe is becoming more and more disordered).
2nd law increasing
speed of light
3.00 x 10^8 m/s
Ammonia
36 pka
_____ _____ of thermodynamics: The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute _______ temperature (0 Kelvin) is zero.
3rd law zero
Carbon-centered radicals follow the same rules of stability as carbocations: the greater number of alkyl groups directly connected to a carbon atom, the greater the stabilization. The full trend is as follows: Benzyl > __ ______ > 2° allyl > 3° > 1° allyl > 2° > 1° > methyl > ____/_____
3° allyl vinyl/phenyl
Scientists estimate that ____ protons must travel through ATP synthase for 1 ATP molecule to be synthesized.
4
Carboxy acid
4.5 pka
simple distillation and fractional distillation. If the boiling points of the two liquids differ by at least ____ ____, simple distillation is performed. However, when the difference is approximately 25 °C or less, ______ _______ is performed.
50 °C fractional distillation
Genes that are completely unlinked have a _____ chance of recombination, and the lower the percentage of recombination, the ____ ____ the genes are linked/closer together.
50% more likely
Molecules that dont rotate plane-polarized light are called achiral or inactive. 3 situations: - 1. If you have a _________ mixture of two enantiomers, then that mixture (racemic mixture) is achiral, despite all individual molecules being chiral 2. Molecules that ______ have stereochemistry in them are achiral 3. _____ compounds are achiral
50/50 DON'T Meso
Calvin cycle Dark reaction that fixes __ ______molecules through a cycle that repeats 6 times to ultimately make glucose ________: 6 CO2 + 6 RuBP join to form 12 PGA, and is catalyzed by the enzyme RUbisco, or RUBP carboxylase Reduction: 12 ATP + 12 NADPH convert 12 PGA -> ___ _____ or 12 PGAL; energy is incorporated; the by-products NADP + and ADP go into non-cyclic photophosphorylation Regeneration: 6 ATP convert ___ _____ -> 6 RUBP, which allows the calvin cycle to repeat Carbohydrate synthesis: Two remaining G3p are used to build ________. The overall reaction: 6CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + H -> 18 ADP + 18 Pi + NADP + 1 glucose (or 2 G3P)
6 CO2 Carboxylation 12 G3P 10 G3P glucose
If you have _________ atoms/molecules, that group will have a mass in grams equal to the mass of a single atom/molecule in amu. For example, one single molecule of H2O has a mass of 18.02 amu; if we instead had 6.022 x 1023 molecules of H2O (1 mole of H2O), that mole would have a mass of 18.02 grams. Essentially, amu to a single atom/molecule is analogous to grams to a mole of atoms/molecules (amu is a much smaller unit of measurement than grams).
6.022 x 1023
Organelles made of rRNA, function to make proteins Composed of 2 subunits _____ and ______= 80S in euk 50S and 30S = 70 S in _____ A larger S value indicates heavier molecule
60S and 40S prok
Each centriole is in a _______ array of microtubules.
9x3
Kw= Ka x Kb
= 1x10-14
pH
= pka + Log A-/HA
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
Endothermic:
A process in which heat is transferred from surroundings to the system (surroundings will feel cold) ΔH > 0
Exothermic:
A process in which heat is transferred from system to the surroundings (surroundings will feel hot) ΔH < 0
Bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria
Carbonyl
Absorbance frequency: 1700-1750 Appearance: Large, sharp peak
Nitrile
Absorbance frequency: 2200-2250 Appearance: Moderate peak
Alcohol
Absorbance frequency: 3200-3500 Appearance: large, broad
Amine
Absorbance frequency: 3200-3500 Appearance: sharp peak
CH3COO-
Acetate
______ of positively charged amino acids removes the positive charge, relaxing the electrostatic attraction between the histones and the DNA. This relaxation means DNA is more loosely packed and ________ transcription levels. _______ makes histones more positively charged, making them more ______ ______ to negatively charged DNA. Since the DNA is more tightly bound, there is a _______ in transcription levels.
Acetylation increases Deacetylation tightly bound decrease
Amphiprotic
Act as both a proton acceptor and donor (Arrhenius and bronsted)
Amphoteric
Act as both acid and base (lewis acids too)
_____ _____ requires ATP while _____diffusion does not
Active transport facilitated
mCPBA, H30
Adds anti OH to both sides
________ junctions are conceptually similar to desmosomes. However, adherens junctions connect adjacent cells via _____-______ microfilaments - not keratin ______ ________.
Adherens actin-based intermediate filaments
Peripheral membrane proteins are generally ______ _____ and Cellular recognition proteins
Adhesion proteins
Tollens Test
Ag2O/NH3 or Ag(NH3)2 Functional group: Aldehydes Pos: Silver mirror coat
SN2 = back side attack SN1 = Carbocation (slow step) - ______ is a good carbocation formation helper, it likes to attach to the leaving group
AgNO3
Silver nitrate in alcohol
AgNo3 in alcohol Alkyl halides Precipitate of Ag compound formed
Alkene vs alcohol priority? who wins
Alcohol
Group 1 Elements (excluding hydrogen): ____ ____ Group 2 Elements: Alkaline Earth Metals Groups ___-____Elements: Transition Metals Groups 13-17 Elements: _______, which have a combination of both metallic and non-metallic characteristics. Group 17 Elements: The ______ Group 18 Elements: _____ _____
Alkali Metals 3-12 Metalloids Halogens Noble Gases
Diamagnetic
All paired Sligtly repelled by magnetic because it has all paired electrons If an even number of electrons, then it can be either paramagnetic or diamagnetic; you have to fill out the electron configuration energy diagram to find out Liquid nitrogen
NH4 (+1)
Ammonium
Pauli Exclusion Principle
An atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons, each with opposite spin direction
Aufbau principle
An electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it
____ ____: includes desmosomes (keratin filaments) attached to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together via _______ proteins, providing mechanical stability by holding cellular structures together. Present in animal cells in tissues with _____ ____
Anchoring junctions adhesion mechanical stress
_______ - a genome with extra or missing chromosomes, often caused by nondisjunction i. One example of aneuploidy is Down syndrome, or _____ ___ ii. ______ ______ is a genetic condition in which a female is either completely missing, or partly missing, an X chromosome, leading to the genotype XO. Turner syndrome also occurs as a result of nondisjunction, and the main genetic defect is the offspring is born with physical abnormalities. A third genetic condition is ________ _______ (XXY), in which a male is born with an extra X chromosome
Aneuploidy trisomy 21 Turner syndrome Klinefelter's Syndrome
______ resemble more eukaryotes No membrane ____ -Ether linkages -Halophiles and _______ -Single cell organism
Archaea Histones thermophiles
An _____ _____ is any species that dissolves in aqueous solution to produce H+ ions. Arrhenius acids are also Bronsted-Lowry acids in the sense that they both release protons into solution. An Arrhenius base is any species that dissolves in aqueous solution to produce ______ ions.
Arrhenius acid
AsO4 (3-)
Arsenate
AsO3 (3-)
Arsenite
Blastopore (body part) is formed first? mouth ______ (arachnids, Insects, and crustaceans) - Chitin exoskeleton -Segmented joints -Open circulatory system -______ and other certain arthropoda have malphigian tubules to excrete _____ ____
Arthropoda Grasshoppers nitro wastes
Sometimes, the fluorescence used in fluorescence microscopy creates distortions in the image. These distortions are referred to as artifacts. ______ decrease the overall resolution. They are created by fluorescent microscopes because they illuminate the entire specimen at one time. This causes the specimen's _______ to be excited simultaneously. While this helps to increase the brightness of the sample, it causes the background to be unfocused.
Artifacts fluorophores
Paramagnetic
Attracted to magnets because it has unpaired electrons If an element has odd number of electrons, its paramagnetic Liquid oxygen
______ ______ conditions a. Huntington's disease - nervous system degeneration b. _______ - causes dwarfism c. Hypercholesterolemia - excess cholesterol in ____ that progresses into heart disease
Autosomal dominant Achondroplasia blood
N3-
Azide
1. ______ cubic - 1 atom per unit cell 2. Body-centered cubic - ____ atoms per unit cell 3. Face-centered cubic - ___ atoms per unit cell
Simple 2 4
Monocotyledon
Single Cot Long narrow leaf Parallel veins Vascular bundles Scattered Floral parts in multiples of 3
______ _______ _____ _____ (SSBPs) attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate ii. _________(like DNA gyrase) break and rejoin the DNA double helix of the replication fork, allowing the prevention of knots iii. To visualize this, imagine unwinding a twist by pulling the ends apart. As you pull, the ends get really tight and begin knotting up. A topoisomerase would break and rejoin these knots so that you have an unknotted piece of string
Single stranded binding proteins Topoisomerases
As Ksp goes up
Solubility goes up
_______ mutations are not passed down to offspring
Somatic
____ ___ (C) is the amount of energy that is required to raise the temperature of ___ _____ of a substance by 1 ° Celsius. The units for specific heat are J/ g°C.
Specific heat 1.0 gram
+H, +S, + or -G
Spon at high temp or non spon at low temp
-H, -S, + or - G
Spon at low temp or non spon at high temp
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS -H, +S, -G
Spontaneous at all temperatures
Weaker acid base
Stable acid base
_______- form of energy storage for plants and is an ________ bonded polysaccharide. Linear starch is called ________; the branched form is amylopectin.
Starch alpha (α) amylose
____This happens when the N/Z ratio of an element is greater than ____. ____decay happens when the N/Z ratio is less than 1 for elements with atomic numbers of ≤ 20.
B- 1 β+
Which of the following organisms have circular chromosomes?
Bacteria and Archaea
________ - a virus that only attacks bacteria, is usually specific to a type of cell via viral surface proteins binding to specific receptors on the host cell of the species.
Bacteriophage
Which type of symmetry do you have (germ layers)? ______ - one plane of symmetry (3 germ layers) Radial (2 germ layers) - circulate or multple planes - Must be ____ (jelly fish, hydra, anemone) - AKA coelenterates. Having stinging cells called _____ or nematocysts - only have one opening for consumptions and excretions - Hydrae can reproduce asexually by ______.
Bilateral Cnidaria cnidocysts budding
Chordates (Most important for DAT): ● E.g. Vertebrates. ● Body Symmetry: _____. ● Tissue Organization: _____, eumetazoa. ● Embryonic Development: Deuterostome. Shared Traits of all Chordates: 1. ______: cartilaginous rod derived from mesoderm. Forms the primitive axis and supports the body during embryonic development. Lost in most chordates, and replaced by bone. 2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord: forms spinal cord - basis of nervous system and brain. 3. ____ _____ ___: forms pharynx, gills, other feeding structures. Provide channels from pharynx to other structures. In humans forms Eustachian tubes and other head and neck structures. 4. Muscular ___-_______ ____: lost during embryonic development in humans and many other chordates.
Bilateral Triploblasts Notochord Pharyngeal Gill Slits: post-anal tail
____ _____ include hydrogen halides like HCl, HBr, and HI. Though all three acids are strong, HI is more acidic than HBr, and HBr is more acidic than HCl. The reason behind this trend is _____ ______. As the atomic radius of the halogen atom increases, its bond to hydrogen becomes longer and therefore weaker. Note that HF is actually a _____ _____ because fluorine is relatively small, which makes the H-F bond hard to break.
Binary acids atomic radius weak acid
Plants Vascularized? no: ______(Mosses/lichens) Seeds? no: Tracheophyte (fern) - repoduce by spores. Spores are ______ or homosporous (contrast with micro and mega spores) Flowers? - No: _____ (Conifers) Yes: Angiosperm - Narrow leaves is monocots (grass). Sepals in multiples of 3 - Broad leaves is _____(trees). Sepals in multiples of 4 or 5.
Bryophyte bisexual Gymnosperm dicots
the final temperature increases with decreasing ____. Mg has the largest heat capacity, and therefore will have the lowest final temperature. Ag has the smallest heat capacity, and therefore will have the highest final temperature.
C
Big, pointy peaks coming straight down around 3000CM
C-H
While plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use oxygenic ____ ______, there is also another type of photosynthesis used by certain bacteria. This is called _______ __________ , and it does not use water as an initial electron source for the light-dependent reactions. As such, anoxygenic photosynthesizers consume (and fix) inorganic carbon dioxide, but they do not release oxygen into the environment. Some common anoxygenic photosynthesizers include _____ and _______ sulfur bacteria. These photosynthetic organisms use hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as their source of protons and electrons for the light-dependent reactions. Due to insufficient oxygen atoms in hydrogen sulfide, no oxygen will be released after the molecule is split.
C3 photosynthesis anoxygenic photosynthesis green and purple
Medium sized peak at 2200
CN Nitrile
Strong nucleophile/weak bases
CN, N3, Cl,I, Br, RS, HS, RSH, H2S, RNH2, R3P
Key locations for photosynthesis: Thylakoid lumen Thylakoids _______ Inner and outer membrane Intermembrane space
Stroma
____ ______ are molecules with the same molecular formula but different connectivity:
Structural isomers
________ - disaccharide made of glucose + fructose. Lactose - disaccharide made of galactose + ______ ________ - disaccharide made of glucose + glucose.
Sucrose glucose Maltose
S (2-)
Sulfide
Thus, as ___ is increased, the rate of the reaction is increased. Since rate of the reaction and the rate constant are directly related, an increase in the rate would result in an increase in "___" as well.
T k
Strong bulky base
T-buo, DBN, DBU, LDA
____: 0ppm Hydroxyl/amino: 1-5 ppm ______: 2-5 ppm SP2C: 4-7 _____: 6-8 ppm Aldehyde/Phenol: 10 Carboxyl Amide: 12-14
TMS SP3C Aromatic
____ 0 PPM SP3C: 20-40 PPM SP2C: 100-150 PPM ______: 120-160 PPM Esters/Amide/Carbox Acids: ___-____ ______/Ketones: 200-280
TMS: Aromatic 160-180 Aldehydes
_____ ____ are acidic polysaccharides found only in Gram-positive bacteria. They connect the cell wall peptidoglycan to the cell membrane providing significant _____ and ____.
Teichoic acids rigidity and structure
benzylic
Carbon atom adjacent to benzene ring
CO3 (2-)
Carbonate
Big point at 1700
Carbonyl
When glucose is low, body uses other energy sources in priority of
Carbs Fats Proteins
_______ reactions release free energy, so they are an example of exergonic reactions (energy release). They are ______ reactions (negative Gibbs free energy, -∆G) because they do not require energy input to proceed. Mnemonic: _______ reactions mean that free energy is EXiting the system. Anabolic reactions absorb free energy, so they are an example of endergonic reactions (requires energy). These are _____-_______processes because they require energy input to proceed to the final state.
