Communication Studies

Secondary research

Accessing data on the topic which has already been researched (books, internet etc). You must cite from sources that are authoritative and scholarly

Strengths of Questionnaires

1. Easily and reliably scored 2. Quick access to information 3. Primary source 4. Facilitates survey of large population 5. Easily administered 6. Allows for anonymity

Public territory

Owned for a set period of time

Linguistic features of Creole

Phonology, vocabulary (eg. Standard English + Rastafarianism), grammar, calque (semantic- word for word: compounded words borrowed from another language as a literal translation, eg. Adam's apple, rendezvous), attitudes to language

3 types of territories

Primary territory, secondary, public

Responding

Provide alternative interpretations and provide additional insights into what has been said or offer support.

Non-verbal Communication

Proxemics, kinesics, chronemics, dress, graphics & symbols, para language/vocalics

Tabloid thinking (flaw in arguments)

A form of generalisation by which the writer/speaker tends to over-simplify complex issues by labelling and putting things into convenient categories for easy solutions. For example, 'Communists want to make everybody the same.'

Attitudes towards language

A language feature

Primary territory

Exclusive use to particular space, eg. Home

Three verbs that can be linked to the four categories of writing states

Expos - highlight, inform, expose Pers- sensitize, critique, raise awareness Narrative - entertain, tell, relay Descriptive - describe, classify, illustrate

Four main types of discourses

Expository, Persuasive, Narrative, Descriptive

Purpose of language

Expressive, informative, directive/cognitive, poetic, photic, metalinguistic, reflective, communicative, ritualistic/ceremonial

Code switching

Hump from one language to another

Types/Context of Communication

Intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, public communication, academic, intercultural, organizational, mass (no feedback)

POST HOC (AFTER THIS, THEREFORE, BECAUSE OF THIS) - flaw in arguments

The assumption of a causal relationship between two things simply because one event follows another in time. The second event is being thought to be caused by the first which preceded it. For example, 'The belief that a teacher's absence from a class will result in a fight among students in his/her classroom.'

Language techniques

• Figures of speech/Figurative Language • Repetition • Rhetorical questions • Emotive language • Generalizations • Expert opinion • Figures/scientific data • Jargons • Satire • Colloquial language • Flashback • Stream of consciousness • Dialogue • Foreshadowing Use of italics, connotative/denotative words, font type, emotive words

Faulty analogy (flaw in arguments)

The writer/speaker uses an extended (often irrelevant) comparison as proof of a point. Analogy might suggest similarities but by itself it cannot prove anything. For example, one might refer to a battle as if it were a game and perhaps a game of chess may be like a battle in several respects, but the comparisons cannot be pressed far.

What is the rule governing the writing of the purpose? In essence, what integral component must be included?

There must be a verb

Intimate register

This communications is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people. e.g. husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children.

Consultative register

This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure of communications. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this speech. It is professional discourse. e.g. when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge, teacher & student, counselor & client,

Casual register

This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is "group" language. One must be member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and letters to friends.

Formal register

This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. This use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually impersonal and formal. A common format for this register are speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements.

Frozen register

This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is "frozen" in time and content. e.g. the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord's Prayer, the Preamble to the US Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic reference, laws .

Language is expressive

allows for venting, to express one's ideas or attitudes without necessarily taking a reader or listener into consideration. When language is issued in this way the speaker or writer is not trying to effect change in an audience or elicit responses (diaries and journals are obvious examples of language used for expression purposes).

Barriers

anything that detracts from the message being sent and prevents effective communication. Eg. Modeled messages, lack of feedback, poor listening skills, internal noise (daydreaming, physical discomfort, emotional disturbance, obstruction of vision/hearing, inattentiveness), external noise (overload of channels, conditions causing discomfort, inaudibility), stereotyping, semantic (use of jargons, profanity, language difference), wrong channel

Organizational strategies

• Periodic development • Classification • Problem & Solution • Compare & Contrast • General to specific • Time order • Spatial order • Personal experience • Analysis Cause & effect, illustrations, definitions, descriptive details, personal experience, chronological order, sequential order

Language is cognitive

the intention of affecting the audience in some way in order to evoke a response eg. Language used to persuade, entertain, stir to anger, or arouse sympathy (jokes, political speeches, horror stories are also always in which language is used cognitively).

Kinesics

the interpretation of the body language. People communicate through posture, gesture, stance and movement. Ray Bird Whistell (1952) noted that only 30-35 percent of the social meaning of conversation or an interaction is carried by words. This means that non-verbal communication carries 65 - 70 percent of the meaning of communication.

Listening

the process of receiving, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages." International Listening Association (Judi Bromwell, 2002. p.48) -attending -understanding -evaluating -remembering -responding

Paralanguage/vocalics (prosody)

the use of non-verbal elements to modify meaning and convey emotion. They may be consciously or unconsciously expressed. Pitch, volume and intonation are all paralanguage features which all reveal information or certain feelings.

