Comm Chapter 5

What are the primary reasons for learning about verbal communication?

Verbal communication assists in relationship development, creating identities, and accomplishing everyday tasks.

directives

Speakers try to get listeners to do something. Begging, commanding, requesting.

speech acts

Suggests that when people communicate, they don't just say things but they also do things.

connotative meaning

The affective or interpretative meanings attached to a word.

denotative meaning

The dictionary, or literal, meaning of a word. Usually the agreed upon meaning for most speakers of the language.

heuristic

Use of language to acquire knowledge and understanding.

informative

Use of language to communicate information or report facts. Another basic function of language.

regulatory

Use of language to control or regulate the behaviors of others. Second function to instrumental.

interactional

Use of language to establish and define social relationships.

personal language

Use of language to express individuality and personality. More common in private settings than in public settings.

constraints

Part of contextual rules and rhetorical situation. Made up of persons, events, objects, and relations which are parts of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision and action needed to modify the exigence.

exigency

Part of contextual rules and rhetorical situation. Occasion calls for communication (wedding).

audience

Part of contextual rules and rhetorical situation. Those persons who are capable of being influenced by discourse and of being mediators of change.

intonation

Part of turn taking. A drop in pitch or loudness.

adjacency pairs

Part of turn taking. A question requires an answer.

gesture

Part of turn taking. Change in sitting position or an expression of inquiry.

change in gaze direction

Part of turn taking. Most important. Speaker looks down, listeners look up.

How does power influence language, words, accents, and labels?

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rhetorical situation

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What are the assumptions underlying cocultural theory?

1) In each society, a hierarchy exists that privileges certain groups of people. 2) Part of the privilege these groups enjoy, often subconsciously, is being able to set norms for what types of communication are acceptable or not acceptable. Consequently, communication patterns of the dominant groups tend to be more highly valued. 3) Language maintains and reinforces the power of these dominant groups (mostly subconsciously). Thus, people whose speech does not conform to what is valued in society may be excluded and/or negatively stereotyped. 4) In the relationship realm, society tends to value a more female communication style, and men may be criticized for failing to communicate appropriately with their intimates. None of these language variations is inherently good or bad, powerful or powerless; it is the societal hierarchies that teach us how to view particular communication practices. Generalizations about gender can help explain communication practices, but they should not solidify into stereotypes. 5) These dominant communication structures impede the progress of persons whose communication practices do not conform to the norms. They risk being labeled negatively and marginalized.

What are the seven functions of language?

1) Instrumental. 2) Regulatory. 3) Informative. 4) Heuristic. 5) Interactional. 6) Personal. 7) Imaginative.

What are the four components of language?

1) Phonology: the study of sounds. 2) Syntax: the grammar and rules for arranging units of meaning. 3) Semantics: the meaning of words 4) Pragmatics: the rules for appropriate use of language.

heterosexual-biased language

1) Use "sexual orientation" rather than "sexual preference." "Preference" suggests a degree of voluntary choice that has not been demonstrated. 2) Use "lesbian" and "gay male" rather than "homosexual" when used as an adjective referring to specific persons or groups, and lesbians and gay men. "Homosexual" perpetuates negative stereotypes with its history of pathology and criminal behavior. 3) Such terms as "gay male" are preferable to "homosexuality" or "male homosexuality" and so are grammatical reconstructions. The same is true for "lesbian" over "female homosexual," "female homosexuality," or "lesbianism."

dialect

A variation of a language distinguished by its vocabulary (lexical choice), grammar, and pronunciation. When identities influence several aspects of language.Sometimes, influence of identity is less dramatic, and speakers vary only in some pronunciations or word choices.

formal methods

Part of turn taking.Selecting next speaker by saying name or hand raising.

gender-biased and gender-neutral language

Attitudes about power can be built into language by certain roots or by the very structure of the language. To be neutral: 1) Use "they" as a singular. 2) Use "he or she." 3) Use pluralizing. 4) Eliminate pronouns. 5) Further alternatives.

How can you avoid gender or heterosexual bias in language?

Avoid gender bias: 1) Use "they" as a singular. 2) Use "he or she." 3) Use pluralizing. 4) Eliminate pronouns. 5) Further alternatives. Avoid heterosexual bias: 1) Use "sexual orientation" rather than "sexual preference." "Preference" suggests a degree of voluntary choice that has not been demonstrated. 2) Use "lesbian" and "gay male" rather than "homosexual" when used as an adjective referring to specific persons or groups, and lesbians and gay men. "Homosexual" perpetuates negative stereotypes with its history of pathology and criminal behavior. 3) Such terms as "gay male" are preferable to "homosexuality" or "male homosexuality" and so are grammatical reconstructions. The same is true for "lesbian" over "female homosexual," "female homosexuality," or "lesbianism."