Catabolic spontaneous EXergonic non-spontaneous
________ increase reaction rates by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. The transition state is the unstable conformation between the reactants and the products. Catalysts reduce the _______ of the transition state. Catalysts do ______ shift a chemical reaction or affect spontaneity.
Catalysts energy not
_______ - structural component in plant cell walls, and is a _______ bonded polysaccharide. Linear strands packed rigidly in parallel.
Cellulose beta (β)
______ ______ is a unique type of potential energy, where the chemical bonds serve as a store of energy, and have the potential to be used to do work.
Chemical energy
______ is the enzyme that attaches to the end of the template strand and extends the template strand by adding a short repeating sequence of DNA that allows elongation of the lagging strand to continue. However, at the end of elongation, there will still not be enough of the strand for primase to attach, but this loss an unimportant segment will not cause significant problems.
Telomerase
only thing that can shift K value?
Temperature
________ has radicals on the left side, and no radicals on the right side
Termination
_______- structural component in fungi cell walls and insect ________. It is a beta (β) bonded polysaccharide with _______ added to each monomer.
Chitin exoskeletons nitrogen
CIO3-
Chlorate
HCIO3
Chloric acid
CIO2-
Chlorite
____ ____ are responsible for making plant leaves green. This is because they reflect the wavelength for the green light, so this is the color we see. Colored compounds absorb all colors except for the color we see. For example, if an object is _______, then it absorbs all colors but blue. It reflects blue light, so that's why we see the object as blue. In addition, an object is seen as black if it absorbs all colors of the visible spectrum and a white object reflects all colors of the visible spectrum equally.
Chlorophyll pigments blue
HCIO2
Chlorous acid
_______ is a hormone released by the lining of the duodenum in the small intestine in response to the detection of _____/_______. This leads to slowing of ______ _____, initiating pancreatic enzyme release and stimulating the gallbladder to release bile.
Cholecystokinin proteins/fats gastric emptying
CrO2-
Chromite
_______ are lipoprotein transport structures formed by the fusing of triglycerides with proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol. They leave enterocytes and enter _____, small lymphatic vessels that take fats to the rest of the body.
Chylomicrons lacteals
____ _______ fatty acids have kinks that cause the hydrocarbon tails to bend. As a result, they do not pack tightly. Trans-unsaturated fatty acids have straighter hydrocarbon tails, so they pack _______.
Cis-unsaturated tightly
3 types of diastereomers
Cis/trans E/Z R/S
During which steps of the Krebs cycle is NAD+ reduced to NADH?
Citrate rearrangements and oxolacatate formation
______: ● E.g: hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone, coral. ● Body symmetry: ______ (around central axis). ● Tissue organization: Diploblasts (two cellular layers: endo- and ectoderm), true tissues (eumetazoa). ● Circulatory system: None (diffusion). ● Nervous system: Nerve net (neurons spread apart), no brain. ● Respiratory system: None (diffusion). ● Digestive system: gastrovascular cavity (one opening, two way digestion, acts as hydrostatic skeleton to aid movement). General Characteristics: Aquatic habitats, some have nematocysts (cells shooting poisonous barbs), some have life cycles that switch from polyp (non-motile, reproduce asexually) to medusa (motile, reproduce sexually) forms.
Cnidaria Radial
The most important phyla within the kingdom animalia for the DAT include: Porifera _____ Platyhelminthes Nematoda _____ Annelida Mollusca _____ Echinodermata Chordata
Cnidaria Rotifera Arthropoda
Do you have _____(body)? Yes: Has ectoderm (Skin), mesoderm(muscles), endoderm(organs), Coelom (body cavity) -able to have diff organs with specialized organs No: ____ (no body cavity) Phylum: Plathyhelminthes (flatworms/____) -Digestract is incomplete. Usually a 2 way street. Some parasitic species absorb nutrients right through skin. Simplest animals to have excretory system (flame cells) Sort of: - Pseudocoelomate Have body cavity, but its just a plane opening. Phylum: _____/_____
Coelom Acoelomate tapeworms Rotifera/Nematoda
Which term refers to a long and continuous hyphae with no breaks?
Coenocytic hyphae
Prokaryotic flagella
Composed of flagellin Smaller and more simple structure Proton driven Rotary motion Rotary motor
Eukaryotic flagella
Composed of tubulin dimers Larger and more complex structure ATP driven Bending motion Complex sliding filament system
______ - actually begins during the later stages of mitosis; most sources indicate it begins towards the end of anaphase. The stage involves the division of cytoplasm to form two cells. A ____ ____ forms in animal cells, which involves the shortening of actin and myosin microfilaments and the plasma membrane is pulled into the center of the cell A cell plate forms in plant cells, which involves vesicles from Golgi bodies migrating and fusing to form a cell plate. As the plate grows, it merges with the ____ ____, eventually separating the two new cells
Cytokinesis cleavage furrow plasma membrane
Anaerobic respiration (______) Includes glycolysis and fermentation Aerobic respiration regenerates ______ via O2, which is required for continuation of glycolysis, without O2, no replenishing so no fermentation Alcohol fermentation Occurs in PLants, _____, bacteria Pyruvate -> acetaldehyde + CO2, then acetaldehyde ->_______(and NADH -> NAD +) ________ is the final electron acceptor Acetaldehyde is final acceptor of electrons forming ethanol, O2 is final product of H20 Lactic acid fermentation Occurs in human muscle cells Pyruvate -> ______ (and NADH -> NAD+) Lactate is transported to liver for conversion back to glucose once surplus ATP available _____ ______ Use oxygen when its present but switch to fermentation/anerobic respiration if it isn't Obligate anaerobes cannot live in presence of oxygen
Cytosol NAD+ fungi ethanol Acetaldehyde lactate Facultative anerobes
Common organic solvents
DCM less dense than water: Ether Etyle acetate Toluene
Occurs between molecules with a permanent uneven distribution of elections. Often caused by electronegative atoms that draw in neighboring electrons creating poles of high and low charge. • Medium bond strength • Occurs only on polar molecules • Increasing number of polar groups increases boiling point • Symmetrical dipoles cancel out (CO2) • Examples: H2O (water), CH3OH (methanol), CO (carbon monoxide)
DIPOLE DIPOLE
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) by definition is a biotechnology process that quickly creates millions of copies of _____. It does this by: ________ (opening up) the DNA by heating it Allowing DNA primers to hybridize onto the open DNA Adding _______and Taq polymerase. Taq polymerase is the enzyme that incorporates nucleotides one by one to synthesize DNA. Repeat
DNA Denaturing nucleotides
The central dogma of genetics states that information is passed from ______ -> RNA proteins. There are a few exceptions to this (eg. _____ ______ and prions).
DNA reverse transcriptase
the enzyme _____ _____ performing this action as well. DNA gyrase is a subtype of DNA _______ found in bacteria and plants.
DNA gyrase topoisomerase
______ ______ can be used to visualize how active genes are in a cell.
DNA microarrays
_____ ________ contain thousands of DNA probes that bind to complementary DNA fragments, allowing researchers to see which genes are expressed. ● Protocol: isolate a cell and remove mRNA (active transcription) → synthesize _______ from mRNA using reverse transcriptase → hybridize cDNA with DNA probes → examine ________ for fluorescence → compare microarray with the sequenced genome.
DNA microarrays cDNA microarray
Which enzyme seeks out RNA primers and converts them to DNA?
DNA poly 1
Transposons (jumping genes)
DNA segments that can move to a new location on either the same or different chromosome. There are a two types of transposons: i. Insertion sequences that consist of only one gene that codes just for the enzyme that transports it (transposase) Complex transposons code for extra features: replication, antibiotic resistance
_____ _____ _____ is an optical microscopy technique that allows researchers to view unstained samples of live cells. This is achieved by increasing the contrast between the sample and the field around the sample.
Dark field microscopy
_____ ___ _______ = Mass of Substance (g) /Volume of Substance (mL)
Density of Substance
The density of an ideal gas is given by the equation
Density= PM/RT
_______ is a naturally occurring form of carbon. However, given enough time, diamonds spontaneously react with ______ in the air to form carbon dioxide.
Diamond oxygen
_______ adds two halogen atoms to an alkene. The reaction is not regiospecific because two identical groups (halogen atoms) are added to both carbons. The two halogen atoms are added to ______ _____ of the alkene. Thus, dihalogenation is an anti-addition.
Dihalogenation opposite sides
H2PO4 (-1)
Dihydrogen phosphate
H2PO3(-1)
Dihydrogen phosphite
_______ means the addition of two hydroxyl groups. The product of this reaction is a vicinal diol (diol with two hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons). Syn-dihydroxylation is a dihydroxylation reaction that adds two hydroxyl groups to the same side of the molecule. Two conditions can be employed to produce the syn-dihydroxylation product: cold, dilute ______ in the presence of NaOH or OsO4 and NaHSO3/H2O.
Dihydroxylation KMnO4
Baeyer Test
Dilute KMnO4 Alkenes and alkynes Purple solution turns to brown precipitate
Even if we do not know the pKa for a molecule, we can estimate it based on several trends. You can remember these trends as CARDIO: Charge, Atom, Resonance, ______ ____, and Orbital hybridization.
Dipole Induction
_____ -_______ intermolecular forces are found in molecules that are polar
Dipole-dipole
_____--______ interactions are found in both polar solid and polar liquid compounds (but not gases) and are essentially the rearrangement of the partially charged end of one molecule such that it moves closer to the ______ partially charged end of another molecule. This is similar to _____ ____ forces in that they both form dipole-dipole interactions, except these last much longer than van der Waals dipoles.
Dipole-dipole opposite London dispersion
_______ contain two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond. It is the result of a dehydration (condensation) reaction, where a _____ molecule leaves and a covalent bond forms. A hydrolysis reaction is the opposite, through which a ______ bond is broken by the addition of water.
Disaccharides water covalent
______ ________are the weakest intermolecular force. They occur between all molecules and are the only attractive force between _____ _____ molecules.
Dispersion forces non-polar
________ is commonly used to separate a mixture of two miscible ("miscible" = able to mix) liquids with distinct boiling points.
Distillation
Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Sand
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
______ ____ charges increases across a period from left to right and _______ going down a group. • Reasoning: Across a period, the numbers of protons are increasing with no increase in a shielding effect, which results in electrons being pulled closer to the nucleus due to a stronger attraction. Going down a group, more shielding causes the effective nuclear charge to decrease. As electrons get further away from the nucleus, the attractive force between protons and electrons naturally lessens.
Effective nuclear decreases
Nonspontaneous redox reaction Anode= + Cathode= - Converts electrical energy into chemical energy Requires an external power source Electrons are given from external source E cell < 0
Electolytic cells
_______ ____ is based on per atom basis
Electron affinity
Share similar physical properties and can be only distinguished by direction they polarize light
Enantiomers
_____ reactions feel cool, _______ reactions feel warm
Endothermic Exothermic
Lattice energy
Energy required to completely sepearte an ionic compounds cations from its anions Larger charges larger lattice Shorter bond distance (smaller ions) = larger lattice
_______ (H): Amount of heat energy contained within a system
Enthalpy
____ _____ __________ ______: determines if a person has a specific antigen. Important to diagnose diseases (e.g. HIV). Antibodies are placed on a microtiter plate with a sample and change color if antigens are present.
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
_____ _____ is found on the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. It protects these structures from injury, water loss, and infection
Epidermis tissue
______ consist of one oxygen single bonded to two carbons. Due to the absence of an OH group, ethers do not make hydrogen bonds. Ethers possess a ______ net dipole, so their intermolecular interactions are much weaker than the intermolecular interactions of alcohols. For example, diethyl ether and butanol have identical molecular weights, but ______ has a much higher boiling point due to its ability to form _____ ______.
Ethers weak butanol hydrogen bonds
six kingdoms are: Archaea _____ Protista Fungi _____ Animalia
Eubacteria Plantae
____ ____ undergo ɣ decay to emit ɣ particles, which are energy rays of high frequency. ɣ particles are the _______ of the three and thus the most ______.
Excited elements smallest penetrating
______ _____ - extranuclear genes (genes present in organelles other than the nucleus) are found in mitochondria and _______ i. Defects in mitochondrial DNA can reduce a cell's ATP production, and because mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother, all related mitochondrial defects/ diseases are also inherited. Note that mitochondria have their own ____ ribosomes that make mitochondrial proteins within the mitochondria matrix.
Extranuclear inheritance chloroplasts 70S
_______ is a protein that connects integrins to the network of proteoglycans and ______ in the ECM. These connections help in the transduction of extracellular signals, such that they can travel through the______ and into the cell.
Fibronectin collagen integrins
_____ _____ are involved in osmoregulation and they filter harmful substances from the body. _______ are bundles of flame cells, which forms a structure that functions similarly to a kidney.
Flame cells Protonephridia PLATYHELMINTHES
____ phase: This is a sort of 'hangout' spot, where cells that aren't ready to divide just 'do their thing'. For example, _____ ____ will beat, muscle cells will contract, neurons will send action potentials, red blood cells will carry oxygen, etc. Cells that will not divide after their creation (like heart cells and neurons) are permanently in G0. Cells that will divide will progress to the __ ____ when they are ready.
G0 heart cells S phase
Spontaneous redox reaction Anode= -, Cathode= + Converts chemical energy into electrical energy Does not require an external power source Electrons are given by the element being oxidized at the anode E cell > 0
Galvanic (voltaic) cells
_____ ____ (voltaic cells) and electrolytic cells. The main difference between the two cells is that voltaic cells are driven by a _______ _______ (for example: batteries), whereas electrolytic cells require electrical energy to drive the non- spontaneous redox reaction (rechargeable batteries).
Galvanic cells spontaneous reaction
______ ______ Narrow tunnels between animal cells (_______) that prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allows passage of ions and small molecules Tissues like ______
Gap junctions: connexins heart
_______ - form of energy storage for humans and is an _______ bonded polysaccharide. It has much more branching than starch.
Glycogen alpha (α)
_______ releases glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen, allowing it to enter ______. Because glycogen can enter glycolysis as glucose-6-phosphate, it does not require the ______ reaction that results in the investment of an ATP. Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide, which means that it is a polymer of many monomeric carbohydrates.
