Comm 215 Chapter 9

organizational communication defined

According to Feldner and D'Urso (2010), modern approaches to organizational communication center on the extent to which meaning is created between individuals in an organizational setting, between individuals and organizations, and between organizations and societies. Rejecting the oversimplified idea that an organization exists as a "container" in which communication occurs, organizational communication scholars instead focus on communication as a process rather than an event. Specific communication processes of interest to organizational communication scholars include the development and maintenance of workplace relationships, the socialization of new organizational members, the development of organizational cultures, the ways organizations and organizational members exert and resist power, the ways communication processes create organizational structures, and the ways organizational structures alter communication processes.

rules

According to Weick (1969), one way to reduce equivocality is to rely on rules (also called recipes). The term rule most often refers to guidelines for behavior, and Weick's use of the term is consistent with this conceptualization. Typically, organizations have rules, or guidelines, for analyzing both the equivocality of a message and how to respond to it. These rules are developed to make a process more efficient and are generally based on past successes.

bureaucrat control

Undoubtedly, you are familiar with the term bureaucracy, and it is usually associated with negative perceptions. Edwards, however, was referring to the vision of bureaucracy first articulated by Max Weber, a German sociologist. Writing at the turn of the 20th century, Weber argued that modern organizations are served best by a hierarchical system of rules, with rewards and punishments drawn from those rules. That hierarchy is evident in contemporary organizations through company policies and formal procedures. Employee handbooks and other such formalized rule systems are the clearest example of bureaucratic control.

interdependence

A major reason nonsummativity takes place is because of interdependence (Rapoport, 1968). Interdependence means all system members are dependent on all other system members; if one group member drops the ball—literally or figuratively—the organization as a whole is unlikely to achieve its goals.

enactment

Enactment occurs when members of an organization take note of equivocal information in their information environment. Recall that equivocal information can be interpreted in multiple ways. Recognizing multiple interpretations and putting into practice a mechanism for making sense of the information are at the heart of enactment.

selection

In seeking to reduce equivocality, organizational members must choose how to respond. As described earlier, organizational members can choose between rules, or standard guidelines for how to respond, and a double interact, which is a communication process that allows members to adapt solutions to the problem.

Vocational Anticipatory Socialization

Jablin (2001) describes a host of studies indicating the media overrepresent managerial and professional work and underrepresent low-prestige jobs. People are often stereotyped by race and sex. Moreover, the nature of communication in the workplace is distorted, with much of the conversation focused on socializing, giving orders, or giving advice. All these notions of work are brought together in vocational anticipatory socialization, or the expectations and beliefs about work we bring with us as we begin to assimilate into an organization.

systems metaphor

Much of organizational communication relies on a systems metaphor. The core of the systems metaphor is a focus on the interdependence that develops whenever people interact with each other.

control

Quite simply, "an organization needs control to get things done"

retention

Retention is a form of organizational memory. What was done and how it was done is stored, formally or informally, so organizational members can refer to it again. Notice what is happening here; even if organizational members go through a double interact to reduce equivocality, in this stage, the double interact is retained as a new rule or guideline for behavior in the future. Accordingly, retention should be used sparingly. Figure 9.1 provides a visual illustration of sociocultural evolution.

Level 1: Artifacts

Schein's (1992, 2010) notion of artifacts refers to the observable evidence of culture. Artifacts may take the form of physical entities, such as architecture, dress, and documents, but they also consist of patterns of behavior. These patterns of behavior can take the form of rituals, acronyms, forms of address, approaches to decision making, and management style. Table 9.2 lists some examples of artifacts. Although artifacts are, by definition, observable, interpreting what they mean may not always be obvious (Schein, 1992, 2010). For example, imagine an organization that develops a pattern of using formal titles among organizational members. According to Miller (2003), such a behavioral artifact might mean the organization is very formal. On the other hand, it might simply mean organizational members hold each other in high esteem and wish to show each other respect. Or it might be an indication that organizational members dislike each other and seek to maintain distance. Thus, while this level of culture is readily apparent, it does not provide much substance to an understanding of organizational culture. Attention must be turned to higher levels for such understanding.

Level 3: assumptions

The final level of culture is the most difficult to identify because it is often taken for granted by organizational members. Assumptions refers to the viewpoints organizational members hold about the world, including perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and beliefs. These assumptions are subconscious because they have been reinforced over and over again as the organization faces challenges. Assumptions lie at the heart of organizational culture because such presumptions are made uniformly throughout the organization (Schein, 1992, 2010). Specifically, organizations develop assumptions about the nature of reality, time, space, human nature, and human relationships, among other things. Although this notion sounds complex, such assumptions have a substantial effect on organizational life. Consider two different employment programs for former prisoners. A fundamental assumption of one program might be that people are capable of changing. Such an assumption will affect the everyday decisions made because organizational members will spend energy seeking to develop and reward individuals rather than punish them for past infractions. Yet a different organization might assume the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior. In this case, organizational members are likely to view individuals who have made mistakes as risky prospects likely to repeat those mistakes.

