COMM 1110 Public Speaking Chapter 2:

After reflecting upon those differences, you as the speaker must then

decide the best way to interpret the information and connect to your audience.

Public speakers and audiences work together to communicate effectively, which leads speakers to answer a variety of questions, such as

"How do I communicate best with this audience?" and "What are some ways I can best adapt this message ethically to my audience?" (Questions such as these help prepare a speaker to engage in perhaps one of the most important processes of public speaking: audience analysis)

various delivery techniques and strategies speakers can use to increase audience engagement

-Eye Contact. -Facial Expression -Vocal Variety -Gestures/Movement -Physical Setting

Some of the cultural differences that shape our positionalities include the following:

-Individualistic and collectivistic cultures -High-context and low-context cultures -High-uncertainty and low-uncertainty cultures -High-power and low-power cultures -Long-term time and short-term time orientation

audience

-One of the most important and perhaps often neglected elements of public speaking is the role of the receiver, or as we call them an audience - comprised of individuals who are directly or indirectly receiving, engaging, or responding to the speaker's message. Audiences are typically comprised of a wide range of interests, characteristics, and values, people who may be like-minded, especially if they attend a specific event for an organization or cause

Incorporating Information

-adapt to their audience -we maintain that adapting to your audience appeals to not only the ethics or credibility of a speaker but also promotes greater connection and engagement between the speaker and the audience, which in turn allows for successful communication to take place.

Ethnocentrism

-is the belief that your cultural views are superior to others Evaluation of another's culture or positionality based on your own hinders your ability to broaden your perspective of how to approach a communication event or speaking occasion. Not only does consideration of cultural differences allow you think about different positionalities and ways to approach your speech topic, it also increases your credibility as a speaker, thus communicating to your audience that you and the information you present are credible, accurate, and trustworthy

Below we provide some general questions of analysis to help speakers conduct audience analysis following their presentations:

1. Was common ground met between me and my audience members? 2. What did my audience respond to well in my presentation (verbally or nonverbally)? 3. What did my audience not respond to well in my presentation (verbally or nonverbally)? 4. Did I incorporate positionalities other than that of my own? If not, how can I do this next time? 5. What delivery techniques could I use to increase audience engagement? Should I use more vocal variety, less reading of my speaking notes, incorporate more technology, videos, charts, etc.? Questions such as these help speakers reflect upon their choices as they deliberate what they should continue to do in future speeches and how they should alter certain techniques, methods, or information for when they present next time

Therefore, you might communicate with your contact person(s) and pose general questions such as:

1. What is the general age range of my audience? 2. What do the members know about my topic? What do they want to know? 3. What is the general educational level of my audience? 4. What jobs or careers do my audience members have? 5. Will the room I present in have technology? 6. How big is the room? Does it allow for physical demonstrations? 7. How many people will be in attendance? 8. Will my presentation be recorded?

Appealing to audiences and making a connection is crucial to an effective presentation.

As the speaker, you may not be able to convince your audience to agree with your stance on capital punishment, believe that Cardi B is the best female rapper, or buy the new computer you recommend, but at the most basic level, you are trying to find common ground with the audience.

-Vocal Variety

Attention to vocal elements such as rate, volume, tone, inflection, and pauses creates more depth, intrigue, and complexity in a presentation If audience members are showing signs of audience disengagement, speakers altering their tone, rate, volume, and inflection can demonstrate passion and enthusiasm. Thus, speakers' using a variety of vocal elements help create connection and engagement with audience members.

High-uncertainty Highuncertainty cultures are countries such as

Cultures vary according to how uncertainty is perceived, which in turn shapes the polices, laws, rules, and practices certain countries put in place and demonstrate. -High-uncertainty cultures are cultures that are comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. These cultures tend to be more flexible and secure even when details are not explicitly laid out. Indonesia and Great Britain high-uncertainty cultures tend to handle uncertainty in a myriad of ways, dependent upon the situation.

short-term time orientation

Cultures with short-term time orientation, or otherwise also called monochromic time orientation, value time management and approach problems and tasks rather quickly and promptly. Cultures with a short-term time orientation tend to be Western, industrialized countries such as the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and Germany.

Direct observation can be extremely helpful as we identify the demographics of an audience, but it also has the potential to produce negative effects.

Gauging an audience's demographics through direct observation often involves speakers making certain assumptions. it can be a tricky business when we consider the race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual preference of our audience members and attempt to assume certain qualities of individuals based on demographics such as these.