Glycogenolysis glycolysis hexokinase
_____also extracts high-energy electrons as the glucose is broken down, using them to reduce _____ (a coenzyme) into NADH
Glycolysis NAD⁺
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) - have high protein density and take cholesterol away from peripheral tissues.Considered "______ ____" because they deliver cholesterol to the _____ to make bile (reduces blood lipid levels).
Good cholesterol liver
____ ______ of Effusion: This law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its mass.
Graham's Law
1. All salts of ______ ___ metal cations (Li+, Na+, _____, Rb+, Cs+) and ammonium (NH4+) are soluble 2. All salts of nitrate (NO3-), _______ (CIO4-) and acetate (C2H3O2-) are soluble 3. All salts of silver (Ag+), lead (Pb2+), and _______ (Hg2+) are _______ 4. All salts of hydroxide (OH-), carbonate (CO32-), phosphate (PO43-), and sulfide (S2-) are ______ 5. When a salt consists of a "soluble ion" and an "insoluble ion", it is ______ in water (ex. NaOH = soluble)
Group 1 K+ perchlorate insoluble mercury insoluble SOLUBLE
Strong bases
Group 1 metals w/OH Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Sr(OH)2 Ba(OH)2
______ _______ principle describes this condition, noting that it is impossible to perfectly find both, the momentum and the location, of an electron in an atom. We can only figure out one or the other.
Heisenberg uncertainty
_______ - known more simply as counting chambers - are a gridded slide upon which a sample is deposited. Under a microscope, the grid is used to manually count the number of cells in a known area. Then, the sample count is extrapolated for the full volume of the sample.
Hemocytometers
A genetic disease that can result from X-inactivation is ______, a recessive condition which results in an inability to form blood clots. XHXh is a normal carrier, but if XH (the normal, functional copy) is inactivated, then only Xh is expressed leading to disease onset
Hemophilia
Sex-linked recessive conditions a. _______- sex-linked recessive genetic condition causing abnormal blood clotting b. ______ _____ - primarily observed in males ____ ______ Dystrophy - progressive loss of muscle
Hemophilia Color blindness Duchenne's Muscular
_______ - when an organism has both male and female sexual structures and has the capability of producing both male and female gametes.
Hermaphroditism
Which organisms obtain chemical energy from the food they eat?
Heterotrophs
Non polar solvents
Hexane, Benzene, Toluene, CH Ag, Pb, S, OH, Hg, CO3, PO4 salts Carbonate, chromate, Phosphate, Sulfide, Hydroxide
_____ ______ activity in body cells is often associated with cancer because the cell effectively becomes immortal.
High telomerase
Carboxylic acid Ester Acid halide amide Nitrile Aldehyde Ketone Alcohol Amine Alkene Alkyne Alkyl Halide Ether Nitro
Highest to lowest priority groups
______ rule, within a given subshell, orbitals are filled such that we have the maximum number of half-filled orbitals. To satisfy this, an electron from the ____ subshell will go to the 3d subshell such that we have a half filled 4s orbital and a half filled 3d orbital. Other special cases that you should know for the DAT include copper,silver, gold, and molybdenum. cromium
Hund's 4s
______ ______ is an anti-Markovnikov hydration. The mechanism does not involve a carbocation intermediate, so rearrangements do not occur. The reaction is also stereospecific because it is a _____ addition.
Hydroboration-oxidation syn
HSO3-
Hydrogen Sulfite
_____ dominance - blending of expressions of ______
Incomplete alleles
_____ has no radicals on the left side, and radicals on the right side
Initiation
______ are species that are formed during the course of the reaction and are hence termed "intermediates"; they are not part of the reactants nor the products; their energy is less than that of a transition state (which we will learn about next), and it is possible to isolate them from the mixture. Can be isolated
Intermediates
_____ _____ are the weak electrostatic interactions between atoms and compounds. Intermolecular forces are significantly weaker than both ionic and ______ bonds.
Intermolecular forces covalent
IO3-
Iodate
IO2-
Iodite
___-____ interactions are the strongest intermolecular force. The four types of intermolecular forces (IMFs) from strongest to weakest: ion-ion interactions > hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole interactions > _____ _____ _____
Ion-ion London dispersion forces.
____ ____ are bonds that form between two atoms with significantly different electronegativities. • These involve the complete transfer of electrons from the less electronegative atom to the more electronegative atom. _____ ______ do not have a very high affinity for electrons and so they have low ionization energy. Because of this, they tend to give up their electrons to ______ (especially the halogens), which have a higher electronegativity. • The cations (atom that lost electrons) and anions (atom that gained electrons) that result from ionic bonding are then held together by the electrostatic attraction of their charges
Ionic bonds Metal elements nonmetals
Salts
Ionic compounds that are completely water soluble according to solubility rules: NACL KBR CA(NO3)2
______ ____ are held together by ionic bonds. Properties of ionic solids: hard, non-conductive, brittle, and high melting point.
Ionic solids
Same chemical formula but diff arrangement of atoms
Isomers
Heat capacity =
J/K
This question is just like a Hess's Law problem, but with equilibrium constants instead of ΔH values. The main idea is the same - to manipulate the individual reactions in such a way that the sum of them equals the overall reaction. Here are the key differences: Multiplying a reaction by a factor, n, means you raise the ____ to the nth power. For example, if I want to double the coefficients in a reaction I need to _____ the K value, as opposed to Hess's Law where we would multiply the ΔH value by 2. Reversing a reaction means you take the _____ of the K value. For example, if I reverse the first reaction, K1 becomes 1/K1. This contrasts Hess's Law where you would flip the sign of the ΔH value. After all the manipulations are complete, to sum the reactions you must multiply the K values. This contrasts Hess's Law where you take the sum of the ΔH values.
K square reciprocal
_______ is the process where one parent nucleus divides to form two daughter nuclei.
Karyokinesis
Chemiosmosis Mechanism of ATP generation that occurs when energy is stored in the form of a proton concentration gradient across a membrane ______ _____ produces NADH/FADH2 which are oxidized and cause H+ to be transported from mitochondrial matrix to the _______ _____ A pH and electrical charge gradient is created and ATP synthase uses the kinetic energy from the flow established by this gradient to create ATP as protons flow through channel Higher H+ concentration the more ________ ____
Kebs cycle intermembrane space acidic pH
_____ _____ will come down to Temp not atomic mass, if they have same temperature both will have same average kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy
____ also equals the product of Ka and Kb (Kw = KaKb), where Ka is the acid dissociation constant and Kb is the base-dissociation constant.
Kw
the value of ____ varies with temperature, so the [H+] for a neutral solution and its pH also varies with _____.
Kw temperature
What do Porifera, Cnidaria, and Platyhelminthes share in common?
Lack coelom cavity
____ _____ fermentation regenerates NAD⁺ from NADH by reducing pyruvate into _____ ______.
Lactic acid lactic acid
junction between two grana called?
Lamella
Types of Chordates
Lancelets, Tunicates, Fish, Fish (cartilage, Fish (bone), Amphibia, Mammalia (monotremes), mammalia (Marsupials), Mammals (Placental), Reptile, and birds
_______ ______, contained mostly in the stratum ______, are the dendritic cells of the epidermis and are important in the communication between the innate and adaptive immune systems. They are not involved in mediating ______ _______ ______
Langerhan cells spinosum light touch sensation
____ _______ _____ describes the shift by a system that occurs to restore the equilibrium state in the presence of changes in _______ (or partial pressure) or in the temperature of the system.
Le Châtelier's principle concentration
AlCl3, BH3 are examples of ____ ____
Lewis acids
F- Cl- H2PO4- HSO4- are _____ ______.
Lewis bases
Common examples of strong bases are Group 1 metal hydroxides (NaOH, ________, KOH, etc.). Weak bases include compounds like ______ (NH3).
LiOH ammonia
_____ are symbiotic autotrophs where a fungus is paired with either ______ or _____ The fungus protects the cyanobacteria/algae and provides it with water and nutrients while algae/cyanobacteria photosynthesize, to produce food for the fungi.
Lichens algae or cyanobacteria.
_____ ______ are found physically close together on the same chromosome. If genes are linked they are more likely to stay together during meiosis (less likely to have a recombination event occur between them) and therefore typically expressed together in an organism's phenotype.
Linked genes
____ _____ - when two or more genes reside physically close to one another on the same chromosome and therefore cannot separate independently as they are inherited together i. The closer two genes are on a chromosome, the ____ likely they are to be separated by genetic recombination (a process that occurs due to crossing over in _____ ____)
Linked genes less meiosis I
_____ are the common example of nonfilamentous fungi. They are unicellular eukaryotes that reproduce asexually by ______. Yeast are facultatively anaerobic, which means they can grow by aerobic respiration when _____ is present or by fermentation when oxygen is absent.
Yeast budding oxygen
The C=C bond gets cut in half. An O gets placed on each half. If the workup is ____/____ or (Ch3)2S then thats it. If the workup is H202, then one of the H atoms stuck to each ____ ___ gets replaced with an OH. Also, ______ (hot,conc)/H30 does the same thing as O3 and H202
Zn/H20 alkene carbon KMno4
Lucas test
ZnCl2/HCl 2/3/Benzylic alcohols Cloudy solution initially, then separate layer forms
The rate of the reaction is directly proportional to both _____ and ______. Thus, as in the previous example with the first order reaction, halving [A] would also half the rate;
[A] and [B]
such that the rate at which the products are formed is equal to the rate at which the reactants are formed. At this point, the system is said to have reached ____ ______ and the concentrations of the products and reactants remain constant.
dynamic equilibrium
Mosaicism Polyploidy - when all chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction and produce gametes with twice the number of chromosomes a. Is common in ____
a phenomenon that occurs in cells that undergo nondisjunction in meiosis during embryonic development; fraction of body cells have extra or missing chromosomes plants
The size of isoelectronic series is determined by the _____ _____ _____, which in turn is related to the number of protons in the nucleus. The more protons, the greater the effective nuclear charge is, and the ______ the atom/ion will be.
effective nuclear charge smaller
An _____ is an ion in water. [A], [B], [C], and [D] will dissolve easily in water to form ions such as Na+ and Cl-. However, CO2, carbon dioxide, is a very stable molecule and will not dissolve to form an ion. Remember, your soda has CO2 in it, and it is not black, which is characteristic of dissociated carbon in the solution.
electrolyte
Elements that undergo β decay emit a β particle. There are two types of β particles, β- (aka ______) and β+ (aka position). β particles have an ______ _____ of the three, and thus have intermediate penetrating power. Note that mass number does not change with β decay.
electron intermediate size
_____ ____. This occurs when the positive nucleus "captures" an electron from its innermost shell, combining it with a proton to create a neutron.
electron capture
Hydrogen bonds are strong dipole-dipole interactions that occur when hydrogen is attached to a very ______ atom (such as oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine). As a result, the electronegative atom takes most of the electron density (becomes partially negative) and this leaves hydrogen with a partial ______charge. This partially positive hydrogen is able to have electrostatic interactions with other partially negative N, O, or F atoms of neighboring compounds.
electronegative positive
When determining the greatest resonance contributor, remember the following: 1. More ________ elements better accommodate formal negative charges. 2. Less electronegative elements better accommodate formal _______ charges. 3. The resonance contributor with less formal charges is more favorable.
electronegative positive
Carbons near ______ atoms are more deshielded and will appear further downfield (to the left). Conversely, carbons near non-electronegative atoms are less deshielded and will appear further upfield (to the _______). The most important application of ____ _____ is determining the type of carbonyl group that is present in a molecule. However, we can also use 13C NMR to confirm the presence of other _____ _____.
electronegative right 13C NMR functional groups
Hunds rule
electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible
For a nucleophile to form a bond to the _______, the electrophile must also lose a bond to some leaving group. The leaving group must be stable on its own. Additionally, an _____ reaction is stereospecific. The nucleophile will approach the ______ from the opposite direction, and if the product is chiral, an ______ of stereochemistry will be observed in the product.
electrophile SN2 electrophile inversion
The positively charged histones are ________ attracted to the negatively charged DNA. This is how histones and DNA bind to each other.
electrostatically
What is the _____formula of a compound that has 8 moles of sodium, 8 moles of sulfur, and 20 moles of oxygen? Solution: First, you need to calculate the mole ratio between the elements by dividing by the _______ mole number: 8/8 moles of sodium = 1 mole of sodium 8/8 moles of sulfur = 1 mole of sulfur 20/8 moles of oxygen = 2.5 moles of oxygen To get whole numbers, we must then multiply these numbers by ____which results in the following empirical formula: Na2S2O5
empirical lowest 2
An _____ is tough, non-reproductive structure produced by some bacterial species. Goal is to survive extreme conditions.
endospore
Dinoflagellates, diatoms, and _______ are unicellular, eukaryotic protists that generally reproduce ______ and can be found in aquatic environments. They are photosynthetic autotrophs, which means they produce organic matter from simple inorganic molecules.
euglenoids asexually
With regards to _____ ____ reactions, it is important to note that the rate of the reaction is________ to the concentration of the reactant. For instance, if we were to double [A], the rate would double; if we decreased [A] by a factor of 2, the rate of the reaction would also decrease by a factor of 2, and so on.
first order proportional
Nucleosides contain a ____ _____ _____ and a nitrogenous base. Nucleotides contain a five-carbon sugar, a ______ _______, and a phosphate group.. Deoxyribose sugars (in DNA) have a hydrogen at the 2' carbon while ribose five-carbon sugars (in RNA) have a _____ ______ at the 2' carbon.
five-carbon sugar nitrogenous base hydroxyl group
Cell movement occurs via______, which undulate like snakes and cilia which in a rapid ____ ___ ____ motion
flagella back and forth
Exceptions to the above rule: if oxygen is in a peroxide, it has an oxidation number of -1, if oxygen is bonded to ______, its oxidation number is +1 • If ______ is part of a metal hydride (i.e. MgH2), the oxidation number is -1
fluorine hydrogen
At room temperature, _______ is indeed a gas; however, bromine is a ______ at room temperature. This is due to the electrons in bromine being _____ _____ bound to the nucleus. This will allow for the electrons to move around and create London dispersion forces, forming liquid.