metamorphosis

The final stage of assimilation, metamorphosis, reflects the movement of the individual from an outsider to an insider. During this stage, the newcomer and the organization exert mutual influence in the process of developing a "fit" between the organization and the employee. Here, the newcomer internalizes values and behaviors in order to fulfill organizational expectations (known as socialization) while at the same time seeks to have an impact on his or her role and work environment (known as individualization). Imagine you have begun working at an organization that rigidly follows the rules of the employee handbook. You have reached metamorphosis if you still allow the handbook to guide your behavior, but you also use inconsistencies and missing areas of the handbook to achieve your goals. In this case, you have been socialized to rely on the handbook, as is the organizational culture, but you have adapted the culture to your own needs by taking advantage of the handbook's limitations to get what you think you need to accomplish your job.

deal and Kennedy

The first approach is exemplified by Deal and Kennedy (1982, 2000), who argued that organizations become high performing when they have a strong organizational culture. These authors identified four central elements to culture: values, heroes, rites and rituals, and the cultural network

organizing theory

The previous theories in this chapter have linked communication processes to organizational processes. The fourth and final perspective, Weick's (1969) organizing theory, takes this link one step further by stating that communication is the organization. Instead of viewing organizations as containers in which communication occurs, Weick argued communication is what constitutes an organization. Instead of examining an organization (a noun), Weick examined the process of organizing (a verb).

Level 2: values

The second level of culture is organizational members' espoused values, defined as preferences about what "ought to happen" (Schein, 1992, 2010). These preferences represent shared beliefs about how things should work. By nature, values are intangible, but organizational members are typically able to articulate them. Organizational leaders are frequently the source of values; for instance, research shows the values held by the founder of a company strongly influence the values described by other employees (Morley & Shockley-Zalabak, 1991). Certainly, literature suggests leadership is, by definition, the ability to shape members' perceptions of the task and the mission of the organization (Barge, 1994). Accordingly, it's not surprising organizational members are persuaded to adopt the values of organizational leaders.

Anticipatory Socialization

The second stage of organizational assimilation theory is anticipatory socialization. Here, individuals gather information about a specific vocation, position, or organization. This stage includes the process of choosing an organization, interviewing, and preparing to enter the organization. Jablin (2001) argued that in many cases individuals retain unrealistic and inflated notions of the organization because organizations typically communicate only their positive aspects. These unrealistic expectations are often problematic, as organizational members find it difficult to meet these expectations once on the job. Clearly, during this phase the organizational newcomer starts to become socialized into the organization before he or she ever works in the organization.

encounter

The third phase is one of high uncertainty and anxiety. In the encounter phase, the organizational newcomer enters the workplace and begins to learn the normal work patterns and expectations of the organization. As described in Chapter 3, there are many ways people reduce uncertainty, including observation and asking questions. Typically, the organizational newcomer relies on coworkers and his or her supervisor for uncertainty reduction. The individual in this stage frequently undergoes a "culture shock" as she or he compares expectations with the reality of the new workplace and disillusionment as she or he lets go of old values and behaviors.

synergy

This ability to achieve more through group effort than individual effort is positive synergy (Salazar, 1995). Of course, occasionally negative synergy occurs, meaning the group achieves less than the individual parts would suggest. Nevertheless, the point of nonsummativity is that you cannot understand a system by looking only at its components, as a system is more than just its individual parts.

information environment

With roots in Darwin's theory of evolution, information theory, and systems theory, organizing theory assumes organizations exist in an information environment (Weick, 1969). Rather than focusing on the physical environment, Weick's theory is concerned with the massive amounts of information organizations have available to them, from internal and external sources. Organizations depend on information to accomplish their goals, and the Herculean challenge of processing it all.

rites and rituals

are public performances that demonstrate the organizational values. The most obvious of these rituals are entry rituals, such as an academic convocation to welcome incoming students or a dinner for new employees.

Schein's (1992) model includes three levels of culture

artifacts, values, and assumptions. Although all three make up a culture, he believed the third level, assumptions, is at the crux of organizational culture and that the first two levels, artifacts and values, may simply reflect the more abstract and subconscious assumptions shared by organizational members.

double interact

consists of an act, a response, and an adjustment (Weick, 1969). An act is a communication behavior initiated by one person or group of people. The receivers of the message communicate in return, which is considered a response. This two-way exchange of messages is most typically used to understand the communication process. Weick proposed genuine communication requires a third step, an adjustment to the information originally received. This adjustment can take several forms. It might be a confirmation that the information has been understood. If the information is still equivocal, the adjustment might be additional information gathering.

bet the company culture

culture is exemplified by high-stakes gambles that take years to pay off. Unlike the work hard-play hard culture, stress here is a low-level constant, and being deliberate is the name of the game. Oil companies, who invest billions of dollars on a drilling operation, and capital goods manufacturers, who spend years researching and developing new products, are examples of this type of culture.