Interpreting the Information:

How speakers interpret the information shapes the ways in which they structure their argument, approach opposing viewpoints, and communicate with their audiences. speakers must be aware of their own personal biases or experiences that impact the way information is interpreted.

communication landscape

However, our increased ability to communicate with others simultaneously poses a higher risk for miscommunication to occur. A lack of effective communication can often lead to unnecessary arguments, hostile working relationships, and perceptions of incompetency It is no wonder businesses, organizations, and college and universities often require classes or workshops in communication, specifically in public speaking. An individual's ability to speak in public and communicate effectively assists with conveying particular ideas, cultivating interactions, and maintaining relationships

High-context High-context cultures include countries such as..

In high-context cultures, there is a great deal of emphasis placed on nonverbal communication such as tone, gestures, facial expressions, movement, etc. Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Japan, Italy, and Spain

. When you address an audience, more frequent than not, you will not be speaking to individuals who all look the same, think the same, or act the same

In your public speaking classroom, many of you, in fact, will be interacting with people of different cultures, beliefs, and backgrounds and must attend to those differences in your speech

-Eye Contact.

Maintenance of consistent eye contact is a crucial element of audience engagement. Eye contact invites audience members into your speech as it can make them feel as if you are directly speaking to them, creating a strong connection. However, audience disengagement occurs when speakers read their speech or rarely make eye contact with audience members If speakers are struggling to engage audience members, increasing direct eye contact helps command audience members' attention.

-Facial Expression

Much like eye contact, facial expression provides a way for a speaker to nonverbally engage their audience. If the occasion for a presentation is known by the audience to be a positive one, there is likely an expectation that a speaker will smile. This can go the other way, as well. Problems can arise when a speaker's facial expression does not match their content, (For example, if a speaker briefs an audience on groundbreaking research, but appears bored, the audience may feel less engaged)

Nikki J. bumble

Nikki assumes that all of her classmates identify as heterosexual, eliminating all other possible sexual orientations. Making this assumption may seem like a harmless mistake, which it may very well be, however, the consequences of this assumption can alienate one or more individuals in the audience. Creating this internal noise within audience members, Nikki risks making her audience members feel ignored, devalued, and unrecognized based on their sexual orientation, which ultimately leads to the downfall of her presentation

In addition to audience members' behaviors and actions, speakers can gauge personal beliefs, values, and attitudes of their audience through closed-ended questions, such as:

Social media negatively impacts the way we communicate (agree/disagree)

During the Speech

Speakers continuously analyze their audience even during their speeches As we have mentioned, effective communication requires both engagement from the speaker and the audience.

audience-centered

Successful speakers find common ground with their audience members as they understand that all public speaking is always audience-centered meaning that speakers consider the perspectives, needs, and wants of their audience. Failure to make connections with your audience leaves members of your audience bored and uninterested, which in turn disengages them.

high power culture

The concept of power as it operates culturally represents how authority is perceived and how power is distributed. To possess power gives individuals or groups of people the ability to wield influence and authority in society High-power cultures value clear lines of authority and power distinction. Some high-power countries include the Philippines, Mexico, Venezuela, India, Brazil, and France. In these countries, power distribution is not equally distributed among all people but rather situated with certain positions and individuals.

Individualistic and collectivistic cultures

These cultural elements highlight how achievement may be perceived. Individualistic cultures place great emphasis on individualism and individual achievement.

For example, you are asked by your employer to deliver a presentation on the U. S. health care system. The way in which you organize your speech and the language you utilize will vastly differ if you are delivering this speech to elementary school children, college students, or individuals sixty years of age or older.

This example particularly points to the ways our audience shapes what information we deliver and how we structure presentations. As we can see, our audience members have a major impact on the way we develop and deliver our speeches.

audience-centered speakers navigate these difficulties through identifying the ways in which audience members can be included even if they do not perceive the topic or information to be directly related or relevant to them.

Thus, the speaker's responsibility is to motivate the audience to see that connection. Michelle Obama's address reflected this rhetorical move as well. Not only reaching across the demographics of geographical location, she also emphasized an inclusion of all individuals' participation in the Let Girls Learn initiative Her attempt to remain inclusive of all people no matter their gender or sex did not end there, understanding the importance to not only include but also connect all of her audience members to her message, Obama sought to unite, motivate, and inspire her audience to work together collectively Michelle Obama's public address strategically and effectively incorporated one of the most critical elements of the speechmaking process: audience analysis. Be it the direct audience or the indirect audience members' response and engagement, it was clear that Michelle Obama's public address at the 2016 International Women's Day was a powerful speech product—one not only fueled by passion for the Let Girls Learn initiative but also one foregrounded with serious, thoughtful consideration and evaluation of her audience.