fluorine liquid less tightly
Cells adhere to the ECM in two ways: _____ _____ which involve connection of the ECM to actin filaments in the cell, and hemidesmosomes, which involve the connection of ECM to ____ _____ like keratin a. Fibroblasts are the cells that produce collagen and other connective tissue elements
focal adhesions intermediate filaments
A common misconception is that the _____ and ______ reactions stop once equilibrium is reached. This is not true! The reactions continue to occur during dynamic equilibrium, but the rate at which the products are formed is equal to the rate at which the reactants are formed, resulting in ____ _____ change in the concentrations of the reactants and products.
forward and reverse no net
Coenocyte
fungal species that have hyphae lacking septa
Septate fungi
fungi with cross walls
Nuclear______ occurs when two or more lighter nuclei fuse into one ____ _____, releasing enormous amounts of energy. This only occurs at extremely high temperatures. The most famous example is the sun, which fuses ____ _____ atoms into 1 helium atom.
fusion larger nucleus four hydrogen
As with other forms of chromatography, ___-_____chromatography has a stationary phase and a ______ _____. In gas-liquid chromatography, the stationary phase is a ____ ____ ______ _____, and the mobile phase is a gas. When performing gas-liquid chromatography, a small sample of a liquid mixture is injected and vaporized. The vaporized components travel through the column at different rates depending on how effectively they interact with the stationary phase.
gas-liquid mobile phase high boiling point liquid
When talking about _______ systems, we can use the property of _____ to determine whether an expansion or compression is happening. Δ E = q + w w = -PΔV
gaseous work
Pulse chase experiments: useful for studying _______ ______ and the fate of proteins by viewing how a protein moves through a cell. During the pulse phase amino acids are radioactively labeled and then incorporated into _______. The chase phase prevents radioactively labelled protein production. Using simple staining, the radioactive proteins can be tracked.
gene expression proteins
A ______ _______ stores the DNA of an organism's genome. DNA fragments are incorporated into plasmids and can be screened for by using _____ _______ and color changing techniques. They can then be cloned via bacterial cloning.
genomic library antibiotic resistance
recall that enzymes are ______ _____ that act as catalysts. Catalysts lower the activation energy of a reaction, thereby accelerating the rate of the overall reaction.
globular proteins
First carbohydrates are converted to ______ or glucose intermediates, are then degraded in glycolysis intermediates, and then degraded in glycolysis or krebs cycle Carbs Can produce glucose in liver (Gluconeogenesis) and ____ Insulin after large meals stores glucose as glycogen Insulin activates ______enzyme, glucagon inhibits it Disaccharides are hydrolyzed into monosaccharides, converted glucose or glycolytic intermediates All cells are capable of storing glycogen, but only ____ _____ and liver cells store large amounts
glucose kidney PFK muscle cells
The lac operon will only be induced to become active if ______ is not present but lactose is. This further shows how the general purpose of an operon is to conserve cellular resources until they are required. In this case, E. coli do not want to wastefully produce _____ _____proteins if they are not needed. Topic:Molecular Genetics
glucose lactose metabolic
Triacylglycerol (triglyceride) is a lipid molecule with a _______ backbone (three carbons and three hydroxyl groups) and three fatty acids (long hydrocarbon tails). Glycerol and the three fatty acids are connected by ______ ______.
glycerol ester linkages
Phospholipids are lipid molecules that have a _______ ______, one phosphate group, and two fatty acid tails. The phosphate group is ________, while the fatty acids are nonpolar. As a result, they are __________ (both hydrophobic and hydrophilic). Furthermore, they spontaneously assemble to form lipid bilayers.
glycerol backbone polar amphipathic
The glycocalyx is a coat of ______ and glycoproteins that covers the surface of bacterial cell walls, as well as some animal cell membranes. In all, the glycocalyx can provide adhesive capabilities, a protective barrier to infection, and can act as a marker for ____-_____
glycolipids cell-cell recognition.
Krebs/citric acid/TCA Fate of pyruvate that is produced in ______ In krebs cycle, Acetyl coA merges with _______to form citrate, and cycle continues with 7 intermediates 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP and 2 CO2 are produced per turn, net of _____NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (technically GTP), 4 CO2 as cycle occurs for each of the 2 pyruvate formed from 1 glucose
glycolysis oxaloacetate 6
A typical manipulation attaches a carbohydrate to the protein, a process called _______
glycosylation
Lysosomes: Vesicles produced from the _____that contain digestive enzymes with low pH and function in ______, and break down nutrients, bacteria, and cell debris. Any enzyme that escapes from lysosomes remains _____ in the neutral pH of cytosol
golgi apoptosis inactive
Arthropoda (Insecta): ● E.g. ant, ______. ● Respiratory system: Spiracles (small openings on exoskeleton where air enters) branch into tracheal tubes (site of gas exchange). ● Excretory system: ______ _____ (small tubes on abdomen, help with uric acid excretion). General Characteristics: Exoskeleton of chitin, jointed appendages, three pairs of legs, more species than any other phylum combined, _______ (distinct stages, altered appearance as insect matures).
grasshopper Malpighian tubules metamorphosis
area around the specimen is distorted by large phase shifts. This is known as the ______ ______.
halo effect
lobe finned fish
have fleshy fins that are supported by a series of bones; ex. coelacanth and lungfish Amphibians are like them
Important note on Lewis dot structures: Exceptions to the octet rule: hydrogen, ______, lithium, beryllium, and _____ (cannot obtain an octet). Elements in the third period (and above) can also exceed the octet rule by having more than ____ valence electrons, due to the presence of d subshell orbitals.
helium boron 8
______ contain an enzyme that "undoes" the hexokinase reaction of glycolysis. For this reason, the ____ is the only organ that can release glucose into the bloodstream, allowing other cells to use the _____ as a fuel source.
hepatocytes liver glucose
Can reproduce sexually (_______) or asexually (regeneration), mainly aquatic habitats, parasitic lifestyles, most primitive of triploblastic animals, has organs. ______ specifically don't have a true digestive tract, they just absorb food around them.
hermaphrodites Tapeworms
Organism's are said to be _______ when they possess a dominant allele on one of their homologous chromosomes (homologs), and a recessive allele (for the same gene) on the other homolog.
heterozygous
Step one uses ______ to irreversibly trap glucose in the cytosol as glucose-6-phosphate via the hydrolysis of one ATP
hexokinase
Stronger acids and bases have _____ Ka & Kb values, respectively (so _____ pKa & pKb values)
higher lower
Passive diffusion is the process in which molecules diffuse from a region of _______ _____ to a region of lower concentration. Passive diffusion does not require energy, although molecules can diffuse through channel proteins. When proteins are used to aid in passive diffusion, it is known as _______ ______.
higher concentration facilitated diffusion
Prokaryotes Oldest type of cell No nucleus No _____ Ester fatty acid linkages Peptidoglycan cell wall - Gram+ - _____ membrane, thick cell, ______ Gram - - Double membrane, thin membrane, exotoxins and endotoxins/_____ Outermembrane -
histones Single exotoxins LPS
n differential centrifugation, cells must first be split open so that the components can be separated. This process is called ________, and it is accomplished by the shear forces of a laboratory blender.
homogenization
Differential centrifugation: cells are first split open to release contents (________). Multiple cycles where ________ is removed and spun again allow for fractionation (isolation) of each organelle.
homogenization supernatant
Nematoda: ● E.g. Round worm, _____ _____, trichinella, C. elegans, ascaris. ● Body symmetry: Bilateral. ● Tissue organization: ______, eumetazoa. ● Circulatory system: None (diffusion). ● Nervous system: Nerve cord and ring (surrounds esophagus). ● Respiratory system: None (diffusion). ● Digestive system: Alimentary canal (passage between mouth and anus). General Characteristics: Some have cuticle (prevents degradation by host digestive system), longitudinal muscles (no circular muscles), parasitic, not segmented. Primarily reproduce sexually, but some reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis.
hook worm Triploblasts
The reagents listed perform the reaction known as _________-______ of an alkene. The result is the addition of an H and an OH across a double bond in _____-_______, syn fashion.
hydroboration-oxidation anti-Markovnikov
Protic solvents are capable of ____ _____ Nucleophiles grow stronger going to the ____ of periodic table ___ _____ increase in strength going up ______ ______ increase going down
hydrogen bonding left Aprotic solvents Protic solvents
_____ ____, which is used as an oxidizing agent (something that accepts electrons from an electron donor/reducing agent) in oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. However, excess hydrogen peroxide can be dangerous for a _____. Hydrogen peroxide can produce _____ ______ ______(ROS).
hydrogen peroxide cell reactive oxygen species
Solvent Effects: Nucleophiles are more reactive in polar aprotic solvents but less reactive in polar protic solvents because polar protic solvents can ______-_____. The identity of the solvent is most useful when deciding between ______ and _____. A polar protic solvent favors E2, and a polar _____ ______ favors SN2.
hydrogen-bond SN2 and E2 aprotic solvent
Pure water is an example of a solution that does not conduct an electrical current since the concentrations of ______ and _____ ions are very limited.
hydronium and hydroxide
Large, ________ molecules cannot travel directly across the bilayer - they need help from _____ ______. Facilitated transport is a term that describes how large, hydrophilic molecules travel across the bilayer through _____ _____.
hydrophilic integral proteins integral proteins
CIO-
hypochlorite
HCIO
hypochlorous acid
An ideal gas is a ____ _____ whose behavior follows three rules: 1. Gas molecules themselves take up no volume. They are essentially _____ ______ that have no volume in and of themselves. 2. Gas molecules collide with each other elastically, which means the ________ forces involved are negligible. 3. All collisions are elastic = no intermolecular forces = no loss of ________ ________. 4. The average kinetic energy of a gas depends on the system's ________.
hypothetical gas point particles intermolecular kinetic energy temperature
Plant cells prefer _____environments because the extra water goes into the central vacuole, resulting in the normal turgid state.
hypotonic
First, we must choose an effective solvent for the _____ ____. The solvent must offer high solubility at _____ _______ and low solubility at low temperatures. Solvent selection may require trial and error. During this trial-and-error process, we first consider the polarity of the solvent because "like dissolves like". We can also use tabulated solubility data to find a suitable solvent.
impure solid high temperatures
Generally, we see bond strength _____ as we go higher up a column. This is because atomic radii increase as you go down a column, which increases the bond length, and the bond strength therefore decreases. Recall that an increase in bond length is associated with a decrease in bond strength. This is because smaller atoms have more overlap of their orbitals than larger atoms with greater atomic radii. So, we would see that, H-O would be stronger than H-S, which is stronger than H-Se.
increase
Gain-of-function mutations cause an ______ in gene expression, or an increase in gene product activity (an over-active protein). A gain-of-function mutation in ____-______ can produce _______ (genes that can transform a normal cell into a cancerous cell).
increase proto-oncogenes oncogenes
Competitive inhibition → KM ______, while Vmax stays the same Noncompetitive inhibition → KM stays the same, while Vmax _______
increases decreases
Competitive ______ occurs when a competitive inhibitor competes directly with the ______ for active site binding. The rate of enzyme action can be increased by adding more substrate.
inhibition substrate
The ____ _____ of chain reactions requires an input of external energy in order to _______ break a bond. Typically, this external energy is in the form of heat (Δ) or light (hv) or involves a catalyst such as a peroxide (ROOR).
initiation step homolytically
On the inside of the cells desmosomes have ____ _____, and outside the cells they connect adjacent cells together via glycoproteins called _______.
intermediate filaments cadherins
The acidic region between the outer and inner membranes is the ____ ____, while the area deep to the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix.
intermembrane space
Molecular solids are held together by _________ forces (hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole forces, dispersion forces), which will be covered later in this chapter. Properties of molecular solids: soft, ____-_______, and low melting point.
intermolecular non-conductive
Liquids are generally incompressible fluids with a definite volume. Liquid molecules are free (and constantly) moving but held close together by ______ _____ like van der Waals, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding.
intermolecular forces
that stronger ______ ______ lead to a higher boiling point, higher heat of vaporization, higher viscosity, higher surface tension, and lower _____ _____:
intermolecular forces vapor pressure
Adhesion proteins - attach cells to neighboring cells and provide anchors for stability via ______ ______and tubules
internal filaments
Adhesion proteins: attach cells to neighboring cells and provide anchors for stability via _____ _____ and tubules
internal filaments
Pressure and volume are ______ proportional • ______ and temperature are directly proportional • Pressure and ______ are directly proportional
inversely Volume temperature
wavelength and energy _______ _____
inversely related
large _______ atom has very strong London dispersion forces due to it having loosely bound electrons around the nucleus. These electrons are able to move around creating _____ ____.
iodine attractive forces
Ion channels Used to pass _____ across the membrane and referred to as gated channels in nerve and muscle cells Voltage gated _____ _____ Mechanically gated (vibration, pressure) ______ Allow passage of certain ions and small polar molecules; inc the rate of water passing in kidney and plant root cells; tend to be less specific- if you can fit through the large passage you can go through
ions Ligand gated Porins
Heme cofactors are organic molecules that are built around an _____ atom, while chlorophyll is built around a _____ atom
iron magnesium
An ________ enzyme modifies glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-phosphate
isomerase
Half-life equation
k=0.693/t1/2
Increasing temperature increases a molecule's average ____ _____. The molecules will hit each other with greater energy, increasing their ability to overcome _____. This wording is very important; greater kinetic energy increases a molecule's ability to overcome Ea, but it does not change the value of Ea itself. The Ea of a reaction is a fixed value, otherwise known as the minimum energy threshold needed to be met in order for a reaction to occur. Its value is ________ of temperature or kinetic energy.
kinetic energy. Ea independent
The ____ _____ is controlled in two ways: lac repressor protein cAMP levels and catabolite activator protein (CAP)
lac operon
two rows (which belong in periods 6 and 7) beneath the periodic table are known as the inner transition metals. Period 6 elements are the _______ and Period 7 elements are the ________.
lanthanides actinides
Central vacuoles are very ______ organelles, and they tend to occupy the majority of a plant cell interior. Central vacuoles have a specialized membrane called the ______; they exert turgor when filled, which helps to maintain _____ ____.
large tonoplast cell rigidity
there are two main ratios that dictate if a cell will divide 1. Surface to volume ratio - as cells grow, the volume grows much ______ compared to the surface area. When SA:V is large, exchange across the cell becomes much ______. When SA:V is small, exchange is harder, leading to either cell death or cell division to increase SA 2. Genome to volume ratio - genome size remains constant throughout life, as cell growth leads to only an increase in volume. G:V will be small and thus exceed the ability of its genome to produce sufficient amounts of regulation of activities. Some large cells like _______ and human skeletal muscle are multinucleate to deal with this.
