Comm

ideology

Assumptions that we use to interpret the world around us

Rethinking adjustment (2)

At the same time, a dominant ethnic culture or a sojourner's host culture responds in its own acceptance or rejection of the sojourner or ethnic group, such as divergent values on pluralism or assimilation (melting pot)

Arms-length prejudice (e.g., racism):

Being socially friendly towards people from a group but not wanting closer social relationships with them

causes of intolerance

Biological/instinctual influences (e.g., stranger fear) Individual-level influences: Cognition, stereotypes Meeting psychological needs Group-level influences: Immigration patterns Comparative social status of groups Competition for resources perceived in group terms Legal-policy influences Rhetorical and media influences

Steps of a social drama:

Breach of the code: Violation of an accepted rule or law Crisis: Talk or discussion in response to the breach Redress: Method for resolving the breach; can be formal (a trial) or informal (public opinion) Reintegration (forgiveness, re-inclusion into community) or dissensus (ongoing disagreement about the breach and its implications for the community)

Language politics in Spain:

Catalan, Basque, and Galician against Spanish

Code switching:

Changing linguistic forms of speech, between registers, between elaborated or restricted codes, or between languages

Theories of conversation and culture: What happens when we actually talk to each other?

Communication accommodation theory Main point is that it explains why and how we adjust our behavior towards others (especially when we perceive them to be of particular groups), and the result of that adjustment.

Co-cultural communication:

Communication between people of different groups within a larger, dominant culture

Intercultural communication:

Communication between people of two different cultures, when the culture impacts the communication enough to make a difference

International communication

Communication through media and media systems in different cultures

Developmental communication/communication for social change:

Communicative efforts to bring more development (e.g., water, farming resources, family planning, economic advancement) to communities

Three main conversational moves:

Convergence: The process of changing one's behavior to be more like that of the person with whom one is speaking Divergence: When one highlights one's own communication style when talking with people from other groups to mark it as different from their communication Maintenance: When one makes no changes in behavior when speaking with other individuals or people in other groups

World system theory

Core - Areas with greatest access to capital, resources, control over means of production, etc. Periphery - Less developed nations/regions Semi-Periphery - industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are in the process of transforming from being periphery countries to core countries

Identity development theories:

Cross's model of minority development is an example of identity development models The earliest model of minority identity development was introduced by Dr. William Cross in the 1970s. His Model of Nigrescence is a theory of identity development that offers an explanation of the individual, dynamic process of transformation of African Americans.

The processes of adjustment (2)

Deculturation: Unlearning one's own cultural ways when traveling to another culture Assimilation: Giving up one's own culture to adopt another; that is, accepting both behaviors and underlying ways of thinking Culture shock: A sense of "anxiety that results from losing all of our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse"

Discursive elements of language: Social dramas (1)

Definition: A conflict that arises in a community after a social norm is violated, with discussion that challenges or validates the norm

Discursive elements of language: Cultural myth

Definition: A narrative that is popularly told in order to teach preferred ways of behaving Examples: The U.S. American myth of the "American Dream", traditionally a view that anyone can work hard to achieve a better life The Ballad of Davy Crockett Cherokee story of the first fire

Discursive elements of language: Conversational episodes/communication rituals

Definition: A routine portion of conversation that has an expected beginning and end Examples: Ordering a meal at a restaurant Greetings in Mexico Courtroom witness questioning (versus "opening statements") Job interview questions and answers Informal conversation

Discursive elements of language: Metaphor (1)

Definition: A verbal association of two items. A characteristic of the more familiar item is associated with the less known item. A metaphorical archetype is a comparison of items that has many expressions and is deeply ingrained in a culture

Critical approach

Describes social inequalities, dominance, and struggle over ideas

Speech acts and (in)directness

Different situations (contexts, relationships) lead us to accomplish the same act with more or less directness—such as making a hint to influence someone instead of a request or even a command

