Comm 359 Final Exam(Householder)

Characteristics of Persuasive Vocal Delivery: Volume Control

consider audience and circumstance, loud enough to be heard but not overpowering

Types of Source Factors

Communication Credibility Intent to Persuade Communication Attractiveness Communication Similarity Communication Power

Historical overview of fear and "Fight or Flight" messages

"Phobos" greek god of war idea marker would be on those elements leading the army two options step up and fight or run away comes from that.......Walter Bradford Cannon's theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing

5 Methods of Self-Presentation

- Ingratiations - Intimidation - Self-Promotion - Exemplification - Supplication

what factors influence motivation to think about/process an issue?

- Involvement/Personal Relevance - Number of Message Evaluators - Counter Attitudinal/Incongruent Arguments

Physical Appearance

- Mesomorphic - Ectomorphic - Endomorphic

Psychological Links to Body Types

- Somatotonic - Cerebrotonic - Viscerotonic

Refutation Preemption (Inoculation Construct)

- The cognitive part of the process. The ability to activate one's own argument for future defense and strengthen their existing attitudes through counter-arguing. -By injecting the weakened virus-the opposing opinion-into a receiver, this prompts the receiver to strengthen their position, enabling them to fight off the opposing threat.

List the factors that induce attitude change with Fear Arousal.

- Unfavorableness: strong arguments for the possibility of the recipient shuddering some extremely negative consequence - Likelihood: negative consequence to be likely if recommendations are not accepted - Effective: strong assurance that adoption of the recommendations effectively eliminate these consequences Threat Appraisal- assessment of the severity of the threat. Efficacy appraisal- ability to produce the result (self efficacy and response efficacy)

Characteristics of Persuasive Vocal Delivery

- Volume Control - Faster Rates - Use of Pitch - Good Articulation - Fluent - Effective Pauses

Threat(Inoculation Construct)

- a forewarning/motivation of a possible attack on one's attitudes and beliefs and to protect -Compton and Pfau experiment- They created a fictitious credit card company and started a campaign to get college students to sign up for the card. --Sent messages which warned students of the extent to which CC companies might go to encourage more people to sign-up, also how credit card companies could cause people to rethink their cautious attitudes towards credit cards. End of study students who got these mages were less likely to sign up for company and developed more positive attitudes towards cautious use of credit cards to avoid debt..

Vocal Qualities Linked to Influence: Addington's Studies

- breathiness - flatness - throatiness - pitch - nasality - orotundity - rate

Explain the ELM/HSM

-1.) ELM (The elaboration likelihood model) is the central route or systematic route: consists of having high message elaboration; going through thinking about adding additional info with regards to the message; high amounts of cognitive energy --Careful consideration of information --Using Logos, stats, data, attention to details, rational 2.)HSM (Heuristic-Systematic Model) has peripheral or heuristic track: consists of low message elaboration and use of quick decision rules -Source attractiveness, credibility of source -Essentially the same model -Can be convinced both ways

Report on the Effects of Trustworthiness

-Greater trustworthiness produces greater attitude change. -Whether or not a source is arguing for personal gain DOES make a difference. -Sources arguing against their vested interests are more persuasive than ones arguing for their vested interests. -Someone with persuasive intent is presumed to be less trustworthy than one who simply wants to communicate some message to the audience. -Foreknowledge of persuasive intent reduced the effectiveness of the message. **humor, physical appearance cues, expertise, position centered all at a part of this topic (Characteristics of trustworthiness)

Constructs of an Inoculation Message

1.) Threat 2.) Refuta- The cognitive part of the process. The ability to activate one's own argument for future defense and strengthen their existing attitudes through counter-arguing. tional Preemption

FITD (Foot in the door)

: a small request is made (that you know will be) accepted and is followed by the second or goal request -Reasons why FITD is effective 1.) Consistency- Past behavior must be consistent with request 2.) Self-Perception(suggested that our own opinions and actions are determined by the way in which we perceive ourselves as acting)- We might comply with a small initial request as it is easier than refusing it and risking confrontation. By granting the request, we feel that we have done a favor for the person who made the request. 3.) Time-delay needed- By making gradually more demanding requests, creates an initial relationship between the requester and the subject which the latter then feels bound to honor. 4.) We tend to agree with larger, second foot-in-the-door requests in order to display behavior that is consistent with this positive perception of ourselves. 5.) Prosocialness of Request- Benefit from the behavior

Deception

An act that is intended to foster in another person a belief that the decider considers to be false Is a persuasive act Things excluded: Self-deception, transparent lies, and mistaken lies

Identify and differentiate between communicator attractiveness and similarity

Attractiveness: physically attractive people are more persuasive than unattractive communicators. More attractive = higher gpa/SAT, positive self-concepts, better communication skills. Similarity: More customers bought the advocated brand of paint when the salesman seemed similar rather than dissimilar to the customer. Similar sources that agree with a subject engender more confidence in the subject's opinion than dissimilar sources. Ex: people have different opinions on what's attractive.