Proxemics

the use of space to indicate/communicate a message. One's personal space is highly considered in this regard. Distance can communicate anxiety or relaxation.

Facilitators

these aid in the passing of communication for a mutual understanding. E.g. effective medium, language, additional visual prompts.

Communicative behaviours

this is conduct, it speaks to one being conditioned to act in ways they perceive and know to be correct. One may communicate with touch, smiles, clothing, sounds, movements etc. The use of the body is prominent in Communicative Behaviour.

Language is phatic

this is the language being used to establish or maintain contact and not necessarily seeking to generate a meaningful response. This is not popular in written communication though the 'greeting' and 'closure' of letters are usually phatic.

Netlingo (cyberculture)

this is the language used in instant messaging whether by phone or social sites. It is used to facilitate speed in the conversation

Language/dialect continuum

this is the range of a language spoken by a speech community.

Chronemics

use of time, waiting or pauses to send a message. It may be used to get the attention of the listener as well as to make the message more effective or signal that what is being said or to be said is important.

Quantitative

uses surveys to assist the statistical analysis. This may require a larger sample and the researcher may not come in contact with all the participants. Examples of quantitative research are: Descriptive Research (data in order to answer a question about the current status of a subject or situation) This type of research is concerned with 'the preferences, attitudes, practices, concerns or interest of some group or people. Correlation Research (seeks to establish a relationship or lack thereof between two variables eg. How does the performance at Gsat correspond to the performance of students at CSEC General?)

Consonant clusters

Consonant clusters may appear at the end of words, for example, -nd is replaced by -n, as in han, san . Whereas Standard English uses voiced clusters at the end of words, for example, -nd, as in hand, sand. No voiced 'th' sound at the beginning of words or syllables; a 'd' sound instead, for example in dey, dem, la-der. Whereas CSE uses the voiced 'th' sound at the beginning of words or syllables, for example, in they, them and lather.

Hyper correction

In linguistics or usage, hypercorrection is a non-standard usage that results from the over-application of a perceived rule of grammar or a usage prescription. A speaker or writer who produces a hypercorrection generally believes that the form is correct through misunderstanding of these rules, often combined with a desire to appear formal or educate In essence, the attempt to be "correct" leads to an "incorrect" result. Example: I went to the restaurant to buy some Fry Chicken = fried* I feel so boring at the moment. = bored*

Elements of communication process

Senders/Source - person or entity from which the message is expressed. Message - the information which is to be expressed. Channel/Medium - the means by which the message is communicated. Receiver - the target for the message. Feedback - the receiver's response to the message.

Impacts of technology on language

The Printing Press is the first major technological phenomenon associated with communication - 15th C. It was the first mass communication vehicle and is credited with ushering in "The Age of Enlightenment". 1825 creation of the Electromagnet heralded the advent of : Telegraph, Telephone, Radio, and eventually the "miracle of television". However the internet is what has revolutionized communication. Bill Gates in 1999 referred to modern business transaction as "business at the speed of thought". Technology has changed how, when and with whom we communicate. Virtual classrooms enables us to gain certification without stepping through a school door. Eg. UWI Online degrees Games can be played without sitting across the table from our partners eg. Monopoly Telephone allows for you to hold conference calls with several persons across the world. You can send the info. to hundreds at the click of a button eg. Emails

Intensifiers

These serve the purpose of adverbs, adjectives or modifiers in creole. Infact, they sometimes modify or even describe the adjective itself by showing extent/degree/comparisons. As the name suggest, these words help the reader/ listener to understand the intense/ emotional 'degree' of the situation being described. Example: Di bwoy face 'well' ugly. You too 'damn' craven.

Linguistic insecurity

This anxiety or lack of confidence experienced by both speakers and writers results from the belief that their use of language does not conform to the principles and practices of Standard English. Therefore, when they do attempt to 'conform' to the standard they end up 'failing'. Though this failure is unacceptable for the standard, it is an accepted feature of the non-standard

Front focusing

This refers to any sentence construction in which a word group that normally follows the verb, is placed at the BEGININNING of a sentence. This a type of focus strategy often used to enhance expression and provide emphasis. It is used BOTH in standard English as Creole for the same purposes.

Double negatives

When two forms of negation are used in the same sentence. This is normally unacceptable for English Language, however in other languages the double negative serves the purpose of "intensifying" the negation. Example: Mi uh gat no money (emphasis on the financial status of the speaker is evident).