Dimensions of difference

Direct versus indirect-Indirect costs are costs that are not directly accountable to a cost object (such as a particular project, facility, function or product). Indirect costs may be either fixed or variable. ... But some overhead costs can be directly attributed to a project and are direct costs. There are two types of indirect costs. Formal versus informal-Informal writing is similar to a spoken conversation. Informal writing may include slang, figures of speech, broken syntax, asides and so on. Informal writing takes a personal tone as if you were speaking directly to your audience (the reader). Differentiated versus undifferentiated codes Instrumental versus affective styles-Instrumental and affective communication styles can be also related on one hand to individualism and collectivism, on the other hand to low- and high-context approaches, respectively. Instrumental communication style is goal oriented and sender focused. Exaggerated-represent (something) as being larger, greater, better, or worse than it really is. Exacting-making great demands on one's skill, attention, or other resources. Succinct styles- Characterized by clear, precise expression in few words; concise and terse: a succinct reply; a succinct style.

four types of action where we can see cultural differences:

Directives (attempts to influence) Criticism—a specific type of directive Apologies Compliments

The importance of identity/identities

Each of us has different "identities"—student, Black, Italian, Socialist, Christian, or others We cannot think of ourselves apart from the groups to which we belong—they have an important role in how we see ourselves and feel about ourselves Our identities inform us of how we should communicate in different situations

Identities are situational:

Each of us has multiple identities, and at any point in an interaction, some become more important than others

In 1984, Spitzberg and Cupach redefined communication competence as the combination of:

Effectiveness: one's ability to accomplish tasks—that is, the "achievement of interaction goals" (p. 102); and Appropriateness: following rules or prescriptions of the situation, such as preserving relationships, maintaining face or decorum, and abiding by contextual rules

Humanistic/peace priniciples:

Ethical stances that focus on good treatment of others and on the human spirit

Theories of conversation and culture: Background to communication accommodation theory (4)

Examples: Jargon: Vocabulary used by people within a specific profession or area (such as rugby players or mine workers) Argot: Language used by those in a particular underclass, often to differentiate themselves from a dominant culture

Discursive elements of language: Metaphor (2)

Examples: U.S. President Obama's use of journey U.S. mainstream treatment of time as arrow (direct, linear, forward-moving), as opposed to Native American circular view of time

Explaining differences across cultures: Face theory

Face: The image we seek to have of ourselves in interaction The presentation of self: We are like actors on a stage, with props, lines, and performances, "front-stage" and "backstage" areas Face needs: Positive (inclusion, competence) and negative (autonomy)

Group identities:

Formed around material or economic conditions that we share with others who belong to our group

Role identities:

Function or role, such as student/teacher

Intergroup communication:

Instances where group perception and processes (e.g., prejudices, stereotypes) impact communication

Intolerance: A range of acceptability:

Intolerance, Tolerance, Appreciation

Civic engagement (CE):

Involvement in the community, regardless of the role of politics

Kim's theory of cross-cultural adjustment:

Kim treats cultural adjustment as a positive thing—we become more complete and flexible, learning new thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, by continued contact with other cultures

Aspects of competence Spitzberg and Cupach (1984) narrowed the wide list of factors defining competence into three main divisions:

Knowledge Motivation Skills

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:

Language creates social reality through language structure, such as the different verb tenses available in different languages, word order, or the words available to describe certain things

Social policy:

Legal and social policy that discriminates based on group identity

Communication Forces Among Nations

Liberalization - relaxing the laws and regulations governing communication markets; has diminished government influence over media industries. Results: Fewer rules and less enforcement restricting private enterprise activity Relaxed ownership restrictions Privatization - transferring publically- held (government-controlled) industries or entities to private ownership. Goals: Reduce the size/role of governments Sell licenses, networks, rights, etc. as revenue source

Determining right from wrong: Four main approaches

Limited or no discussion of ethics A practical ethic: practical checklists of how to act in other cultures Determining a meta-ethic: a single principle or set of principles that should guide ethics regardless of cultures Cultural relativism: the idea that people in each culture create their own accepted norms about what is right or wrong

A "derived" meta-ethic:

Looking across cultures to find those principles that seem to be universal (e.g., U.N. Charter on Human Rights)

Types of action

Making observation (statement, prediction, etc.) Expressing psychological states (greeting, swearing, etc.) Committing ourselves to future action (promise, vow, threat, etc.) Influencing the thought or behavior of another person (hint, question, command, etc.) Changing the state of things (pronouncement, formal declaration, etc.)