Most effective channel depends upon a variety of factors. Including:

Audience one wishes to reach Interest value Comprehensibility Personal relevance of the message Characteristics of the source.

Physical Appearance: Ectomorphic

CEREBROTONIC bony, tall, thin, fragile-looking, flat-chester, lack muscle and fat. Attributions include a nerdy, typical "architect look."

Householder & Wong: Negative Emotional Conditions

Central Route Processing of messages, focus on the arguments within a message - detect deception in a message, seek to relieve their negative feelings, focusing all their energy on the message and its content

Resistance(Inoculation Construct)

Characteristics that make inoculation messages more effective at conferring resistance including perceived credibility of the inoculation message source and message language that frames future attacks as threats to freedom **Express Corporate/brand vulnerabilities **Address the measures taken to refute concerns **More affective than image enhancement

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Focus

Compliance Gaining: - Focus on doing behavior - Not on attitude - Threats / pre-giving (Ex/ Gun to head-not changing attitude) - Verbal statements - Appear aggressive

The "sleeper effect"

Delayed action effect: The attitude change a video created appeared to be greater six months later than immediately after its showing -Ex: why we fight video - positive regard in American soldiers for their British allies. - immediate reaction was positive, but the delayed reaction was even greater. Delayed action effect on attitude change is the "sleeper effect"

Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC):

Do you feel like the behavior is something you can do? Is it within you means of availability? Factors: Control Beliefs: Do you believe you have the ability to have influence of this; control over perceived power ---Perceived Controls: if you lack the notion that you can do it and that it will lead to the desire outcome regardless of subjective norms and attitude, then follow it up with target request Door in the face: make a large initial request that you know will be rejected, then follow it up with target request Intention to Comply: (people who said they would comply [donate]) Target only 36% Small Diff 29% Moderate diff 17% Large Diff 40% Actual Compliance: Target only 15% Small diff 37% Moderate diff 14% Large diff 8% PBC differs by condition: How "doable" was the $5 request

Findings of Householder and Wong Study

Examined the effect a person's prior mood state (happy or sad) has on their ability to perceive deception in friends or strangers Based predictions on: - Cognitive Functional Model - Interpersonal Deception Theory 1.) Emotional state of person being deceived plays big role in deceptive contexts 2.) As happiness level increases, perceived deceptiveness decreases 3.) As sadness increases, perceptions of deceptiveness increase 4.) Happy interviewers choose not to cognitively process deceptive messages and deceivers were perceived to be more honest than dishonest. 5.) People in negative affect state are looking for any information that might help them get out of the negative state.........6.) Partners with high relational closeness were significantly more likely to report the deceiver's behavior as an expectancy violation Limitations: Lack of a no-deception control group

Marwell & Schmidt: Compliance Strategies

Example: How to get your friend to smoke

Face-to-Face vs. Mass Media Communication

Face-to-Face: have more attitude impact than media communication Mass Media: channels are used as an "organized means of reaching large numbers of diverse kinds of people quickly and defectively" and their potential impact is more substantial

Source factors of persuasion

Factors or characteristics of the source of a persuasive message that affect the persuasiveness of that message and the attitude change that occurs in a person. -Sources may include a group (e.g. your family), an institution (e.g. Stanford University), etc. **However, the issue of personal relevance in a message needs to be taken into consideration → if a person feels highly involved in the message, source factors might not have as much of an effect on the persuasiveness of a message than if a person does not feel involved in the message and therefore doesn't devote much attention to it.

What are 3 possible outcomes of the fear appeal message?

For fear-based campaigns to be effective, it must: - induct a moderately- high level of fear - higher level of self-efficacy - higher level of response efficacy 1. Danger Control 2. Fear Control 3. No Response

Attack(Inoculation Construct)

In medical immunization, weakened forms of viruses are injected into the body, and the body then reacts to this injection (e.g., through cell adaptation), protecting the body from future attacks from stronger versions of that virus. McGuire contended that by exposing individuals to a persuasive message that contains weakened arguments against an established attitude (e.g., a two-sided message, or a message that presents both counterarguments and refutations of those counterarguments), individuals would develop resistance against stronger, future persuasive attacks.