Long-term time orientation

Time is an important element of communication and can be interpreted differently among cultures globally. Cultures with a long-term time orientation, also known as polychromic time orientation, emphasize patience and delayed gratification as people within these cultures carefully approach tasks, communication situations, and problem solving Countries such as Japan, China, Brazil, and Colombia tend to operate with a long-term time orientation mindset

To gather more accurate demographic information, speakers might format questions, such as

What is your sexual orientation? What is your ethnicity? Select all of which you identify

Understanding audiences in this way allows us to see how audiences emerge even when they are not the speaker's targeted audience

While in a college classroom, you will most likely address an audience directly, but even then the message conveyed may exit the doors of the classroom and in turn construct indirect audiences as well. This all goes to show why speakers must consider the impact and potential impact of their message on their audiences.

However, collectivistic cultures place a higher emphasis on Collectivistic cultures such as

a collective of people accomplishing tasks, goals, etc. Japan, Thailand, Colombia, Taiwan, and Venezuela tend to value the importance of teamwork. Countries such as these emphasize a community-driven perspective and uphold the idea that if one fails, all fail

Similar to the ways speakers must understand the audience, conducting a brief analysis of the setting is

also crucial to the success of presentations, as speakers must be aware of room size, availability of technology, and in this particular example, if the speaker will be able to demonstrate certain fitness techniques.

Surveys

are formal questionnaires speakers create and distribute to obtain demographic and psychographic information from audience members Also known as audience research questionnaires, surveys help speakers get a sense of their audience's unique perspectives regarding their speech topic Effective surveys are clear, concise, and feature two forms of questions: closed-ended questions and open-ended questions Surveys also exhibit open-ended questions

Contact persons

are individuals or organizations with some knowledge of the demographic and psychographic information of the audience you intend to address they may provide specific information that will help you determine how to structure and deliver your speech

open-ended questions

are questions that elicit free responses from audience members, thus allowing for a wide variety of answers and perspectives. Typically, open-ended questions structurally provide a specific amount of space for individuals to respond, as speakers must limit the amount of information provided from respondents For example, Why do you use social media? Respond in the provided space Some speakers may find that audience members' survey responses help strengthen their arguments or may identify interesting counter perspectives they need to address in their presentation. Either way, the information collected from the surveys assist in helping the speaker achieve successful communication with their audience.

Closed-ended questions

are questions that respondents must select one of the given choices, thus limits the amount of available responses. Closed-ended questions are created to obtain specific and particular information and knowledge from audience members. When creating closed-ended questions, it is important to indicate a range of possible options to select from Creating closed-ended questions also provides generalized information about audience members' behaviors on a particular topic For example, How many hours per week do you spend on/using social media?

One of the most useful informal strategies is

asking direct questions of the audience However, since many of your classroom presentations are timed, structured, and rarely allow for continuous feedback from audience, this may not be the best method to use

What Nikki could have done to combat heterosexism in her speech is to employ another informal strategy of audience analysis:

asking questions directly to the audience, or as we refer to it as polling the audience. P

Michelle Obama's speech understood the importance of one key rhetorical element of public speaking:

audience analysis

Too often, public speaking gets a bad rap for overemphasizing the role of the speaker. It is true that the speaker does perform a critical role by crafting and sending messages.

audience: Though speakers must engage internally with questions like these, solely relying on themselves can be the downfall of their presentations

Awareness of our own positionality and others allows us to

carefully interrogate not only how we interpret information but why we interpret the way we do Interpretation is a cyclical process of recognizing and understanding different cultural elements and positionalities, which requires serious and thoughtful consideration.

Common ground

describes the ways in which the speaker and audience are similar to one another. To establish common ground, speakers interrogate the overlapping similarities they have with their audience members.

Prior to presentations, the third stage of adaptation in audience analysis is a critical component to the speechwriting process. However, speakers do not cease to employ these stages of audience analysis only before the speech but continuously utilize these steps even

during the presentation

Generally, effective surveys should include at least

five to ten questions and feature a combination of both closed-ended and open-ended questions. Additionally, is it helpful for surveys to generally remain anonymous as it provides respondents relief from scrutiny or judgment.

There are alternatives to this that do not infer gender:

folks, y'all, friends, group, and people can all work in different situations

these cultural differences and positionalities of perspectives and values are still important to consider when attempting to communicate and present to a diverse audience. Deliberation on these positionalities also

helps combat an ethnocentric outlook

Addressing any audience, particularly one that is highly diverse, often presents both freedoms and obstacles as speakers must navigate how to best connect their message to their audience whether their hope is to

inform, persuade, inspire, or simply entertain.