larger easier paramecium
When an atom is ______ in size, its bond to hydrogen weakens. A weaker bond to hydrogen ______ acidity. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine are all in the same column of the periodic table. ______ is the largest atom,
larger increases Iodine
When the ______ ______ is formed during precipitation, ions and other particles get trapped inside and disrupt the pattern of the lattice. There is a solution to this problem, and it is called _________.
lattice structure recrystallization
The ____ ____ conformation is the fully eclipsed conformation because the alkyl groups are overlapping.
least stable
Annelida: ● E.g. Earthworm,_____. ● Body symmetry: ______. ● Tissue organization: Triploblasts, eumetazoa. ● Circulatory system: Closed circulatory system (blood pumped through vessels by heart), multiple pairs of aortic arches, distinct arteries and veins. ● Nervous system: Ventral nerve cord, anterior ganglia (brain). ● Respiratory system: None (diffusion). ● Digestive system: Alimentary canal, mouth and anus. ● Excretory system: Most have metanephridia (excretory glands for osmoregulation. Tubes of cilia move fluid emptying into coelom, ducts bring fluid to the exterior). ● Embryonic development: _______ (blastopore forms mouth). General Characteristics: Segmented bodies, coelom is divided by septa, sexual (hermaphrodites) and asexual (regeneration) reproduction, longitudinal and circular muscles.
leech Bilateral Protostome
Atoms in the same row become more electronegative as we move from ______ to ______ Acidity also increases as we go _____- a column on the periodic table.
left to right. down
prophase I has 5 steps: ________(chromosomes start condensing) → zygotene (_______begins, synaptonemal complex forms) → _______(synapsis complete, crossing over) → diplotene (synaptonemal complex disappears, chiasma still present) → diakinesis (nuclear envelope fragments, chromosomes complete condensing, and tetrads are ready for metaphase)
leptotene synapsis pachytene
A proton with ______ _______ density around it is more deshielded and will appear downfield (to the left) on an NMR spectrum. A proton with more electron density around it is______ and will appear upfield (to the right) on an NMR spectrum.
less electron shielded
All of the given molecules are elements in their standard states except Br2 (g); Br2 exists as a ______
liquid.
Peroxisomes: organelles common in the ___ ____ _____ that function to breakdown substances, fatty acids, and amino acids Plant cells, peroxisomes modify by products of______. In germinating seeds, peroxisomes are called ______ that break down stored fatty acids to help generate energy for growth Peroxisomes produce H202 which use to oxidize substrates and break down H2O2 if necessary
liver and kidney photorespiration glyoxysomes
Arthropoda (Crustacea): ● E.g. _____, crayfish, crab. ● Respiratory system: some have gills. ● Excretory system: Green glands (aquatic), malpighian tubules (terrestrial). General Characteristics: Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
lobster
Metals: usually ______ electrons and form cations
lose
Volatility = _____ _____
low bp
Gases behave MOST ideally at _____ ______ and high temperatures. At low pressures, the volume of the container in which the gas is located is much larger than the volume occupied by gas molecules. This makes the volume of the gas negligible, which in turn supports the first rule of ideal gases. At high temperatures, gas molecules are moving around so fast that they don't experience intermolecular forces. By reducing ____ ___, high temperatures reinforce the second rule of ideal gases.
low pressures intermolecular forces
Temperature: At ____ _____, nucleophilic substitution is more likely, and at high temperatures, elimination is more likely.
low temperatures
If pH of solution is _____ than pKa the functional group will be protonated If pH of solution is higher than pka of functional group will be _______
lower deprotonated
Out of the 20 amino acids, 3 of them are basic: they are _____, arginine, and histidine. A good mnemonic to know for the basic amino acids: _______! Basic Lysine Arginine Histidine
lysine BLAH
______ ______ number (ml) • Describes the orientation of orbitals in space.
magnetic quantum
In C4 photosynthesis, ______ is transported from the _____ _____ into the bundle sheath cells and is converted to _____ and CO2; this CO2 is then used in the Calvin cycle, which also takes place in the bundle sheath cells. C4 plants separate the light and dark reactions anatomically; CAM plants separate them temporally.
malate mesophyll cells pyruvate
Alpha particle decay is the only type of decay where _____ _____ changes. Elements that undergo alpha decay emit an alpha (α) particle Each alpha particle is equivalent to a ____ _____ and thus consists of 2 neutrons, 2 protons, and has a mass of 4 amu. Alpha particles are the largest of the three types of particles, and thus have the lowest penetrating power. This is usually a route of decay for heavier atoms in order to decrease their _____.
mass number helium nucleus mass
There are four main points regarding atoms that you should know for the DAT: 1. All ______ is composed of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. 2. Atoms of a specific element are identical in mass and properties. 3. _______ are formed by whole number ratios of two or more atoms. 4. A chemical reaction is a _______ of atoms.
matter Compounds rearrangement
In plants, ____ in sporangia produces spores (haploid), which undergo mitosis to become ______ _____gametophytes. These gametes fuse together to form a diploid zygote that grows via ______ into a sporophyte. Cells in the sporophyte (sporangia) undergo meiosis again to produce haploid spores that germinate and repeat the life cycle known as alternation of generations.
meiosis multicellular haploid mitosis
______ _____ increases as branching increases (excluding the straight-chain isomer Remember that between molecules with similar molecular weights and similar intermolecular force strength, ____ _____ decreases as branching increases. Formula weight goes up =
melting point boiling point Boiling point goes up
_____ ______ increases with increasing pressure. As you go up the solid-liquid equilibrium line, the pressure increases and so does the temperature. The temperature increases because the solid-liquid equilibrium line has a ______ ________. Therefore, the melting point, or the temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid, increases as well.
melting point positive slope
once the chromatids separate, it is the end of _____, so the chromosome number actually doubles in anaphase.
metaphase
In prokaryotes, the strand without any errors is ______ after it has been successfully replicated, so it doesn't become accidentally repaired as proofreading is done.
methylated
In animal cells, actin and myosin ______ shorten to tighten the cleavage furrow and to eventually form two separate cells
microfilaments
Cancer drugs also inhibit ______by disrupting the ability of microtubules to separate chromosomes during _____, thus stopping replication
mitosis anaphase
1atm = 760 torr = 760 ______
mmHg
Stereoisomers are molecules with the same _____ _____and connectivity but differ in the way groups are ______ in space.
molecular formula arranged
Molarity (M) is the concentration of a solution expressed in ______ of solute per volume (in liters) of solution.
moles
Waxes are simple lipids that have long fatty acid chains connected to ______ ________ (contain a single hydroxyl group) through ester linkages. Used mainly as hydrophobic protective coatings.
monohydroxy alcohols
all _______ strong acid and strong base titrations will have an equivalence point at pH = ____
monoprotic 7
Fructose - a six carbon _______.
monosaccharide
Base peak or tallest peak tells you which of all of the fragments produced is the _____ _____ and most abundant
most stable
Polyandry is one female with _______ male partners. _______ is one partner at once. ________ is mating many times per lifetime.
multiple Monogamy Iteroparity
The belt of stability represents all the _______ to ______ ratios that are stable and is represented by the blue and yellow-colored band above. All isotopes that fall outside of this band are _______ (radioactive) and will spontaneously undergo nuclear reactions. If you examine the graph carefully, you can see that as the number of _______ increases, the number of neutrons must also increase - but at a faster, disproportionate rate, relative to protons - to maintain a stable nucleus.
neutron-to-proton unstable protons
Protons and _______ make up the nucleus while electrons move throughout the area surrounding the nucleus. Protons carry a charge of "+1 e" where e = _______ C. Protons also have a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu).
neutrons 1.6 x 10-19
Centrioles are specialized cylinders of microtubules that inhabit the centrosome. They are involved with the formation of the spindle apparatus, and each centriole is a hollow cylinder made of nine triplets of microtubules. There is a mother centriole and a daughter centriole in each centrosome. This pair is oriented at a _____ _____ angle with respect to each other, and they are connected by _______ _____.
ninety degree interconnecting fibers
+H, -S, +G
non-Spon at all temp
Protein structure: 1. Primary structure - sequence of _____ 2. Secondary structure - _______ forces between the polypeptide backbone (not R-groups) due to hydrogen bonding. Forms ___ ______ or β-pleated sheets. 3. Tertiary structure - three-dimensional structure due to interactions between R-groups. Can create ________ or _______ spaces based on the R-groups. Disulfide bonds are created by _____ ______ between the R-groups of two cysteine a.a.'s. 4. _______ ________ - multiple polypeptide chains come together to form one protein.
a.a.. intermolecular α-helices hydrophobic or hydrophilic covalent bonding Quaternary structure
The Lewis model is also common. A Lewis acid is an electron pair _________, and a Lewis base is an electron pair donor. When a Lewis base reacts with a Lewis acid, a Lewis ___-_____ adduct is formed.
acceptor acid-base
We can quantify the strength of an _____ with Ka (acid dissociation constant). Ka = [H3O+][A−]/[HA]
acid
Bronsted-Lowry ______ include NH4+, HCl, H2SO4, HCN, HNO3, HOAc (CH3COOH).
acids
Microfilament: made of ______ and _____ _____; found in skeletal muscles, amoeba pseudopod, and _____ _____
actin and cell motility cleavage furrows
Focal adhesions connect the ECM to ____-____ microfilaments in the cytoskeleton. Hemidesmosomes connect the ECM to the ______ intermediate filaments in the cytoskeleton.
actin-based keratin
catalysts do not "directly lower the ______ ______." This is a common misinterpretation - be extra cautious of this wording! Rather, catalysts provide an alternative route for the reaction.
activation energy
Alternatively, the fatty acids can travel in their free state (not esterified to glycerol) by binding to a protein called ______
albumin.
Staining is the process of adding color to cells, such that researchers will have an easier time seeing cell structures. However, staining is usually associated with cells that have been killed, either through the preceding fixation or the staining process itself. Many types of staining protocols will kill any living cells because______ is often used as a 'wash' for removing excess stain.
alcohol
The two main types of lichen are fungi paired with either ____ or ____
algae or cyanobacteria.
There are two notable exceptions to the above rules for ionization energy: 1. The first is that _____ _____ metals have greater ionization energy than group 13 elements. This is because alkaline earth metals have completely filled orbitals and require more energy to remove an electron than ____ _____ elements. 2. The second exception is that group 15 elements have greater _____ ____ than group 16 elements. Group 15 elements have half-filled orbitals, which is a more stable configuration than that of group 16 elements and thus require more energy to remove an electron.
alkaline earth group 13 ionization energy
An ______ with a hydroxyl (-OH) group is an alcohol. The hydroxyl group has priority over any ____ ______ or halogen atoms.
alkane alkyl groups
Acid-catalyzed hydration converts an ______ to an alcohol. The mechanism of this reaction is very similar to hydrohalogenation, except a water molecule adds to the ________ intermediate instead of a halide ion. Because the mechanism includes a carbocation intermediate, rearrangements are also possible in this reaction.
alkene carbocation
Addition reactions performed on ______can also be performed on alkynes. Hydrogenation converts an alkyne to an ______. Hydrogenation can also convert an alkyne to an alkene. When an alkyne is treated with H2 and ______ ______, a cis or Z alkene is formed. When an alkyne is treated with Li(s) or Na(s) and NH3(l), a trans or E alkene is formed.
alkenes alkane Lindlar's catalyst
Assuming the _____ _____ is not too long, alcohols are polar. Hydrogen bonding by hydroxyl groups gives alcohols high melting and boiling points. Furthermore, _____ _____ makes alcohols water soluble.
alkyl chain hydrogen bonding
H2 and Lindlar catalyst to alkyne
alkyne to alkene Z alkene
Like alcohols, primary and secondary _____ form hydrogen bonds. Tertiary amines cannot form hydrogen bonds because they do not possess an _____ ______. As a result, they have _____ _____ points than primary and secondary amines of comparable molecular weight.
amines N-H bond lower boiling
However, molecules such as _____ and _______ _____ can become water soluble with an acid or base. A carboxylic acid becomes water soluble after it is _______by a base (ex. NaOH). An amine, on the other hand, becomes water soluble after it is protonated by an acid (ex. HCl).
amines and carboxylic acids deprotonated
Cholesterol is also a lipid molecule that is a component of the cell membranes and is _________. It is the most common precursor to steroid hormones (lipids that have four hydrocarbon rings). Cholesterol is also the starting material for _______ _____ and bile acids.
amphipathic vitamin D
Acid-base reactions that take place in aqueous conditions often interact with water. Water is ______ which means that it can act as both an acid AND a base, depending on what it is reacting with. This also means that water has the ability to react with itself (________) to produce a hydroxide ion (OH-) and a _____ ______ (H3O+).
amphoteric autoionization hydronium ion
Continuing off of that same logic, a diploid cell remains diploid up until _____, where the sister chromatids separate and the number of centromeres (and therefore chromosomes) doubles. However by the time the cell reaches _____ (when the original cell officially separates into two cells), each of the two cells are diploid again.
anaphase cytokinesis
In ____-______ hydrohalogenation, a halogen (bromine) is added to the less substituted carbon of the alkene. This reaction only works with ______, and it requires peroxides, heat, or light. In initiation, bromine radicals are formed, and in propagation, the bromine radical adds to the less substituted carbon to yield a more _____ _____ radical. When the carbon radical reacts with HBr, an alkyl halide and another bromine radical are formed. In termination, bromine radicals come together to generate molecular bromine.
anti-Markovnikov HBr stable carbon
Blastopore (body part) is formed first? Primitive stomach is called ______ Mouth? Protosome- determinate and spiral cleavage - ______ (earthworms, leeches) Detritivores- feed on dead, decaying matter. ______- body segments containing same internal structures. - Closed circulatory system with ____ aortic loops
argenterone Annelia Somites 5
Electron microscope
atom lipids protein polio virus flu virus small pox bacteria mitochondria
If a phenotype skips generations, be suspicious of an ____ _____ disorder. If no skip, it is most likely an autosomal dominant disorder. Be suspicious for X-linked recessive if a father doesn't have the phenotypes and none of his daughters display it.
autosomal recessive
Steric hindrance on _____/______: A sterically hindered base/nucleophile will almost exclusively act as a base. Therefore, a negatively charged species like tert-butoxide will only perform ______, and its conjugate acid, tert-butanol, will only perform E1.
base/nucleophile E2
Strength of ____/______: A negatively charged species is unstable/reactive and thus a strong base/nucleophile. If the species is neutral and stable/unreactive, it is a weak base/nucleophile. For instance, hydroxide is a strong base/nucleophile, and water is a weak base/nucleophile. A strong base/nucleophile will do SN2/E2, and a weak base/nucleophile will do _____/______.
base/nucleophile SN1/E1
Examples of Bronsted-Lowry ______ include NH3, OH- Cl- HSO4- CN- NO3- OAc- (CH3COO-).
bases
1. Metal oxides produce ____ ____ in water. 2. Non-metal oxides produce acidic solutions in ______
basic solutions water.