One Sides vs. Two Sided Messages

One Sided: Persuasive approach -Presenting only those arguments favoring the recommended conclusion. Shoving your side down their throats. Two Sided Messages (Refutational/ nonrefutational) -Discussing also arguments apposed to the position advocated and then refuting them. -Initial exposure to two-sided messages appears to make people better able to argue against the later counterpropaganda message. In short, one-sided non-refutational message is one that simply acknowledges the opposing point of view, but does not refute it. Two-sided refutational message considers the opposing point of view and, furthermore, includes an argument or mention of evidence that refutes that point of view. Ex. Lawyers are likely to be most persuasive if they both recognize the opposing viewpoint and provide evidence and arguments to refute that point of view.

Householder & Wong: Positive Emotional Conditions

Peripheral Route Processing, focus on the peripheral cues of a message, message communicators attractiveness - unlikely to detect deception in a message, goal is to remain happy which processing deceptiveness in a message does not fulfill goal - fail to carefully analyze the message, turn to information they already have and peripheral cues in the message

Physical Appearance: Mesomorphic

SOMATOTONIC triangular body shape, broad at shoulders, narrow at waist, firm or muscular. Attributions include high confidence levels, leader of the group

Source factors of persuasion

Source Expertise/Likability: determine attitudes under low-consequences/low-involvment conditions no significant effect of these things on attitudes under high involvement conditions

Message Factors: Importance in Persuasion

Strength/Quality of Message Arguments: strong arguments produce more attitude change than weak ones under high-consequences conditions, where quality of arguments has little effect on attitudes in low-involvment conditions Number of Message Arguments: primary determinant of attitude change under high-consequences conditions; no significant effect on attitudes under low-consequences conditions

TRA/TRB ext.

TRA (Theory of reasoned action) is the original theory but is now known as TPB (Theory of planned behavior) and only has attitude and subjective norms! TPB only predicts for the small DIFT; so you do not want to engage in making such a large request that people engage in reasoning. (Need to make the largest REASONABLE request possible.

Map the parts and differentiate between TRA and TPB.

TRA/TRB Components: Attitude Subjective Norms Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)

Channel Attributes:

The unique advantages and limitations associated with each channel suggest that no one form of transmission is "best" but rather that the most effective channel depends upon a variety of factors. Including: -Audience one wishes to reach -Interest value -Comprehensibility -Personal relevance of the message -Characteristics of the source.

Inoculation Theory

This theory is a model for building resistance to persuasion attempts by exposing people to arguments against their beliefs and giving them counter arguments to refute attacks. Meteohpore suggesting that attitudes could be inoculated against persuasive attacks in much the same way that one's immune system can be inoculated against viral attacks

Physical Appearance: Endomorphs

VISCEROTONIC people with rounded over-shaped bodied, soft or fat around the middle, pear-shaped. Attributions include being not active, funny, and reserved.

Subjective Norms:

What do valued others think of the behavior? Not just whether or not you like it -Social persuasion component of it Factors: Normative Beliefs: What valued others believe beliefs you think are normal too Motivation to comply: engage in a behavior your valued others are advocating

Attitude:

What you think about the behavior is critical; positive attitude will result in positive intentions In order to generate intentions, you need to find people that already have a positive attitude about it OR engage in message work and get people to have a positive attitude about it BUT just having a positive attitude about something isn't enough; there has to be more

**Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Pre-Giving

a gift of some kind is given to the person before trying to persuade them, result in them feeling obligated to return the favor by complying. Ex. I lent you my.....now I expect you to......

DITF (Door in the face):

a large request is made that one knows will be rejected and the rejection is followed by the goal request (what they actually want) -Reasons why DITF is effective 1.) Reciprocal Concessions- people are most likely to comply to requests from those within their social groups 2.) Perceptual Contrast- If we see two things in sequence that are different from one another, we will tend to see the second one as more different from the first than it actually is. 3.) Self-Presentation- Need to present themselves well to their friends to motivate compliance to the second request. 4.) Prosocialness of Request: 5.) Guilt- When the other person refuses the first request, they may feel guilty about having refused another person and fear rejection as a result.

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Threat

a punishment or unwanted event is promised if desired action is not taken. Ex. If you don't....I will beat you up

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Promise

a reward is promised in return for a desired action

Deception

an act that is intended to foster in another person a belief that the deceiver considers to be false - a persuasive act - humans are poor lie detectors - meta-analyses indicated only slightly better than 50%

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Sting

any person who has desirable qualities such as being intelligent, ethical, etc. would make the decision you want them to make

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Altruism

appealing to their kindness complying to the request would deb help to you or other people Example: "look, to tell you the truth, i am desperately low on my sales targets, buying today would help me so much

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Negative Self-Feeling

complying will make them feel bad about themselves/lead to regret

**Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Positive Self-Feeling

complying will make them feel good about themselves. Ex. You will feel proud of yourself if you...