Interpreting Information

is a subjective process in which speakers evaluate the information gathered, understanding and responding to audience members' perspectives In this stage of the process, misunderstanding may occur so it is imperative the speaker is aware of their own biases and assumptions when interpreting the information. Objectivity can also be gained at this stage when the speaker gathers and evaluates a strong sample size of their audience Both subjective and objective interpretations of information are needed to combat inaccurate stereotypes and assumptions of your audience.

Inclusive language

is the discursive language that works to diminish speaker-audience barriers that typically come with presenting Though both the speaker and audience perform critical roles to ensure successful and effective communication, the speaker must engage audience members and make them feel a part of the speech Using inclusive language such as "we" and "us" instead of "I" and "you" promotes connection and engagement.

Expert testimony

is the firsthand account of a particular person with a specialized form of expertise in a given area. Including expert testimony not only increases your ethos, it also provides different forms of information you perhaps never knew or considered. As we can see, interviews allow for more in-depth information to be gathered and used for presentations

Direct observation

is the informal strategy speakers use as they physically observe and look at specific discrete characteristics of an audience. Therefore, it is important to understand the complexity of relying on demographics.

Audience disengagement

is the lack of audience interest, involvement, and participation. Some messages of audience disengagement are audience members falling asleep, looking at watches or phones, little to no eye contact, and lack of applause.

. Gender-neutral language

is the language that does not assume, identify, or privilege one gender over another. Employing gender-neutral language combats -ism language in your speeches.

Audience analysis

is the process of gathering and interpreting information about an audience to adapt, develop, and communicate a message h. However, audience analysis is done before, during, and even after a speaker presents, making it a powerful strategy to utilize in the communication process. every member of your audience still possesses a unique perspective on topic selection, ethical content, language use, and delivery styles

During the process of speech construction, the

language speakers incorporate is perhaps one of the most important elements to consider before a presentation to adapt and connect to your audience. One way speakers can attempt to do this is through the use of inclusive language

low-power culture

low-power cultures such as Austria, Israel, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, and Great Britain approach power distribution more equitably. Power and authority tend to be more democratic and collaborative in countries such as these.

low-context cultures Some low-context countries are

people from low-context cultures place greater value on the words themselves than the nonverbal communication that is associated with the verbal message Switzerland, Germany, the United States, and Australia (Countries such as these find the importance from what is said (the verbal messages) than how it is said (nonverbal messages))

Polling the audience

perhaps the best informal strategy as it provides an immediate response and comes directly from the audience members themselves, leaving little room for miscommunication or the need for speakers to assume or stereotype. some audience members may find certain questions too uncomfortable to answer directly in person some speakers poll their audience but then do not incorporate or respond to what they learn But just because it's informal doesn't mean that it shouldn't be thought through. ex. if Nikki asked how many people experience heterosexism in their daily lives and everyone raised their hands, this overwhelming answer would require a comment.

Messages of -isms

refer to a system of beliefs that are rooted in racism, sexism, heterosexism, classism, ableism, etc. The inclusion of -isms in a speech, be it intentional or unintentional, is one of the pitfalls of solely relying on demographics through direct observation.

Gathering Information: Demographics

refer to the discrete identity characteristics of an audience, such as race, gender, sex, ethnicity, age, etc Speakers may obtain this type of information both informally and formally.

Psychographics

refer to the psychological information of an audience such as their values, beliefs, attitudes, etc. Identity characteristics regarding an individual's perspectives, thoughts, feelings, etc

Audience engagement

refers to active involvement of an audience during a presentation. Messages of audience engagement appear both verbally and nonverbally. Verbal messages of audience engagement are answering posed questions and asking questions once the presentation ends. However, many of you will notice that audience engagement comes often in the form of nonverbal messages, such as nodding, smiling, laughing, consistent eye contact, and applause.

Positionality

refers to the individual and collective experiences and perspectives a speaker possesses A speaker's positionality reveals how they are positioned within hierarchies and structures of privilege and power..... Therefore, it is no surprise then that our positionality influences the ways we perceive audiences and are perceived by our audiences.