Technology

"Those physical tools that allow us to understand our environment" (Aggrey Brown, 1976). The technical means that people use to improve their surroundings. Communication, technology and culture are inextricably connected. Culture influences the ways in which people communicate and the technology they select as part of that Communication. The ways in which we communicate evolve out of the nature of our culture and the type of technology available to us. Technology alters and shapes our culture while it influences the decisions and choices people make regarding communication.

Research

"disciplined process of investigating and seeking facts that will lead one to discover the truth about something" (Markham et.al. 2001). When we speak of researching information, we refer to various ways of sourcing knowledge for varying purposes.

What is communication

"the transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills through the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures and graphs" (Berelson and Steiner, 1964) "... from a sender through a channel and medium to a receiver

Validity

* Does this information relate directly to my topic. * Is the source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs? *Is the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda? * Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and unsupported by evidence? * Is the author's point of view objective and impartial? * Is the language free of emotion-arousing words and bias?

Interview advantages

1. Allows the interviewer to yield a lot of data 2. Allows for greater clarity on issues (that questionnaire would not provide

Jamaican creole- lexicon: verb

1. Although the lexical items of Patois are English based, many are used in non-English ways. 2. Some Patois words that appear to be similar to English words do not carry the same meaning, e.g. 'Ignorant'. 3. Some English words are compounded to create nouns not present in English for example 'Foot bottom' and 'Eye water' for tears.

Observation disadvantages

1. If sample knows that they are being observed they may not be 'natural' 2. The researcher may misinterpret what he sees due to ignorance of a particular culture/context/setting.

Jamaican creole- phonology: sound

1. Jamaican Creole does not use the 'th' sound but substitutes with two other sounds: the 't' sounds as in 'tik' for the English 'thick' and the 'd' sounds as in 'dem' for the English 'them'. 2. Jamaican Creole does not pronounce the 'h' sound at the beginning of English words. Therefore English 'hour' becomes 'our'. Similarly, there is the tendency to hyper-correct and pronounce the 'h' sound at the beginning of words that do not require it, therefore English 'egg' becomes 'hegg' and 'exam' becomes 'hexam'.

Language

1. Language "is both a body of symbols (most commonly used words) and the systems for their use in messages that are common to the people of the same speech community" (Kathleen & Rudolph Verderber, Communicate, 11th Edition). 2. "Language is a medium of communication"

Weaknesses of questionnaires

1. Limited scope for the personal and the subjective 2. Limited scope for probing responses 3. Inflexible 4. Responses can be misleading 5. Limitations posed by literal responses

Jamaican creole- syntax: arrangement of words in a sentence

1. Patois mainly uses syntax to highlight certain elements within a sentence while English often uses pronunciation by verbally stressing that which is to be emphasized. 2. For example Creole: Is Susan eat di chicken? versus English Susan ate the chicken? Creole: Is di chicken Susan eat ? versus Susan ate the chicken?

Jamaican creole- grammar: usage

1. Pluralization is signalled by the addition of the 'dem' after the noun eg. The people dem. Or to emphasize the numerical marker- 'de two book dem'. 2. Possession is not signaled, as in English, with the apostrophe 's' suffix but by the word 'fi' as in 'A fi mi handout' 3. Zero Copular construction. A Copular links the subject to the predicate. It is derived from the verb 'to be'. Creole can have a zero copular structure eg. Jane sick for Mary is sick in English or Jane de home for Jane is at home.

Observation advantages

1. Provides first hand data 2. Allows the researcher to clarify things that he/she may be ignorant of

Jamaican creole- morphology: word formation

1. Some Creole words are formed by reduplication (base words are repeated to form new words). For example friedi friedi to mean fearful or timid, chati chati to mean talks excessively or out of turn.

Characteristics of language

1. Systematic - use of different systems eg.sounds & grammar to communicate effectively 2. Symbolic - words being used as representations or symbols of ideas (dictionaries are usually records of the symbolic meaning of the words in a language) 3. Evolutionary - it changes over time, hence the invention of new words or changes in meaning occurs

Interviews disadvantages

1. Time consuming 2. The data is difficult to measure/quantify/analyse

EITHER/OR SYNDROME (flaw in arguments)

An attempt to convince the reader/listener that there are only two ways of viewing or understanding an issue ¬ one right, one wrong. For example, 'Were you drunk and not responsible for your actions? I want a straightforward 'yes' or 'no'!'

Linguistic competence

All humans are born with the capacity to speak a language/ inclination to communicate

Two main types of barriers (noise)

Channel Noise: any disturbance which affects the physical transmission of the message (e.g. static, ink blotting, font too small to read in the magazine, loud talking etc.) Semantic Noise: results in the wrong interpretation of the message even though it is received as exactly how it was sent. (difficult words, difficult subject, choice of word versus meaning)

Process of communication

Conceptualization, encoding, medium/channel, decoding & interpretation, feedback

Language systems

Cooing of babies, sign language

Creole

Creole is a Language that came into being through contact between two or more languages.