How can we determine right from wrong in intercultural situations?

Many cross-cultural issues, such as the ban against Muslim veils in French schools, highlight moral and ethical tensions when people from different cultures interact

Ethnophaulisms:

Names that we call people from other groups

Appreciation:

Not only accepting a group's behaviors, but also seeing the good in them, even adopting them, and actively including the individuals of a group

Personal identities:

Our concept of ourselves as unique individuals—whether, for example, we are shy, athletic, or interested in soccer

Social identities:

Our concept of ourselves in relation to others

Social construction:

Our identities are formed by different things (with some people focusing more on some than others), such as nature, environment, and, especially, communication

All identities are inherently political.

Our identity claims and investments not only name us, but at times also afford us more or less power, given the context

Relational identities:

Our relationship to someone else, such as sister, lover, or enemy

Stereotypes:

Oversimplified attitudes we have towards others because we assume they hold the characteristics of a certain group

Stereotypes:

Oversimplified, often unvarying attributes assigned to a group or to a person because that person is a member of a group

Political engagement (PE)

Participation in the political system

Reference groups:

Groups that we value and look to for guidance

Group identities:

Groups we belong to

Out-groups:

Groups with which we do not associate or cooperate

Prejudice

Hostility towards or avoidance of another, based on the group to which the person belongs

Pragmatic aspect of language:

How one accomplishes tasks (like persuasion, complimenting, joke-telling) through language

Hegemony:

How the powerful keep their power in a society, largely by making their (dominant) ideologies seem commonsense, taken-for-granted and not worthy of questioning.

Social identity theory

How we see ourselves is closely tied to the groups to which we belong When we interact with others, we see them on a continuum from strictly group membership (intergroup) to totally interpersonal (interindividual)—though groupness always sits somewhere in the background When we meet someone, we go through a three-stage process: categorization evaluation comparison

Representation of sexual orientation in the media:

Increasing portrayal of gays and lesbians, but in a way that supports dominant ideas

Tolerance

"The application of the same moral principles and rules, caring and empathy, and feeling of connection to human beings of other perceived groups"

Electronic Colonialism -

"the dependent relationship of poorer regions on the postindustrial nations established by the importation of communication hardware and foreign-produced software...that establish a set of foreign norms, values and expectations that...alter domestic cultures, languages, habits, values and the socialization process itself."

The history and focus of intercultural communication

1940s-1950s: E.T. Hall and the Foreign Service Institute: The discipline began at the service of state interests The discipline began very pragmatically: looking for what "works" for foreign diplomats A change in focus from a broad view of culture to communication

The history and focus of intercultural communication (2)

1960s: A decade of little research as IC sought a "home" 1970s: Growth of IC research 1980s: Development of IC theory 1990s: Controversy and new directions in ethnography, non-Western theory, critical theory

Redneck prejudice (e.g., racism):

A blatant intolerance we see when someone speaks openly and negatively about other groups

Factors leading to return cultural adjustment difficulties:

A change in ourselves and others—especially in terms of values A change in relationships Unrealistic expectations and disillusionment with home culture Lack of appreciation: People are not really interested in the culture abroad

Orientalism

A form of Othering that focuses on European/North American constructions of Middle Easterners in a way that is alien and justifies Western colonization in other parts of the world

The symbolic annihilation of race:

A group's absence from, or trivialization or condemnation in, representations, such as those in media

Categorical imperative

A logical determination of right or wrong

Categorization:

A mental process of grouping things, attributes, behaviors, and people into like clusters

W-curve of adjustment:

A model that suggests that, just as sojourners went through a "U-curve" of adjustment upon traveling to the new culture, they will go through a second, similar set of stages upon return to the host culture

The role of college is to teach academic courses, not values

A participative public is central to democratic life Civic engagement builds broader, more complex-thinking students

Ethnocentrism:

A perception in which "one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled with reference to it"

Ideology:

A system of meanings that helps us understand our social world. We see ideological identities in things such as:

Speech act theory:

A theory describing the types of actions that we try to perform with utterances—and the misunderstanding that occurs when communicators understand the function of an utterance differently

discourse

A type of language usage for a particular situation (e.g., courtroom discourse, interview discourse) The way that a notion is described in terms of other ideas in society (e.g., the discourse of beauty)

The processes of adjustment (1)

Adjustment: Changing one's behavior and adapting psychologically in transition to another culture Enculturation: Learning one's own culture Acculturation: Learning, in part or whole, another culture to which one has traveled, and one's sense of identification with that culture

Possible approaches to return culture adjustment:

Alienated approach Resocialized approach Proactive approach

Outcomes of accommodation

All else being equal, convergence is usually seen positively—unless the other person thinks you are condescending or it strongly opposes conversational norms. Divergence is often seen negatively.