Formal strategies

require a little extra effort from the speaker, but they make all the difference to the presentation as they help paint a more accurate depiction of the audience Formal strategies of audience analysis offer speakers the ability to gather even more information

Gathering Information

requires speakers to consider all of the information available from their audience You can gather information regarding the unique and shared characteristics and perspectives of your audience members by looking at, listening to, and directly asking them. Strategies in this stage of audience analysis can be conducted both informally and formally by the speaker Once all available information is considered, speakers must then move to the next stage of audience analysis: interpreting the information

Michelle Obama's speech was no exception; she understood and positioned her diverse audience at the forefront of her presentation.

s she echoed the sentiment that educational equality is not solely a national problem but rather a global issue, she maintained that claim throughout her address, as she included the stories, experiences, and efforts of countless individuals, organizations, and corporations Traveling across the globe in her speech, Michelle Obama brought forth the stories of young girls, The inclusion of global stories demonstrated Obama's keen awareness that they not only spoke to the initiative of Let Girls Learn but also to the individuals that occupied the room and to her worldwide mediated audience who tuned in to watch her public address

Interviews

scheduled meetings designed to consult individuals to respond to a set of questions about a particular subject or area Similar to surveys, interviews include both closed-ended and open-ended questions but allow for spontaneity as respondents are not restricted to answer only the questions the interviewer intends to ask Additionally, conducting interviews further demonstrates a speaker's credibility, as interviews may allow for expert testimony to be obtained

but in the second stage

speakers are mentally and emotionally challenged to push beyond the boundaries of their own perspectives and reflect upon other positionalities and cultural differences. This deliberation also places the speaker in a vulnerable position as their choices of how to construct their speech and what to include in their presentation may elicit unfavorable responses It is the second stage of audience analysis where speakers must consider all possible outcomes that may arise.

Using direct observation to determine audience engagement,

speakers interpret the best ways to adapt and alter their delivery style to make a connection.

During the gathering stage,

speakers needed to collect all available information

-Gestures/Movement

speakers' use of movement can be an effective tool to increase attention and engagement. Additionally, the use of gestures generates inclusion, as audience members feel more connected as the presentation appears more conversational and engaging The key is to maintain an appropriate use of gestures and movement as these strategies help increase audience engagement in presentations. Overuse of hand gestures and movement can be distracting, which in turn can produce the opposite effects of audience engagement.

how speakers accurately depict or understand the demographics and psychographics of an audience can gain this vital information through two formal strategies of audience analysis:

surveys and interviews Though these formal strategies of surveys and interviews are similar, they possess key distinctions from each other.

Some individualistic countries include

the United States, Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Belgium, and Denmark..... Countries such as these emphasize the performance and work of an individual and thus encourage personal growth and development of the individual.

Demographics are not merely characteristics that offer information about your audience..

they also help you consider which speech topics to pursue, what type of language to employ in your speeches, and what supporting material will be most effective to connect the audience to your message

Low-uncertainty cultures

value complete transparency, clarity, and description as they are not comfortable with ambiguity. Countries of low uncertainty include Russia, Japan, France, and Costa Rica Because low-uncertainty cultures value description and detail, they typically have clearly laid out plans when uncertainty does occur

Pandering

when speakers become too reliant on their analyses and only present information that aligns to the articulated interests, beliefs, values, and attitudes of their audience members, this ultimately leads to an act of pandering. - is the process in which speakers overcompensate and indulge audiences in their presentation by only considering their audience's personal interests, perspectives, and beliefs. -ex. analyzing audience interest on a topic and choosing that particular topic is not an act of pandering, However, selecting that topic and then only providing the perspective that the audience agrees with and accepts is pandering the speaker must remain true to their perspectives and overall objectives as well.

Stereotypes

widely held and oversimplified cultural beliefs about particular people and things. Stereotypes are pervasive and rooted in what we call -isms.

There are three critical stages of audience analysis that speakers must consider before, during, and after the speaking occasion:

-Gathering Information -Interpreting Information -Incorporating Information

To understand the psychographics of an audience, speakers can pose questions such as:

1. What does my audience feel or think about this topic? 2. What interests do my audience members have? 3. What values, beliefs, or perspectives do my audience members hold?

Gathering information on an audience's demographics requires speakers to ask some of the following questions:

1. What does my audience physically look like? 2. What geographic location(s) are we situated in or near? 3. What does the social and cultural landscape look like? 4. What ages are my audience members?

After the Speech

After the speech, the speaker will still engage in direct observation as they gather verbal and nonverbal responses from their presentation, internally interpret those responses and positionalities, and lastly, adapt to the reactions of audience members

-Physical Setting

Assessment of physical setting enables the speaker to anticipate the ways they may need to adapt their presentation to their audience to increase audience engagement. Rather than solely use language to explain technical information, speakers could provide graphs and videos to communicate the information in a more engaging and dynamic way.

Incorporating Information

Similar to any communication setting or speaking occasion, a speaker must choose how to incorporate the needs, wants, and perspectives of the audience. In no way do we suggest that you change your argument or limit yourself from presenting controversial topics that need to be addressed, but rather we suggest an ethical approach to the presentation—as you would in any communicative interaction.