Psychological Links to Body Types: Somantotnic

confident, energetic, dominant, enterprising

Truth Bias

cultural belief that, in general, people are telling the truth

Characteristics of Persuasive Vocal Delivery: Faster Rates

enhance your persuasiveness, rapid enough to hold attention and slow enough to digest

Characteristics of Persuasive Vocal Delivery: Fluent

flows smoothly

Understand the importance of message comprehensibility

for a message to be persuasive, it first must be attended to and comprehended. People with Good comprehensibility condition were the most persuaded and recalled the most message People with Poor comprehensibility condition were least persuaded and recalled fewest arguments.

**Links to Persuasion: Zimbardo Study

had a male dress in a suit and tie, when crossing a street more people follow than when he was dressed poorly - taller and more attractive = more credible - more attractive people are more likely to be asked directions - more than half Fortune 500 companies top executives are males over 6 feet tall- power/authority

Humor and Persuasion

humor is linked to trust and liking but NOT credibility, can backfire if too excessive

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Positive Esteem of Others

if they do as you say, then other people will think well of them

**Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Negative Esteem of Others

if they don't do as you say, other people will think less of them. Ex. Your family will be disappointed if you don't....

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Moral Appeal

imply that making the decision required would be moral, or that not doing so would be immoral

Counter Attitudinal/Incongruent Arguments

individuals are more motivated to process a message if the messages's arguments are counter attitudinal and incongruent to pro attitudinal position- counter attitudinal arguments elicit greater scrutiny than pro attitudinal ones because the consequences of accepting them are greater

5 Methods of Self-Presentation: Intimidation

making oneself appear dangerous by threatening/bullying

5 Methods of Self-Presentation: Ingratiations

making oneself likable through flattery and favors

Perception

making sense of our world - Attribution - Internal/Dispositional Attribution - Situational Attribution

Characteristics of Persuasive Vocal Delivery: Good Articulation

normal sounds without added stress, influences audience perception of your competence, intelligence, and expertise

Involvement/Personal Relevance

people are more motivated to think about a message that has a high personal relevance as compared to low personal relevance

Extended Parallel Process Model(EPPM): 4 Key Factors

predicts the likely outcome of communications involving fear appeal: 1. Self-Efficacy 2. Response Efficacy 3. Susceptibility 4. Severity

Response Efficacy(EPPM)

perception that an individual has that the action, if carried out, will successful control the risk

Self-Efficacy(EPPM)

perception that the individual has that they are competent to perform the tasks needed to control the risk

Susceptibility(EPPM)

perception the individual has of how likely the threat is to impact them

Severity(EPPM)

perception the individual has of the magnitude of the threat

Face-to-Face vs. Mass Media Communication: Example

presidential speeches to the nation would be relatively ineffective in changing public attitudes if they were not communicated to the mass public by newspaper, radio, and television. Even the campaigner who successfully convinced each of the 1,000 people with whom he spoke personally to would fall behind the campaigner who convinced 1% of a prime-time television audience

Print Media

provide permanent record that people can consume at their own pace and re-expose themselves as desired, however, people tend to be more critical of and see as less valid the material that is written - complex message= better in print

Audio/Visual Media

reach a large audience; more diverse audience than print media, more potent than print because people SEE and HEAR the message - yielding to what is comprehended is most likely in audiovisual communications - easily comprehended messages engender most attitude change through audiovisual channels - more frustrating/unpleasant to follow than the more successfully comprehended print printed presentation

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Debt

reminding the person that they are obliged to repay you for some past help you have given them

**Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Aversive Stimulation

repeatedly punishing the person or making them feel uncomfortable until they do as you want them to do Example: I won't let you play with the.....until you......

DITF/FITD

sequential request strategies which both techniques work better than just a goal request (30% better)

Psychological Links to Body Types: Viscerotonic

slow, sociable, emotional, forgiving, relaxed

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Negative Expertise

taking the position of an expert, speaking with unchallengeable author about punishment of bad things will occur if desired action is not taken Example:"if you don't buy today, the company is putting up the price tomorrow"

Marwell & Schmidt Compliance Strategies: Positive Expertise

taking the position of an expert, speaking with unchallengeable authority about reward that will be gained when desired action is taken; different from "promise" as the reward described here is something that is out of the control of the persuader Example:"if you buy today, there is a special discount the company is offering"