Although this is not usually tested on the DAT, it is good to know that binding energy can be described by Einstein's famous equation E = Δmc2 where E is the ____ _____, Δm is the mass defect, and c is the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s).
binding energy
Basal metabolic rate: increases as _____ ____ increases BMR decreases per Kg as size goes up ______ ____ = increased metabolism INcreased age = dec metabolism
body size Increased temp
that ________ is the only factor we consider if molecules are structural isomers because this implies that _____ ______ is constant. As molecular weight increases, a molecule will have stronger dispersion forces and consequently a ______ melting point and a higher boiling point.
branching molecular weight higher
______ _______ doesn't involve secondary messengers
Uniport transport
______ ______ acids have double bonds. They can be divided into monounsaturated fatty acids (one double bond) and _____ _____ ______ (two or more double bonds).
Unsaturated fatty polyunsaturated fatty acids
ATP ________ molecule bc the 3 phosphates in ATP are negatively charged and repel one another When one phosphate group is removed via ______, a more stable ADP results Change from a less stable molecule to a more stable molecule always releases energy Provides energy for all cells by transferring phosphate from ATP to another molecule
Unstable hydrolysis
Na or Li
can break alkynes into alkenes E alkene
Peptidoglycan is a combination of _____ and ______ ____
carbohydrate and amino acids.
The ECM has ______, an extensive network of fibrous structural proteins, and ______ _____.
carbohydrates adhesion proteins
As electrons are gained at the _______, the surroundings become more negative and cations (Na+) from the salt bridge flow to the cathode (CAThode = CATions flow). This is why the cathode is the ______ _____.
cathode positive electrode
Apoptosis is also known as programmed ______ ______ Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and _______ disease are neurodegenerative diseases, which are characterized by excessive apoptosis. On the other hand, a lack of apoptosis would lead to _____ _______, as the body would not be able to successfully eradicate damaged cells. This cell proliferation often manifests as cancer. Turner Syndrome is a genetic disease that does not have a direct connection to apoptosis.
cell death. Huntington's cell proliferation
Intermediate filaments: Provide support for maintaining ____ _____
cell shape
Centrifugation
centrifugation is one common technique used to prepare a sample for observation or further experimentation. It spins and separates liquified cell homogenates into layers based on density. i. The order in which cell parts separate is most dense pelleting first, and least dense separating last. ii. In cells, the order is, starting from first component to pellet at the bottom and progressively spinning faster: nuclei layer → mitochondria/ chloroplasts/lysosomes → microsomes/small vesicles → ribosomes/viruses/larger macromolecules
______ will replicate during the S phase of interphase, which is essential because we need one centrosome for each daughter cell after cell division, as well as for proper spindle apparatus functioning. In addition to being involved with cell division, the mother centriole can attach to the cell membrane. Here, the mother centriole can form a _____ ____, which can produce a cilium or a flagellum for the cell. Cilia and flagella have a slightly different structure than the basal body they stem from because they have an outer ring of nine microtubule doubles, and two singles at the center - this is also known as a _________array.
centrosome basal body 9 + 2
A _____ molecule is optically active because it rotates plane polarized light. A racemic mixture is a ___:____ mixture of a chiral molecule and its mirror image (______). Racemic mixtures are considered optically inactive because the configurations cancel each other out. ______ molecules are also optically inactive.
chiral 50:50 enantiomer Achiral
However, if a molecule has two or more ______ _____, it may or may not be chiral overall. When a compound has multiple chiral centers and an internal plane of symmetry, it is a _____ compound and therefore achiral.
chiral centers meso
1. As leaves age, _______breaks down to extract valuable components like _______, and carotenoids become visible 2. Splitting of water in the light reactions provides two electrons for non-cyclic photophosphorylation, and are incorporated into ______ and the Calvin cycle 3. ____ _____ is light-independent, but it requires ATP and NADPH produced from light-dependent reactions
chlorophyll Mg2+ NADPH Calvin cycle
Process begins with light absorbing pigments in plant cells aka ______ ____, chlorophyl b and carotenoids (red, orange, yellow) that function to absorb energy from light Light is incorporated into electrons, which cause them to be excited and become _____
chlorophyll a unstable
Thylakoid membranes have photosystems to capture photons. Photosystems are large proteins that contain special pigments, including ________ and ________. These pigments are directly responsible for absorbing photons. The two types of photosystems you should be familiar with are photosystem I and photosystem II.
chlorophylls and carotenoids
Plastids Organelles found in plant cells and include ________, the site of photosynthesis; leucoplasts, which specialize to store starch, lipids, proteins, as amyloplasts, elaioplasts, and ________, chromoplasts which stores ______-
chloroplasts proteinoplasts carotenoids
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) - have low protein density and work to deliver _______ to peripheral tissues. Sometimes considered "_____ _____" - can cause vessel blockage and heart disease.
cholesterol Bad cholesterol
Without ______, cell membranes would become overly rigid in the cold, which reduces flexibility. On the other hand, cell membranes (without cholesterol) would become too flexible in _____ environments.
cholesterol hot
CrO4 (2-)
chromate
During cell replication, the DNA is tightly packed into ______. However, when the cell is not dividing, the DNA is packaged into one of two types of ______
chromosomes chromatin
Golgi: transport of various substances in vesicles and has flattened sacs known as ______ The cis face is for ___ _____ while the trans face is for secretory vesicles
cisternae incoming vesicles
The collision theory predicts that for a chemical reaction to occur, three conditions must be met: 1. Molecules must ____ 2. Molecules must have the proper _____ (when they collide) 3. Molecules must have sufficient energy to overcome the ___ ____
collide orientation Ea barrier
A ______ ______ is a microscope that can be used to view simple, one-cell thick, live cells. They have more than one lens, and each lens magnifies the sample by a set amount.
compound microscope
The stronger the acid, the weaker its ___ _____ • The stronger the _____, the weaker its conjugate acid. • The weaker the acid, the stronger its _____ _____. • The weaker the ______, the stronger its conjugate acid.
conjugate base base conjugate base base
UV/VIS spectroscopy used for?
conjugated dienes
There are three types of steps that occur in a radical reaction: initiation, propagation, and termination. Initiation consists of a ____ ____ breaking to form two radicals, and because it requires the application of heat or light, initiation is always _______ Propagation consists of a radical reacting with a stable molecule to propagate the production of another radical. Termination consists of two radicals coming together to form a stable molecule.
covalent bond endothermic.
The sharing of electrons in a ____ _____ can be equal or unequal, and this characteristic contributes to the polarity of the compound; equal sharing = _____ and unequal sharing = polar
covalent bond nonpolar
Solids can be ________ (like cubes of salt) or _______ (like glass or rubber). Their component molecules are held together with rigid intramolecular bonds.
crystalline amorphous
Restriction enzymes _____DNA at palindromic sequences specific to each enzyme. Reverse transcriptase synthesizes _____ from an mRNA transcript. Primers are synthesized by primases.
cut cDNA
E2 only occurs in _______ if the leaving group and beta proton are on adjacent axial positions and are anti to one another:
cyclohexane
Pyruvate manipulations occur in the _____ for prokaryotes, because they do not have membrane-bound organelles.
cytosol
Proteins Least desirable source of energy and used only when carbs and fats unavailable Most amino acids are _______ in liver, then converted to pyruvate or acetyl coa or other kreb cycle intermediates Oxidative deamination removes _______ molecules directly from amino acids Ammonia is toxic to vertebrates, but most aquatic specific and invertebrates excrete it directly Insects, birds, and reptiles convert ammonia to _____ ____ while sharks, mammals and amphibians convert urea for excretion
deaminated ammonia uric acid
Compressions of a system cause a ______ in the volume and an increase in ______ (the partial pressures of all gasses in the system increase and differ from the equilibrium partial pressures). This results in a shift towards the side of the reaction with a ______ total number of moles of gas. In contrast, expanding the volume of the system would cause a ______ in pressure and the reaction would shift towards the side with the ________ number of moles of gas.
decrease pressure lower decrease higher
As size increases, basicity ______, meaning a species will be less likely to act as a base; that is, the species will be less likely to share its electrons. Iodine is the largest in the series.
decreases
Kmno4/heat, h30 or O2/H202
Used on alkynes for ozonolysis
immunofluorescence microscopy
Uses antibodies fluorescently tagged to bind specifically to a corresponding antigen as a probe for identifying a particular molecule in cells, tissues, or tissues, or biological fluids
Provirus
Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.
________ - very small (even smaller than viruses!) _____ _____ molecules that infect plants. These do not encode for proteins, but replicate in host plant cells via host enzymes, and cause errors in the regulatory systems of plant growth
Viroids circular RNA
____ - consist of the following: i. Nucleic acid - RNA or DNA that can be double or single stranded ii. ______ - a protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid iii. Capsomeres - assemble to form the capsid iv. Viral envelope - surrounds capsid of some viruses and incorporates ________ and ________ obtained from the cell membrane of the host
Virus Capsid phospholipids and proteins
1. ____ = Joule/Coulomb 2. Ampere = _____/second 3. Faradays constant = _____ coulombs/ mol
Volt coulomb 96500
Nondisjunction
describes when one or more chromosome pairs or chromatids fail to separate during mitosis. This commonly occurs during anaphase of mitosis, when two chromatids of a single chromosome fail to separate, or during anaphase of meiosis.
Cr2O7 (2-)
dichromate
Tight junctions: Completely encircles each cell, producing a seal that prevents the passage of materials between cells Cells lining the ____ _____ Prevents passage of molecules and ions
digestive tract
M1V1=M2V2
dilution equation
A polar molecule has polar covalent bonds. In a polar covalent bond, the less electronegative atom bears a partial positive charge, and the more electronegative atom bears a partial negative charge. Oppositely charged dipoles on atoms from different molecules attract each other. This gives rise to _____ _____ interactions.
dipole-dipole
- Conduction: The transfer of heat via ___ _____ • _______: The transfer of heat due to motion of a liquid or gas • Radiation: The transfer of heat via _______ ______
direct contact Convection electromagnetic radiation
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms (CHO). They can come in the form of monosaccharides, _____, and polysaccharides.
disaccharides
Stereo microscopes are another name for ______ ________. Stereo microscopes are another name for dissection microscopes, which only offer ____ _______ to observe the surface of live specimens. With stereo microscopes, whole objects can be viewed in three dimensions.
dissection microscopes low magnification
S2 (2-)
disulfide
Oxidizing agent (oxidant) Reducing agen (reductant) Anode Cathode
What is reduced What is oxidized Site of oxidation Site of reduction
Ea is independent of Temperature. So, increasing or decreasing _____ ____ affect Ea. Think about it. Ea is the activation energy/ energy barrier and previously we established that the only way we can change Ea is by adding a _____. Essentially, a catalyst provides an alternative pathway with a ____ _____ barrier thereby speeding up the reaction.
does not catalyst lower Ea
Formal charge= Valence electrons - _____-_____
dots - bonds
The rate of the reaction is proportional to [A]2, not just [A]! So, if we _____ [A], the rate of the reaction would increase by 22 = 4; if we triple [A], rate would increase by 32 = 9, and so on.
double
Saturated fatty acids have no _____ ______ and as a result pack tightly (solid at room temperature).
double bonds
Microfilaments have the smallest diameter out of the three cytoskeletal components, and they contain a ____ _____ of two actin filaments, which can undergo rapid assembly and disassembly. Microfilaments play a crucial role in ______ ______.
double helix cell movement
Ionic compounds consist of typically a _____ bonded with a metal, or a polyatomic ion made of ______ bonded to a metal. The atoms or collection of atoms involved in an ionic bond transfer electrons between one another to achieve a full octet with a stable noble gas configuration.
nonmetal nonmetals
Their hydrocarbon portions are______ thereby decreasing their solubility. Thus, the solubility of alcohols decreases as we add more ________
nonpolar hydrocarbons.
Small, uncharged, ______ particles (eg. carbon dioxide and oxygen) can travel directly across the phospholipid bilayer via a process known as _______ ______.
nonpolar simple diffusion
Electron Tomography -
not a type of microscope, but a technique used to build up a 3D model of sample using TEM data Pro: can look at objects in 3D and see objects relative to one another Cons: same as TEM cons above
________ _____ is a dense and fibrous network of proteins associated with the inner membrane of the nuclear envelope. Its primary role is to provide structural support to the nucleus. However, it also regulates DNA organization, DNA replication, and cell division.
nuclear lamina
From most dense to least dense: _____ > mitochondria/chloroplast > _____ _______ > ribosomes
nuclei ER fragments
The ______region is found only in prokaryotic cells while the nucleus is found only in eukaryotic cells
nucleoid
The ______ can attack from either the front or back side. Therefore, if the product is chiral, a equal mixture of _______ (racemic mixture) is formed.
nucleophile enantiomers
SN1 is also a ______ _____ reaction. However, the mechanism of this reaction differs from SN2. Instead of a strong nucleophile simply attacking an electrophile, the leaving group first detaches from the ______, and a weak nucleophile subsequently attacks the ________ intermediate.
nucleophilic substitution electrophile carbocation
This DNA-histone complex is referred to as a ______. Each nucleosome contains nine histone proteins: ______ in the central core and one keeping the DNA wrapped around the central core.
nucleosome eight
Histones Serve to organize DNA which coil around it to bundles called _______; these bundles are wrapped around ___ ______ proteins Nucleuolous is inside of the nucleus and serves as the site of ribosome synthesis Ribosomes are synthesized using _____ and ribosomal proteins which are important from cytoplasm Once ribosomal subunits form, they are exported to the cytoplasm for final assembly into a complete ribosome Nucleus is bound by double layer nuclear envelope with nuclear pores for transport. Note that there is no cytoplasm in the nucleus, instead theres _______
nucleosomes 8 histone rRNA nucleoplasm
Law of Segregation
one member of each chromosome pair migrates to an opposite pole in anaphase I so that each gamete is haploid
C2O4 (2-)
oxalate
The electrode where ______ occurs is called the anode and the electrode where reduction occurs is called the ______
oxidation cathode.