Ethical egoism:

An ethical approach in which one does what works to one's own benefit

The economic motive

An increased international economy (e.g., multinational corporations) A shift in economic power from developed to developing nations

Cross-cultural communication

Applies to studies that compare two or more cultures

Golden mean:

Aristotle's notion of seeking to avoid extremes in ethical situations—a "middle-of-the-road" approach

Intolerance as universal:

Around the world, things such as hate crimes and the number of armed conflicts remains somewhat steady

Factors that aid in adaptation:

Aspects of the individual, such as flexibility and personality strength Aspects of the environment, such as acceptance of the sojourner's group (host receptivity) and pressure to conform to the new culture Communication—both media and interpersonal, and with both members of the host culture and one's culture of origin

Channels of convergence or divergence

People can adjust in terms of: word choice grammatical structure (e.g., simpler sentences) rate, pitch, or volume nonverbal behavior direct address (what you call the other person) topic choice conversation topic turn-taking and yielding any other aspect of speech

Hate crimes:

Physical harm or threat of harm on the person or property of someone because of the group the person belongs to

Rethinking adjustment 4

Postcolonial identities: Diaspora: When a group from a region is spread out across a wide geographic area. Often such groups maintain some or many elements of their culture of origin Hybridity: A blend of cultural elements experienced (differently) by the host and the immigrant group. Both borrow from each other, but with power implications

Explaining differences across cultures: Relational orientations

Power (control, dominance) Solidarity (relational distance and concern)

Identity development theories:

Pre-encounter- individual seeks to assimilate to be accepted by whites, and actively or passively distances him/herself from other persons of own race. Encounter- Precipitated by an event or series of events to force the individual to acknowledge the impact of racism is one's life. Immersion/emersion- this stage is characterized by the simultaneous desire to surround oneself with visible symbols of one's racial identity and an active avoidance of symbols of Whitness. Internalization- Those in the last stage have found ways to translate their personal sense of race into a plan of action into a general sense of commitment to their concerns of their own race. Dominant culture members go through similar stages, hopefully arriving at a stage that values diversity and encounters it without discomfort

Ward's two domains:

Psychological adjustment: Emotional satisfaction, psychological well-being ("cross-cultural adjustment") Sociocultural adjustment: One's ability to get around and get tasks done in the new culture ("cross-cultural adaptation")

Two steps forward and one step back:

Rather than a U-curve, Kim sees adaptation as a cyclical process of stress and growth

Reasons for and against civic and political engagement Civic engagement teaches political doctrine

Research shows that it increases involvement, but does not change political stance

Restricted and elaborated codes:

Restricted: Linguistic shorthand, with meanings understood between group members Elaborated: Meanings are spelled out in the actual words

Two types of "overaccommodation", or converging too much or in ineffective ways:

Secondary Baby Talk: A form of convergence younger people sometimes use with older people, including higher pitch, simpler grammar, use of "we," and so on Hyperexplanation: A form of convergence Whites often use with Blacks or members of other minority groups (U.S.), including repetition, simplification of grammar and word choice

Rethinking adjustment (3)

Selective adaptation: the acceptance of some elements of the dominant culture but not others

Framing intolerance: Cognition (1)

Selective attention-the capacity for or process of reacting to certain stimuli selectively when several occur simultaneously. Perception-individuals perceive what they want to in media messages while ignoring opposing viewpoints. Recall-bias is a systematic error caused by differences in the accuracy or completeness of the recollections retrieved ("recalled") by study participants regarding events or experiences from the past. Attribution-the action of regarding something as being caused by a person or thing. Attributional bias-is a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors.