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Idea that the language people speak determines the way they see the world (a relativist perspective). Believe language is like a prison, as it constrains the ways individuals can perceive the world.

age

Cohort effect (shared characteristics of a group born and reared in the same generation). Children have egocentric speech patterns. Adults have cognitive complexity and more life experiences. Age also influences a person's perception of a speaker (competence, character, and age all influence ethos). Affects word choice.

disconfirming communication

Comments that reject or invalidate a positive or negative self-image of our conversational partners.

confirming communication

Comments that validate positive self-images of others.

commissives

Speakers commit themselves to a future course of action (promising).

cocultural theory

Explores the role of power in daily interaction. Has five assumptions: 1) In each society, a hierarchy exists that privileges certain groups of people. 2) Part of the privilege these groups enjoy, often subconsciously, is being able to set norms for what types of communication are acceptable or not acceptable. Consequently, communication patterns of the dominant groups tend to be more highly valued. 3) Language maintains and reinforces the power of these dominant groups (mostly subconsciously). Thus, people whose speech does not conform to what is valued in society may be excluded and/or negatively stereotyped. 4) In the relationship realm, society tends to value a more female communication style, and men may be criticized for failing to communicate appropriately with their intimates. None of these language variations is inherently good or bad, powerful or powerless; it is the societal hierarchies that teach us how to view particular communication practices. Generalizations about gender can help explain communication practices, but they should not solidify into stereotypes. 5) These dominant communication structures impede the progress of persons whose communication practices do not conform to the norms. They risk being labeled negatively and marginalized.

pragmatics

Field of study that emphasizes how language is used in specific situations to accomplish goals. Seeks to identify patterns or rules people follow when they use language appropriately. The three units of study for scholars of pragmatics are speech acts, conversational rules, and contextual rules.

regionality

Geographical location influences people's language use. Most common influence is on pronunciation. Includes accents, word choice. Local dialects are stronger than ever. Differences in dialect originally occurred because of patterns of isolation, and they persist because of exposure. Dialectic differences might become less pronounced because of increasing contact and access to a range of language models, but it is not likely that dialects will ever fully disappear.

conversational rules

Govern the way we communicate and vary somewhat from context to context. Govern the ways in which communicators organize conversation. Includes turn-taking.

language discrimination

Includes inter-language discrimination and intra-language discrimination. Inter-language discrimination happens when people are treated differently because of the languages that they speak. Discrimination can occur in countries when people don't speak the official language. Intra-language discrimination happens when people are treated differently because they speak in a way that is not considered "proper" or the dominant language.

How do gender, age, regionality, ethnicity and race, and education and occupation affect verbal communication?

Individual influences on language include speakers' memberships in various identity groups (gender, age, regionality, ethnicity and race, education and occupation). When identities influence several aspects of language (vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation), these speakers have distinct dialects. In other instances identity groups' language variations may be minor, involving only some pronunciation or word choices.

ethnicity and race

Influences syntax (governs word order), accent, and word choice. May influence that cadence, tone, language, and imagery.

gender

Men and women are socialized to communicate in specific ways. Female communication is supposed to be supportive, personal, and self-disclosive. Male communication is supposed to be competitive, assertive, and instrumental. In reality, the actual difference in male/female communication patterns are very small (less than 1%). Extreme feminine/masculine have rigid views of the sexes and their communication behavior (socialized to think this way). It is more complicated than people think (overlooks the influence of situation/relationship on an individual's language use/communication style). Men and women DO show differences in communication style, but this is attributable to differences in power, status, and expectations in communication situations.

education and occupation

Mutually influencing to one another (shared education/training and shared experience). Share a profession, and share a similar educational background. The more educated people are, the more similarly they speak. Education can affect dialect. In occupation, professionals use jargon (specialized terms used to communicate). Occupation influences lexical choices and overall communication style (includes tone of voice and some nonverbal behaviors).

contextual rules

No matter what language or dialect you speak, your use of language varies depending on the communication situation. Verbal language is far more than the words people use; it also includes the sounds and meanings of those words, and the rules individuals use for arranging words and for communicating in particular settings. Speakers differ in the ways they use language to communicate. They differ in the ways they enunciate their words and how they present their ideas.

turn-taking

Only one person speaks at a time. Expect to be able to have their say without too much interruption. Context influences conversational rules. Determine who is allowed to speak.

expressives

Speakers express their feelings. Apologizing, welcoming, sympathizing.

nagging

Repeated requests by one family member to another. Often concerns household chores and usually the source of conflict.

What is the relationship between language and power?

Societal forces affect verbal processes because they shape our perceptions and the power relationships that surround us. The language used in a given society influences its members' perceptions of social reality, while power relationships affect how its members' verbal patterns are evaluated.

cohort effect

The influence of shared characteristics of a group that was born and reared in the same general period. As you age, you continue to use certain words that were common when you were growing up, even if they have fallen out of use.

nominalists

Those who argue that any idea can be expressed in any language and that the structure and vocabulary of the language do no influence the speaker's perception of the world. Any language can be used to express any idea.

relativists

Those who argue that language serves not only as a way for us to voice our ideas but "is itself the shaper of ideas, the guide for the individual's mental activity." If we don't have a word for it, we can't imagine it.

imaginative

Use of language to express oneself artistically or creatively. Drama, poems, or stories.

instrumental

Use of language to obtain what you need or desire. Most basic function of language.

syntax

The rules that govern word order. Also governs how words of various categories (nouns, adjectives, verbs) are combined into clauses, which in turn combine into sentences.

declarations

The speaker's utterance brings about a new external situation. Christening, marrying, resigning.

jargon

The specialized terms that develop in many professions. Occupation influences the specialized terms you use to communicate. Can be meaningful. Problems include obscure meanings, inflation of the importance of an idea, excludes some listeners, and hides the ignorance of a speaker.

grammar

The structural rules that govern the generation of meaning in a language.

semantics

The study of meaning. Uses denotative and connotative meaning.

phonology

The study of the sounds that compose individual languages and how those sounds communicate meaning. Basic sound units are called phonemes (includes vowels, consonants, and dipthongs: pairs of letters that operate as one, such as TH). Different languages use different phonemes.

lexical choice

Vocabulary.