O (2-)
oxide
Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, ______, and nitrogen atoms (CHON). These atoms combine to form amino acids, which link together to build _______ (or proteins). A proteome refers to all the proteins expressed by one type of cell under one set of conditions.
oxygen polypeptides
______ is another tumor suppressor gene. One tumor suppressor gene is sufficient to produce a _____ ______ effect, and that means tumor suppressor genes are _________. It inhibits cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) activity (see chapter 5 for an explanation on CDK), which stimulates cell division. Therefore, p21 decreases the frequency of cell division. Remember, cancer cells are cells that usually divide and grow out of control. Keep in mind that loss-of-function mutations in both copies of these genes are required to for cancer causing, null tumor suppressor alleles.
p21 tumor suppressor haplosufficient
The _____ _____ of a centrosome is a matrix of proteins that surround the centrioles. These proteins play a role in microtubule nucleation, which is the process where several individual microtubules come together. Similarly, the ____ _____ is involved with securing microtubules to the centrosome.
pericentriolar material pericentriolar material
Proteins can either be _______ (loosely attached to the surface of one side of the membrane), _______(embedded in the cell membrane), transmembrane (type of integral membrane that travels all the way through the cell membrane)
peripheral integral
MnO4-
permanganate
O2 (2-)
peroxide
Remember that a benzene ring directly attached to a carbon chain as a substituent is called a _______, while a benzene ring connected to a CH2 that is connected to a carbon chain as a substituent is called a _______
phenyl benzyl.
The greater the ___-______ of the atom that hydrogen is bonded to, the greater the acidity of that proton.
s-character
neutralization reaction is one in which a strong acid reacts quantitatively with a strong base to form ____ and ______.
salt and water
Cyclin dependent kinases control cell division by activating other proteins. CDKs do this by ______ (not hydrolyzing) the proteins. Even if you do not remember right away what CDKs do, you can eliminate this answer choice by remembering that kinases by nature add phosphate groups to other molecules (phosphorylate).
phosphorylating
Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP): quantitative measure of how and where biomolecules move in a live cell. ● Protocol: baseline fluorescence is measured → area of the sample is ________ → photobleached molecules are replaced by unbleached molecules overtime due to cell dynamics → area gradually recovers _________.
photobleached fluorescence
Minimize _______ and water loss found from the stomata, or lead pores C4 photosynthesis is found in hot, dry climates as it allows for a faster fixation speed and is more efficient Typically occurs in ______ like corn and sugarcane
photorespiration plants
In the first step of this process,_____ __ splits a water molecule to release two electrons, _____ _______ , and a half molecule of oxygen gas.
photosystem II two protons
Vacuoles are another organelle found within all ______ and ______ cells
plant and fungal
Cellulose makes up _____ _____ walls, ______ makes fungi cell walls, peptidoglycan makes bacteria cell walls, and polysaccharides make _______ cell walls
plant cell Chitin archaea
Dinoflagellates
plant-like protist that causes red tide
Scanning electron microscope
scans the surface of a specimen with a beam of electrons
Hidride shift
shift can only happen if Hydrogen next door
Sexual reproduction begins when two hyphae of a mycelium fuse their cytoplasm in a process known as _______.
plasmogamy
non-polar compounds will travel farther than _____ ones. This is because the solid adsorbent on the TLC plate is polar. Therefore, the farther a compound travels, the ____ ___ it is. When solvent is near the top of the plate, we remove the plate, mark the solvent line, and visualize the separated compounds. polar compounds have _____ Rf values, and non-polar compounds have _____ Rf values.
polar less polar small large
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) separates compounds on the basis of differing ______. Note that TLC is not a separation technique. Instead, it is used to monitor a reaction overtime.
polarities
Archaea contain _____ in their cell walls. Plants contain ______ in their cell walls. Fungi contain _____ in their cell walls. _____ contain peptidoglycans in their cell walls.
polysaccharides cellulose chitin Bacteria
Chlorophyll a has ________ ring that consists of alternating double and single bonds. The ______ ______ are critical for light reactions. The ring is complexed with a Mg atom inside
porphyrin double bonds
Boyle's Law: Boyle's Law states that _______ and _______ are inversely proportional under constant temperature.
pressure and volume
The RNA World Hypothesis states that RNA dominated Earth's ______ _____ before there was life. RNA developed self-replicating mechanisms and later could catalyze reactions, such as protein synthesis, to make more complex macromolecules. Since RNA is reactive and unstable, DNA eventually became a better way of reliably storing genetic information.
primordial soup
The head-to-head overlap of orbitals results in a type of bond called a _____ ____. Parallel overlap of orbitals results in a type of bond called a pi bond. Single bonds contain a single sigma bond. Double bonds have one sigma bond and one pi bond. ____ _____have one sigma bond and two pi bonds. The main difference between sigma and pi bonds is that sigma bonds allow for _____ _____ at the axis whereas pi bonds do not.
sigma bond Triple bonds free rotation
Blastophore first? Anus Deuterostome- Echinodermata - endoskeleton made of calcium carbonate -no specialized excretory system; use _____ _____ Chordata - 4 common traits in chordata development; 1. _____ (made of cartilage; becomes spine (exceptions: tunicates and amphioxous) All animals that have spines are vertebrates 2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord (becomes _____ _____ and brain) 3. Pharyngeal ____ _____ 4. Muscular post-anal tail
simple diffusion Notochord spinal cord gill slits
For the most part, the human genome is the same in all people. However, there are slight differences in the sequence of every ~ 1000 nucleotides. These differences are called ____ _____ ____, and they serve as markers for genes that cause disease.
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
Fungi Can be ___-____ (yeast) or multicellular (mushrooms) Have branching filaments known as hyphae; a group of hyphae is known as ______ Most fungi are _______ meaning they feed on dead or decaying matter. but some feed on living tissue (atheletes foot) Can reproduce asexually by ______ or fragmentation, and sexually through sporation. Classified into three groups on the type of spores they produce. If they dont sexually reproduce, they are "_____ _____" Fragmentation, coenocytes, and septate fungi
single-celled myecelium saprophytic budding imperfect fungi
Glucose - a ____carbon monosaccharide. ● Glucose and ______ are isomers of each other (same chemical formula, different arrangement of atoms).
six fructose
Carotenoids are lipid derivatives containing long carbon chains with conjugated double bonds and ____-______ rings at each end. They function mainly as pigments.
six-membered
we see that the larger the value of K, the ____ (more negative) the value of ΔGo. Also note that for K > 1, ln (K) > 0, so ΔGo is negative, which implies a ______ (product-favored) reaction.
smaller spontaneous
Precipitation refers to the formation of a _____. Recall, the ____ also refers to a solubility reaction and is related to the concentrations of the dissolved ions. Keep in mind that we do not include solids and liquids in our calculation.
solid Ksp
a chemical reaction will occur such that a _____ ______ will form, which we will then filter out of solution. However, it is inevitable that the solid contains ________.
solid precipitate impurities
For the majority of _____ in liquids, the solubility will increase with temperature. The opposite is true for the solubility of gases in ______. Gases become more ______ at higher temperatures, which causes them to be less soluble in liquids. Solubility also varies with pressure. This applies to the solubility of gases in ______. A gas will become more soluble in a liquid when the pressure is ________
solids liquids volatile liquids increased.
Some solutions can become supersaturated; this occurs when solutions contain more _____ than found in a saturated solution. They are generally formed when manipulating _____ or ______.
solute temperature or pressure
Reproductive cloning: producing a genetic copy of an organism from a ___ _____. A multipotent cell must be converted to a ______ _____. E.g. Dolly the sheep. ● Totipotent cells: can differentiate into an entire organism (including extraembryonic membranes). E.g. zygote → morula. ● Pluripotent cells: can differentiate into the ______ germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm). Cannot give rise to extraembryonic membranes. ● ________ cells: can give rise to some of the three germ layers - not all.
somatic cell totipotent cell three Multipotent
where C is the _____ _____ ______of the substance and m is the mass of the substance. We see from this equation that for a given amount of heat (q), temperature change (ΔT) _______ as heat capacity (C) increases. Thus the final temperature decreases with increasing C. Choice [E] has the largest heat capacity at 1.198 J/gºC, and therefore will have the ______ final temperature.
specific heat capacity decreases lowest
Arthropoda (Arachnida): ● E.g. ________, scorpion. ● Respiratory system: trachea or book lungs (sheets of vascularized tissue on either side to increase surface area). ● Excretory system: Malpighian tubules and / or coxal glands. General Characteristics: ______, jointed appendages, four pairs of legs, terrestrial habitats.
spider Exoskeleton
Most ____ ____ structure will have: - Full octet on every atom - ______ number of charges - Negative charges on most ____ _____ and positive charges on least electronegative atoms
stable resonance Smallest electronegative atoms
Karyotyping is the observation of chromosomes under a light microscope using _____
staining.
Enantiomers are ______ that are non-superimposable, mirror images of each other. Stereoisomers that are not enantiomers are called ________. In other words, diastereomers are stereoisomers that are ___-_______, non-mirror images of each other.
stereoisomers diastereomers non-superimposable
Lysosomes are essentially the ______ of the cell. They contain hydrolase enzymes that are only functional in a low pH environment, similar to _____ in the stomach. Their job is to break down macromolecules and to digest excess or worn-out organelles of the cell. Lysosomes are only known to exist in animal cells.
stomach pepsin
Recall, that the change in free energy (ΔG°), is the difference in energy between the _____ and the reactants. If the products are more stable than the reactants, we have an _____- reaction with a negative ΔG°.
products exothermic
In ______, RNA polymerases bind directly to DNA without the help of transcription factors. Transcription factors are found in eukaryotes. Only eukaryotes have _____ boxes as promoter regions.
prokaryotes TATA
In a gene, the _____ ____ generally comes first, then the ___ ____, then the _______. Repressors bind to the operator regions, while activators bind to the promoter sites.
promoter region gene operator gene
here are three main events that account for this genetic variation: 1. Crossing over during ______ ________ 2. Independent assortment of homologues during _____ _____. Basically, the entry of chromosomes into one cell does not affect entry of the other chromosome into the other cell 3. Random joining of gametes, aka _____ ___ i. The sperm randomly selects an egg to fertilize
prophase I metaphase Ii germ cells
. If the cofactor binds tightly or covalent to the enzyme, it is referred to as a ______ _____
prosthetic group.
Bundles of flame cells form a structure called ________ that functions similarly to a kidney.
protonephridia
The base capable of absorbing the most _______ per molecule will neutralize the acid the fastest.
protons
It is important to note that when determining the equilibrium constant, we exclude the concentrations of ____ _____ and pure solids. The term Kc can also be interchangeable with _____ when referring to dilute solutions and is referred to as Kp when referring to systems involving gases. Also, we see from the ratio that the larger the value of _____ the higher the concentration of products at equilibrium and vice versa. Generally, the ____ _____ the products, the higher the Keq value.
pure liquids Keq Keq more stable
A and G are ______ that have a two-ringed structure, while C, U, and T are _______ that have a one-ringed structure.
purines pyrimidines
Let's start with the effects of branching on the melting points of hydrocarbons. When comparing structural isomers of a hydrocarbon, the ____ _____or unbranched isomer has a higher melting point than branched isomers due to better stacking. However, isomers that are more branched have a _____ _____ ______ than less branched ones because branching makes a molecule more compact.
straight chain higher melting point
As soon as the radiant energy matches the energy of a specific molecular vibration, absorption occurs. There are two types of molecular vibrations, _______ and ______. Stretching and bending can either be symmetric or asymmetric.
stretching and bending
Calvin cycle takes place in _______ ________ takes place across the thylakoid membrane
stroma Chemiosmosis
SN2 reactions requires a ____ _____ (most strong nuc are neg charged)
strong Nuc
The reaction between a ____ ____ and a weak base would result in an acidic salt because the conjugate base of the strong acid is considered ________ , and the conjugate acid of the weak base is acidic.
strong acid neutral
The reaction between a ____ ___ and a strong base would be a neutralization reaction and so the ____ produced would also be neutral.
strong acid salt
A strong acid reacts with water molecules to form hydronium ions in aqueous solution. Therefore, a ____ _____ has a high Ka because the concentration of H3O + will be high. Conversely, a ____ _____does not easily dissociate in aqueous solution. Therefore, it has a low Ka because the concentration of HA will be ______. Ka is inversely related to pKa. In an acid-base reaction, the side with the weaker acid or higher pKa is favored.
strong acid weak acid high
The ______ the acid, the weaker its conjugate base The stonger the base, the weaker its ______ ____ The more stable/weaker the conjugate base, the ______ ____ The more ____/_____ the conjugate acid, the stronger the base
stronger conjugate acid stronger acid stable/weaker
Carbocation rearrangements only happen between adjacent carbons. When it comes _______ and _____ reactions, carbocation rearrangements are possible in _____ and E1 reactions as both reactions feature a carbocation intermediate.
substitution and elimination SN1
The "defining" step within the reaction mechanism is the ____ ____ _____ (RDS) because as the name states the RDS "determines the rate" of the reaction. RDS is also known as the ____ ____ in a chemical reaction and the overall rate law can be obtained from the RDS.
rate determining step slow step
SO4 (2-)
sulfate
SO3 (2-)
sulfite
Half-life (t1/2) refers to the time it takes to convert half of the _____ to product. This term is most often used in the context of radioisotope decay. The half-life for a first order reaction is constant or independent of _____ _____. For ______ and ______ order reactions, the half- life varies with reactant concentration. The half life of a zero-order reaction decreases with ______ ______ concentration. Conversely, the half-life of a second-order reaction increases with decreasing _____ concentration. In both cases, we discussed the changes to the half-life that occur as a result of decreasing reactant concentrations because over the course of a reaction, reactants are converted to products.
reactant reactant concentration zero order and second decreasing reactant reactant
a transition state is the state of the ______ in which old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming and thus, both the incoming group and the leaving group are present transiently on the molecule. Cannot be isolated
reactant(s)
rate law is a mathematical expression that specifies the relationship between the ____ _____ and the reactant concentrations. Included within the rate law expression is the rate constant (k) and the reaction orders (_______). Both the rate constant and the reaction orders are constants and can be determined from experimental data.
reaction rate exponents
There is no gain or loss of genetic information in a _____ ______, while there is a loss of genetic information in a ________ translocation.
reciprocal translocation Robertsonian
Solids are often purified by exploiting their increased solubility in hot solvents as compared to their lower solubility in cooler solvents. This technique is known as ______
recrystallization
the excited electrons will be passed down the electron transport chain in the thylakoid membrane through a series of ____ _____. The energy released from these electrons is used to pump protons from the ______ into the thylakoid lumen.
redox reactions stroma
Cytosis
refers to the processes cells use to facilitate the bulk transport of large, polar (hydrophilic) molecules.