Psychological Links to Body Types: Cerebrotonic

tense, awkward, meticulous, detached

What do attitudinal effects of persuasive intent depend on?

the INVOLVEMENT or PERSONAL IMPORTANCE of the issue to the recipient

Number of Message Evaluators

the more people that are available to evaluate a message, the less individual effort is put into actual evaluating that message

Perception: Attribution

the process whereby we generate explanations for people's behaviors (including our own)

3 Possible Outcomes of the Fear Appeal Message: No response

the severity or susceptibility of the dancer was perceived as low

Characteristics of Persuasive Vocal Delivery: Effective Pauses

to call attention to particular ideas

Characteristics of Persuasive Vocal Delivery: Use of Pitch

to clarify and accentuate important points

Self-Perception Theory/Social Judgment

we infer attitudes from our behaviors Persuasion best if done in small steps! Latitude of Acceptance- Holds that individuals have a range of attitudes on an issue.....Latitude of Rejection the range of ideas that a person sees as unreasonable or objectionable....Latitude of Non-commitment- The range of ideas that a person sees as neither acceptable nor objectionable, don't care much about these ideas Attribution errors: 1.) More situational attributions about our own behaviors 2.) More different, more internal

Vocal Qualities Linked to Influence

what sounds better is good = more credible. more influence impact

3 Possible Outcomes of the Fear Appeal Message: Danger Control

when an individual perceives that the severity and susceptibility are high and also perceives that they are competent to take mitigation action, then they are likely to act to control the danger

3 Possible Outcomes of the Fear Appeal Message: Fear Control

when an individual perceives their ability to control a risk as low, even if the severity and susceptibility is perceived as high, they they are likely to take steps to control their fear instead = counter-productive behavior: involves the use of cognitive defense mechanisms such as "it will happen to me sooner or later" in order to manage the state of anxiety

Perception: Internal/Dispositional Attribution

when we attribute behavior to something inside the person. Ex. Car breaks down and women believes the car breakdown happened because of her ignorance about cars

Perception: Situational Attribution

when we attribute behavior to something outside the person. Ex. Blaming weather for being late to work

Communicator Power

→ A powerful source (someone who can administer rewards or punishment; e.g. a parent) is more persuasive than a powerless source (someone who cannot administer rewards or punishment, e.g. a stranger). This attitude change is not internalized, which means that people don't really privately agree more with the powerful source than with the powerless source; they simply report more agreement to maximize rewards and minimize punishments.

Intent to Persuade (Source Factor)

→ a source who has persuasive intent (recipients are told that the source wants to persuade them) is presumed to be less trustworthy than one who simply wants to communicate some message to the audience. **However, attitudinal effects of persuasive intent appear to depend upon the involvement or personal importance of the issue to the recipient Ex. You're less likely to agree with a persuasive message advocating for seniors having to take a comprehensive test before graduation if you are a senior or if this rule will be put in place when you're a senior (high personal relevance) than if this rule will be put in place at another school or after you've graduated already (low personal relevance).

Communicator Similarity (Source Factor)

→ a source's similarity to the message's recipients increase that person's likeability and persuasiveness. However, similar communicators don't always mean more impact on people than dissimilar communicators. 1.) For issues dealing primarily with values or opinions where there is no verifiable "correct" answer, similar sources that agree with a subject engender more confidence in the subject's opinion than dissimilar sources. Ex. There is no correct answer for what makes a person attractive, however, if you believe that slenderness makes a person attractive, then you might be even more confident in that opinion if your friend (similar) agreed with you than if a foreign exchange student (dissimilar) agreed with you. 2.) When the issue concerns verifiable facts, agreement from dissimilar sources results in more confidence in the truthfulness of the facts than agreement from similar sources. Ex. If you believe that the Queen of England is 5'5" tall, you might become more confident in this belief if a foreign exchange student (dissimilar) verifies this than if a friend (similar) verifies this, probably because verification is more meaningful if it comes from a person who has different sources of info. than you do.

Communicator Credibility (Source Factor)

→ messages given by a highly credible source (an expert) are more persuasive than messages given by a low credibility source. Ex. a message about the practicality of building an atomic-powered submarine is more persuasive when given by an engineer than by a drug dealer.

Communicator Attractiveness(Source Factor)

→ messages given by attractive/likeable sources are more persuasive than messages given by unattractive/dislikeable sources Ex. The televised debates between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy: both men were articulate, experienced debaters, and knowledgeable about the issues in the campaign, however, JFK was considered by many to be a more likeable communicator as well as an overall more attractive person, making his side of the debate more persuasive than Nixon's, who was not a great communicator and not as likeable/attractive.