Language: Systems of meaning (1)

Semantics: The area of language study that considers what words mean Denotation: The relatively objective dictionary-type definition of a word Connotation: The feelings (personal or social) that individuals associate with a word Discourse: The sets of ideas surrounding a concept

Intolerance: Definitions

Sexism: A system of ideas, images, laws, beliefs, and practices that work against women in the favor of patriarchy Patriarchy: A system of male-based power Heterosexism: A system of images, policies, and collective thought that privileges heterosexual relationships and marginalizes or disenfranchises those in homosexual relationships Homophobia: An irrational fear of someone who is lesbian or gay Micro-oppressions: Everyday expressions of intolerance that are often too subtle to name, but that form part of the fabric of one's life

One of the biggest debates on issues such as racism and sexism is whether they are individual thoughts and expressions or social structural:

Societal: If racism is anti-group sentiment combined with societal power, then only Whites can be racist (in a White dominant society) Individual: If racism and sexism are individual, than anyone can be racist or sexist

Types of cross-cultural traveler

Sojourner: Someone who travels to another culture for a longer term, but with intent to return home Immigrant: Someone who travels to another culture, with intent to stay permanently Refugee: Someone who travels to another culture or location by force, such as through fleeing violence or oppression in one's own land

Hegemony:

Some form or level of control over another group, such as political, cultural, or economic power

What is the role of intercultural communication in civic engagement? (1)

Some preliminary ideas: Altruism: The notion of doing good to someone, even a stranger, for no apparent benefit to oneself Volunteerism: The idea of giving one's own time

Rethinking adjustment (1)

Some recent theorists consider how groups impact each other, adjusting to each other, when living side-by-side. John Berry suggests that individuals can be bicultural, mono-cultural (in culture of origin/ethnic culture or host/dominant culture) or competent in neither

Framing intolerance: Cognition—Stereotypes (1)

Stereotypes function to help people make sense of the world, based on categorization (the mental process of grouping things, attributes, behaviors, and people into like clusters) People have stereotypes of other groups and of their own group

College students' narratives of "race":

Students often enacted racists as Southern, White, and rural, with racism being very overt, and distanced themselves from racism

Cultural communication:

Study or practice of communication in a single culture

Intolerance as specific:

Such as anti-Islamic sentiment in Norway or the Protestant-Catholic struggle in Northern Ireland

Ethnic cleansing:

The attempt to remove a population by murder or forced deportation from a country or area of a country

Challenges of studying intercultural communication

The danger of oversimplifying other cultures: treating cultures as unchanging or overly homogeneous The danger of overgeneralizing: thinking specific individuals will be exactly like their cultures The tendency to exaggerate differences: forgetting to see how similar we are in many ways to people from other cultures

Hyper (or hypo)sexualization:

The dominant group often portrays minority groups as oversexed (or unable to control sex)—or else as sexless, such as the myth of the sexually aggressive Black male or the sexless Asian male in U.S. American media

Xenophobia:

The fear of people or groups one perceives to be different from one's self (fear of strangers)

Some specific biases:

The fundamental attribution error The self-serving bias The ultimate attribution error (There are others, but these are most relevant to our discussion)

Utilitarianism:

The greatest benefit for the greatest number

White women's involvement in hate groups:

The groups host gatherings with food and religious meetings, linking racial preference to "family" and "faith"

Identity politics

The practice of laying claim to an identity in order to help ourselves integrate into our communities and fit into parts of our social world We often engage actively to defend identities, celebrate them, or to put down identities of others through words and depictions

Dialogic ethic:

The principle that we should talk with others to determine which guidelines should apply in our communication with them

Return culture shock/cultural adjustment:

The process of adjusting to one's culture psychologically and behaviorally when returning home

communication

The process of creating and sending symbolic behavior and the interpretation of behavior between people

Bernstein's hypothesis:

The social situation, including communicative context and social relationships, dictates the forms of speaking used in a particular situation.

Models of cross-cultural adjustment: Stage models (2)

The typical stage: Honeymoon stage: happiness, excitement Crisis stage: flight, fight, loneliness, homesickness, sense of powerlessness Adjustment stage: flex, growing understanding, ability to live in new culture Integration: making the new culture a part of one's self

culture

The way of life of a group of people

"Othering":

Thinking about other groups in a way that excludes them and renders them as inferior or alien to our own group

Identity, solidarity, and civic action: Can I make a difference?