A buffer is a solution that ____ a change in pH when an acid or base is added to it. It consists of an acidic component, which reacts with the hydroxide ions (OH-) upon the addition of a base, and a basic component, which reacts with the protons (H+) or hydronium ions (H3O+) that are produced as a result of the dissociation of the acid added to it.
resists
Recombinant DNA is produced when DNA fragments from different sources are joined together. These fragments are produced by _____ _____.
restriction enzymes
Both eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes contain ______
ribosomes
A _______ is an RNA molecule that can act as an enzyme (a non-protein enzyme).
ribozyme
effective nuclear charge: increases going to ______ Size increases as it goes to ______
right left
Universe = system + _______
surroundings
Ionization energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
For example, bacteria usually have _____ and _____ elements. The sequences of these elements are commonly found in many prokaryotic promoters.
-10 and -35
Sulfonic acid
-7 pka
pOH=
-log(OH)
pH=
-logH
pKa
-logKa
pKb
-logKb
Cyanobacteria
Blue/green algae is a prokaryote
Bromine Test
Br2/CCl4 Alkenes and alkynes Brown color of Bromine disappears
Non-metals
Brittle, dull Poor conductors of elec/heat Form acidic oxides gain electrons to form anions Gas or solid at room temp Generally , low melting and boiling points
BrO3-
Bromate
BrO2-
Bromite
the ______ ____ model is the most common model for acids and bases. A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a _____ _____, and a Bronsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor. In a Bronsted- Lowry acid-base reaction, a proton transfer occurs.
Bronsted-Lowry proton donor
______ ________ ________microscopy increases the overall resolution of the image; however, it causes the intensity to be reduced because its screen blocks out so much light. This is why confocal laser scanning microscopy requires that the sample be illuminated longer than fluorescence microscopy
Confocal laser scanning
Exceptiosn to Zaitsev rule: 1. Bulky bases 2. __________ 3. Poor leaving group 4. No antiperiplanar hydrogen
Conjugation
Once oxygen has become available again, humans can use a process called the ______ ____ to convert lactate back into glucose. Irrespective of the conditions in which we find ourselves, the Cori cycle ensures that we get the most energy possible out of each glucose molecule.
Cori cycle
• ____ _____are bonds formed between two atoms in which electrons are shared. • Atoms involved in covalent bonding are typically similar in _______ and usually involve two nonmetal atoms
Covalent bonds electronegativity
_____ _____ ______ are held together by a network of covalent bonds. Properties of covalent network solids: hard, non-conductive, and high melting point.
Covalent network solids
Jones test
CrO3/H2SO4 1/2 alcohols Orange reagent turns blue-green
All of the following correctly describe peroxisomes EXCEPT for one. Which one is the EXCEPTION?
Critical in apoptosis
CN-
Cyanide
CNO-
Cynate
_______ on a chromosome level is a mutation in which a region of DNA is duplicated, and will result in a larger chromosomal arm, and atypical chromosome banding patterns.
Duplication
_______: ● E.g. Starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber. ● Body symmetry: ______ (larvae), five fold radial (adult). ● Tissue Organization: Triploblasts, eumetazoa. ● Circulatory system: _____, no heart. ● Nervous System: Nerve ring and radial nerves. ● Respiratory system: None (diffusion). ● Digestive system: Complete, mouth and anus. ● Excretory system: None (diffusion). ● Embryonic Development: Deuterostome (blastopore forms anus). General Characteristics: ______, central disk (central portion from which arms radiate, contains mouth, anus and opening for water to enter for water vascular system), tube feet (suction cups for walking and obtaining food), sexual or asexual reproduction, closest related major phyla to chordates.
Echinodermata Bilateral open Spiny
Diastereomers
Have very different physical properties, are separated easily, such as by boiling points
Modern Cell Theory 1. All lifeforms have one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic structural, functional, and organizational unit of life. 3. All cells come from other cells (cell division). 4. _____ _____ is stored and passed down through DNA. 5. An organism's activity is dependent on the total activity of its _____ ______ 6. Metabolism and biochemistry (energy flow) occurs within cells, 7. All cells have the same chemical composition within organisms of similar species.
Genetic information independent cells.
_______ cells divide by meiosis to form gametes, and they are diploid with 46 chromosomes. Gametes are haploid cells containing just 23 chromosomes. These are used by organisms during sexual reproduction. Fertilization of two gametes that have 23 chromosomes (from the same species, but opposite sexes) will conceive a ______ that is diploid with 46 chromosomes.
Germ zygote
Peripheral membrane proteins are generally hydrophilic and are held in place by ____ ______ and electrostatic interactions. Can disrupt/ detach them by changing salt concentration or pH. Integral proteins are _______, and can be destroyed using detergent
H bonding hydrophobic
Thylakoid lumen is where ______ is accumulated as result of ETC Thylakoid suspended within stroma and contain two photosystems, cytochromes and electron carriers The stroma is fluid material that fills area inside the ______ ______and is location of Calvin cycle Both outer and inner membranes of chloroplasts consist of ______ _____ Non-cyclic photophosphorylation takes place in ______ _____ Cyclic photophosphorylation takes place on stroma lamellae - pieces connecting thylakoids Photolysis takes place inside the thylakoid lumen and passes electrons to thylakoid membrane for non-cyclic photophosphorylation
H+ inner membrane phospholipid bilayer thylakoid membrane
Chemiosmosis Uses _____gradient to make ATP H+ accumulate inside _____: H+ are released into lumen when water is split by PSII. H+ is carried into lumen from stroma by _______between PSII and PSI A pH and electrical gradient created approximately pH of 5 ATP synthase generates ATP: ADP is phosphorylated with Pi to form ATP, and 3 H+ are required to make 1 ATP Calvin cycle makes ____ ______ using NADPH, CO2, and ATP: at end of electron transport chain following PSI, 2 electrons produce NADPH
H+ thylakoids cytochrome 2 G3P
_____ is a weaker acid compared to H-Br due to a stronger bond between _____ and the proton. H-F is less likely to disassociate compared to the other members of the same family.
H-F fluorine
Weak nucleophile/bases
H20, ROH, RCOOH SN1/E1
The central core of histones are numbered ____ ____ _____ _____
H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 H1 is in the center
Strong Acids
HCl HBr HI HNO3 HCIO3 HCIO4 H2SO4
Strong nucleophiles
HO-, RO-, CN-, N3-, Cl, Br,I, RS, RSH, H2S, RNH2, R3P
________ means that one copy of a wild type gene is sufficient to achieve a normal phenotype. In other words, the normal trait only requires one functional gene copy because it produces enough protein to show the normal trait. Tumor suppressor genes are also involved with _____ ____, and they help to suppress the chances of developing a tumor. One tumor suppressor gene is sufficient to produce a tumor suppressor effect, and that means tumor suppressor genes are haplosufficient. Tumor suppressor genes follow a two _____ _______. This means that loss-of-function mutations are required in both of their genes in order to be cancer-causing. This is because tumor suppressor genes are haplosufficient (one gene copy is enough to maintain normal function).
Haplosufficiency cell regulation hit hypothesis
_______ are enzymes that are bound to their cofactors while apoenzymes are enzymes that are not bound to their cofactors.
Holoenzymes
Which of the following is a trait shared by Archaea and Eubacteria?
Horizontal gene transfer NOT PEPTIDOGLYCAN
HCO3-
Hydrogen carbonate
HPO4 (2-)
Hydrogen phosphate
HPO3 (2-)
Hydrogen phosphite
HSO4-
Hydrogen sulfate
HAVE NO FEAR OF ICE COLD BEER
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine
________ requires a metal catalyst like Pd/C or Pt. Hydrogenation is a ____ addition, so both H atoms are added to the same side of the reacting alkene.
Hydrogenation syn
_________ converts an alkene to an alkyl halide. The reaction is regiospecific as the Markovnikov product is formed. Hydrohalogenation is a Markovnikov addition because the non-H group is added to the more substituted carbon of the alkene. The halide ion can attack the carbocation from either side, so there is no stereospecificity in this reaction. If the product is chiral, we get a ______ mixture. Note that rearrangements are possible due to the carbocation intermediate.
Hydrohalogenation racemic
H30 (+1)
Hydronium
OH-
Hydroxide
BrO-
Hypobromite
IO-
Hypoiodite
Polymerases ___ and _____ have 3' → 5' exonuclease function, meaning that they can break the _________ backbone on a single strand of DNA and remove a nucleotide. An _________ can only remove from the end of the chain.
I and III phosphodiester exonuclease
Polymerase ____ also has some proofreading function; if there is a mistake during replication, polymerase III will go back and replace a nucleotide e. Polymerase I also has ____->____ exonuclease function to remove the primer; _______ ____ can also proofread in the 3' → 5' direction when laying down a new nucleotide strand
III 5' → 3' polymerase I
For vibrations to occur, a molecule must have a net dipole moment. Symmetrical diatomic molecules (O2, F2, N2, etc.) do not have any dipole moments and therefore do not absorb ____ at all.
IR
_____ _______ is used specifically to help chemists identify a compound's functional groups. It is not used for any of the other purposes listed.
IR spectroscopy
____ ____. Bonds that have more lone pairs on their atoms will generally have lower bond strength as the repulsion between the lone pairs weakens the covalent bond.
Lone pairs
______ in biology refers to the "inside space" of a referenced structure, such as the thylakoid lumen within the thylakoids of chloroplasts.
Lumen
The third checkpoint is the __ _______ that occurs during metaphase and checks if all chromosomes are attached to ______. This also triggers the start of G1.
M checkpoint kinetochores
_______ ● Key names: Rotifers. ● Body symmetry: _______ ● Tissue organization: Triploblasts, eumetazoa. ● Circulatory system: None (diffusion). ● Nervous system: Cerebral ganglia (brain) with nerves extending through the body. ● Respiratory system: None (diffusion). ● Digestive system: _____ ______, mouth and anus. ● Excretory system: Protonephridia and flame cells. General Characteristics: Not truly segmented, can reproduce sexually or parthenogenetically, mostly freshwater environments. Draw food and water into mouth by beating cilia.
Rotifera: Bilateral. Alimentary canal
____ Reactions like weak nucleophiles Water and alcohols are common _____ and ____ Uses Polar protic solvents Weaker the base the better the leaving group OTS>BR>I>Cl
SN1 nucleophiles and solvents
_____ reactions occur in a single step, which means they are concerted reactions. Thus, there is no intermediate in the reaction's mechanism.
SN2
E2 and E1 reactions are elimination reactions. In an elimination reaction, a leaving group and a proton on an adjacent carbon (beta proton) are removed to form a C-C pi bond. Thus, elimination reactions produce alkenes. E2 reactions, like ____ reactions, are concerted. In an E2 reaction, a beta proton is removed by a strong base, a C-C pi bond is formed, and the leaving group is knocked off. E2 reactions also involve a ______ transition state, which is why the reaction has a "2" in its name.
SN2 bimolecular
____ reactions like polar aprotic solvents Acetone, DMSO, Acetonitrile, ______, Diethyl Ether, THF, _____
SN2 DMF HMPA
______reaction good leaving groups are weaker _____ OTS>I>BR>Cl
SN2 bases
the volume of one mole of gas at _____ (standard temperature and pressure is defined as the conditions in which pressure is ____ and temperature is 273K). One mole of gas at STP is equal to ______ L.
STP 1 atm 22.4
Fats Store more energy than carbs per _____ Triglycerides in Small intestine broken down via lipase into monoacylglycerides + fatty acids, then absorbed into _______ Packaged into chylomicrons with cholesterol, proteins, phospholipids and moved into _____ _____for transport to the rest of body Lipases in adipose tissue are hormone sensitive Glycerol -> PGAL enters glycolysis When fatty acid -> acetyl coa, every ____ carbon from fatty acid chain makes acetyl coa Fatty acid in blood combine with _____ which carries them trhoughout bloodstream Fatty acids are broken down for energy via ______ _______, which takes place in mitochondrial matrix 2 ATP are spent activating the entire fatty acid chain ______ ______ acids produce 1 NADH and 1 FADH2 for every cut into 2 carbons - Unsaturated produce 1 less FADH2 for each double bond Results in big yield of ATP, as it yields more atp per carbon than carbohydrates, with more energy in fats than sugars Between meals, most lipids of plasma are in the form of lipoproteins (chylomicrons are large) Addition to chylomicrons theres ______/______
carbon enterocytes lymph capillary 2 albumin beta oxidation Saturated fatty LDL/HDL
allylic
carbon atom adjacent to alkene
Like carbocations, _____ ______ are electron deficient and therefore unstable. Carbon radical stability increases with ______ substitution.
carbon radicals increasing
Phloem vs xylen
carry water and nutrients down plants Xylem carry water up the plant
A ______ is a substance that lowers the activation energy and thereby speeds up the rate of the reaction.
catalyst
Diplo-:______ Strep-: chain _____-: grape-like clusters Coccus: _____ _______: rod-like Spirilla/spirochetes: spirals
pairs Staph spherical Bacillus
Recombinant DNA is produced when DNA fragments from different sources are joined together. These fragments are produced by restriction enzymes, which tend to cut DNA at _____ ____ to produce sticky or blunt ends.
palindromic sequences
The ______ secretes pancreatic amylases to break down starches, pancreatic lipase to break down _____, zymogens such as trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen, and bicarbonate ions to ____ stomach acid flowing into the small intestine.
pancreas fats neutralize
Pi bonds are always formed by ______ _______! Pi bonds overlap in a "side by side" or ______ conformation.
unhybridized p-orbitals parallel
An _______ solution refers to a solution with less solute or dissolved ions than the equilibrium (saturated) state. ________, in contrast, is one with an excess of solute or ions that exceeds the maximum amount that can be dissolved. This results in precipitation of a _____.
unsaturated Supersaturated solid.
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is ______, so it breaks down into two three-carbon sugars at the end of the energy investment phase
unstable