Homeostasis

efers to the natural balance or equilibrium within the system. From a systems perspective, homeostasis is not meant to imply change doesn't happen. Instead, it is the tendency for a given system to maintain stability in the face of change

connective control

happens when coworkers develop mechanisms to reward and control behavior that influences the team. For example, Barker (1999) suggested group members can discipline nonconforming coworkers through criticizing directly, monitoring, being silent, and exerting social pressure, among other things.

simple control

involves direct, authoritarian control. If a manager makes threats (e.g., "do this, or you'll get fired") or places conditions on an employee (e.g., "you can leave early if you finish the Kegway project"), she or he is using a classic way of controlling employees by simply directing the employee as to what can or should be done.

technological control

involves the use of technology to manage what can and can't be done in the workplace (Edwards, 1981). A factory assembly line is a perfect example; employees must go exactly as fast as the assembly line is moving—no faster and no slower (as the classic episode of I Love Lucy in the candy factory illustrated). Employees on an assembly line can only take prescribed breaks, as well, because the whole line must be shut down if one person takes a break. A more contemporary example of this type of control is the limitation of computer technology. How often have you been told by someone, "The computer program won't let us do that"? The technology you have access to and the ways technology works serve as a means of organizational control.

system

is a group of individuals who interrelate to form a whole (Hall & Fagen, 1968). Examples of systems are a family, a work group, and a sports team.

discipline

is achieved through a sense of responsibility to the work group because members identify with their organization and because they share common values and a vision for the organization. When individuals are faced with a decision, they will rely on organizational values to make that decision—there is no need for top-down management directives. If an individual is not behaving in concert with organizational values, work group members tend to censure that individual.

unobtrusive control

is based on shared values within the organization. Put simply, in the modern organization, management's job is to create a vision and mission for the organization. When organizational members make decisions based on the vision or credo of the organization, they are not making those decisions because they are forced to but because they believe in the mission of the organization—they identify with the organization. Thus, the commitment to organizational values controls employees.

cultural network

is the informal communication processes within the organization, including stories, jokes, and gossip.

Nonsummativity

or the idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

what does deal and Kennedys approach focus on

qualities of an organization that a manager can develop or change. The second approach to organizational culture, described by Smircich (1983), instead focuses on the processes of communication that create, sustain, and constrain interaction within the organization

heros

re the people who best represent or personify these values, such as the late countercultural visionary Steve Jobs of Apple or the notoriously frugal investment tycoon, billionaire Warren Buffett.

equivocality

references the ambiguity of information available to organizations (Weick, 1969). Messages are equivocal to the extent there may be multiple understandings of the information. Equivocality is different from the concept of uncertainty. When individuals are uncertain about a message, they can gather more information to reduce uncertainty. However, when individuals find a message to be equivocal, they do not need additional information; instead, they must decide which one of multiple interpretations is the best fit.

according to Schein, culture is

refers to a pattern of shared assumptions that have been invented, discovered, or developed by a given group and are taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and behave.

identification

refers to the sense of oneness with or belongingness to an organization; when individuals experience identification, they define themselves in terms of the organization (Mael & Ashforth, 1992). Identification happens most frequently in the metamorphosis stage of organizational assimilation, as described earlier in the chapter. Evidence of identification happens when you listen to organizational members speak. Often, they will say things such as, "We don't operate that way here" or "We launched a new product today." In these cases, the organizational member is adopting the persona of the organization—she or he may have had little to do with the new product, but there is a sense of pride in and ownership of the product because of identification. This process of identification plays a central, yet subtle, role in how organizations control their employees.

work hard play hard culture

s characterized by action, fun, quick feedback, and small risks (Deal & Kennedy, 1982, 2000). Organizations of this type encourage volume and speed, but the activity has high levels of certainty. Stress comes from the pace at which one works, not from the work itself, and is very team-oriented. This type of culture is typical among sales and manufacturing organizations. From real estate, to cars, to McDonald's, the work hard-play hard culture relies on a "find a need and fill it" philosophy

tough guy macho culture

s one of high stakes, fast feedback, with the potential for high rewards or huge losses. People who thrive in this type of culture rely on constant feedback and are often temperamental in their demands. In fact, this type of culture values superstars rather than team players. Not surprisingly, the tough-guy macho culture is often found among advertising agencies and the entertainment industries, as well as law enforcement and medical professions, where lives are on the line

Equifinality

suggests multiple ways to achieve the same goal (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Let's say a production group is challenged with the goal of increasing revenue by 10%. They can do so by selling more product, increasing the price of the old product, reducing manufacturing costs of the old product, developing a new product, or reducing the workforce needed to make the product, among other things. In short, there are multiple paths the organization might take to achieve its goals.

organizational assimilation

theory as a way to explain how individuals become integrated into the culture of an organization. Jablin (2001) argued the process of being socialized into an organization is complex and takes place over years. Moreover, the process of assimilation can be planned, for example, through a potential employee's active researching of a company or formal training procedures. But assimilation is often unplanned. Coworkers' interaction styles might not be intended to send messages about the organizational culture, but the new organizational member might perceive these messages regardless.

process culture

typically can't easily measure what they do, and feedback is slow, so they focus instead on how work is done. The work is stable and consistent, and documenting details is important. Highly regulated industries often fall into this realm, such as financial services, education, government agencies, insurance, and pharmaceuticals

values

underscore the organization's core beliefs, for example, how the organization treats clients, suppliers, stakeholders, and employees