Thinking of identities can invite interest and spark action We can work for the rights and equality of identity groups in our area We can fight stereotypes of groups and highlight or assert the uniqueness and value of different identity groups We can admit the political element, and not just the cultural element of our identities We can promote dialogue between groups of different identities We can seek personal bonds with people of other identity groups to enhance our own understanding

In-groups:

Those groups to which we see ourselves belonging

The cross-cultural travel motive

Tourism International student travel Refugees and asylum seekers

The media motive

We are producers and consumers of global media Many media corporations and conglomerates cross international borders Product consumption and advertising is international Social media, Internet gaming, and video-sharing sites extend our intercultural connections

The social responsibility motive

We have responsibility to live peaceably and ethically with others Global issues require combined social action: environmental issues poverty and income inequality armed conflicts

Classification:

We often identify ourselves in terms of some social category such as White, male, or gay

Speech acts and misunderstanding:

We often misread the action someone is trying to perform. The other person might be making a simple statement of fact, but we "read" it as a personal attack—or we say something as a joke, but the other person takes it seriously

Redlining:

When banks avoid giving mortgages to people wanting to purchase in certain neighborhoods or to people of different ethnic or racial groups

Intercultural communication:

When culture impacts the communication between two or more people enough to make a difference

Racial profiling (not in book):

When law enforcement, store security, or other officials target people of a specific group for surveillance

Where does racism lie, and who can be racist? Dimensions of intolerance (1)

While these dimensions mention racism, they could apply to any intolerance: Attitude or behavior? Overt or covert/subtle? (e.g., subtle and symbolic racism) Defined by intent or result? Individual, institutional, or societal? Individual: homophobia Societal/structural: heterosexism

Meta-ethic:

a guideline of behavior towards other people that either can or should be applied to people in all cultures

Colonialism

a policy by which a nation maintains or extends its control over foreign dependencies

Attribution:

a process by which we give meanings to our own behavior and the behavior of others

Kim and Ruben (1988) describe intercultural transformation:

a process in which people learn new ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving beyond the "limits of their original culture"

ethics

an aspect of morality that relates to the rightness or wrongness of our interactions with others

Intolerance

any thought, behavior, policy, or social structure that treats people unequally based on group terms

We express our identity through language, ritual, and artifact,

even through such things as what food we eat and how we eat it

Punk Rock identities

focus on anti-materialism, freedom from conformity, and peace, often, but certainly not always associated with White culture

Knowing about intercultural communication (IC):

helps us understand the world better makes us more aware of ourselves and our own culture makes us more flexible as individuals

We socially create our identities through communication

in the context of our social world, histories, and relationships.

International communication:

including the study of media systems or of communication between representatives of different nations (also referred to as global communication or transnational communication) is the communication practice that occurs across international borders. The need for international communication was due to the increasing effects and influences of globalization.

in either case

intolerance has a strong communication component, but is also based on and reflected in material conditions—unequal opportunities, discrimination, joblessness, and unequal application of laws and regulations

Critical approaches include

postcolonialism, which focuses on issues such as hybridity and diasporic identities

The adjustment cycle:

stress-adaptation-growth: Stress: The individual who travels abroad confronts new stimuli, which bring lack of balance and stress Adaptation: Most people find a way to adjust to the stress, stretching themselves in new ways—which is not always comfortable! Growth: In the end, we learn new ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that make us more competent interculturally

Television shows,

such as FX's Black. White, often highlight the tensions of identity, as well as embedding their own perspective on identities

Domain models

suggest that there are different aspects of adjustment; one might fare well on one and not another

The U-Curve (stage model) of adjustment:

suggests that sojourners travel through stages over a period of time (with difficulties strongest between six months and a year)

morality

the notion of the rightness or wrongness of behavior in general

contact hypothesis (or contact theory)

to develop group events between members of groups Help people in the dominant group become aware of their hidden privileges Avoid simplistic solutions, such as promoting "color blindness"

multicultural person—

who can move easily between cultures or serve as a catalyst for dialogue between people of different cultures