Evaluating

Critically analysing to determine its truthfulness. This is especially important when a speaker is asking you to believe or act upon a statement.

Arguing in a circle (flaw in arguments)

In the course of a discussion the writer/speaker uses the actual statement in question to prove either that the statement is true or that another statement is true. For example, 'A maintains that Christians lead better lives than others. B then mentions some Christians who lead disreputable lives. Whereupon A denies that these are Christians.'

Jamaican creole

Jamaican Creole is considered a language like any other for two basic reasons: It possesses the characteristic features of a language and it performs the functions of a language.

The difference between the main point and purpose

Main point is what the piece is about/u summary, but the purpose is the writer's intention

State one characteristic that differentiates the narrative from descriptive.

Narrative has dialogue, descriptive does not have. Narrative tells a story, develops a plot, descriptive only states what the writer observes from his perspective.

Secondary territory

No one has the 'right' to space but some persons have a degree of ownership

Functions of language

Recognizable/identifiable/accepted, symbolic, systematic, non-instinctive (naturally acquired), dynamic&maturational

Reduplication

Reduplication is when a word, an element of a word, or a phrase is repeated. This can often result in change of meaning or tone. Examples: - Why the place so chaka chaka? What a girl licky licky! Why di porridge haffi look so cake up cake up?

Elements of language

Registers, dialectal variations, communicative behaviours

Language is ritualistic

Religious in nature

Verbal and non verbal interaction

Repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating, accenting/moderating

Understanding

The process of decoding the message so that the meaning accurately represents/reflects that intended by the speaker. Empathy can allow you to increase understanding as well as questioning.

Remembering

The process of retaining the information so it can be recalled when it is needed. Repeating the info or using mnemonics as well as taking notes can increase the likelihood of you remembering.

Attending

The process of selecting and focussing on specific stimuli (an agent or action that elicits a response). We can be more effective in attending if we (a) get ready both physically and mentally (posture, lean slightly forward, stop extraneous activity, block out miscellaneous thoughts by telling yourself that what is being said is most important). (b) Do not pre-empt your response as the listener. Make the shift from speaker to listener a complete one. (c) Hear out the person before you react. Allow your mind to process the information before providing a response. Do not stop listening before the speaker is finished speaking.

NON SEQUITUR (IT DOES NOT FOLLOW) - flaw in arguments

The writer's/speaker's conclusion is not necessarily a logical result of the facts presented. For example, 'Affirmative action programmes have been established to provide access to educational and professional opportunities that have been denied to certain groups in the past. Since black Rastafarian males have often been at a disadvantage during the last twenty years or so, I feel that I, as a member of this group, deserve special consideration under affirmative action guidelines.'

ARGUMENT AD HOMINEM (TO THE MAN) - flaw in arguments

The writer/speaker attacks the opponent's character rather than the opponent's argument. For example, 'I don't know if it is the minute size of his head which makes him think we are too small to lead.'

BANDWAGON APPEAL (flaw in arguments)

The writer/speaker attempts to validate a point by suggesting or giving the impression that everyone else believes in it; the idea is acceptable and sound because it enjoys widespread currency. For example, 'It is common belief that the politicians are self-serving.'

Hasty generalization (flaw in arguments)

The writer/speaker bases the argument/conclusion on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence. For example, 'I have met many Jamaicans and I am convinced that the average Jamaican does not wish to be told what to do.'

ARGUMENT AD POPULUM (TO THE PEOPLE) - flaw in arguments

The writer/speaker evades an issue by appealing to the reader's/listener's emotional reaction to certain words/subjects. For example, using the term 'bloated-capitalist' for 'wealthy business man'.

Red herring (flaw in arguments)

The writer/speaker introduces an irrelevant point to divert the reader's/listener's attention from the main or relevant issue. For example, 'Government funding for the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) should be discontinued. Taxpayers do not want and should not be expected to pay for so-called 'art' such as Brown's sexual perversions and Smith's sacrilegious trash. It is inexcusable that such things have been supported by tax money through the NEA, which because of such irresponsible decisions should itself be eliminated.'

Begging the question (flaw in arguments)

The writer/speaker presents as truth (or as a fact already proven) a statement(s) that is yet to be proven by the argument presented. For example, 'Do you think that the recent escalation of violence was politically motivated?'

Straw man (flaw in arguments)

The writer/speaker selects the opposition's weakest or most insignificant point to argue against, in order to divert attention from the real issues. For example, 'Dr. Parchment favours drug legalisation, but this is a view held by very few Jamaicans. Indeed, no responsible citizen wants to encourage drug addiction or the crime associated with the use of illicit drugs.'

Language is reflective

To recall or recapture moments/memories of both Joy & pain

Language is communicative

To talk about abstract ideas, communicate ideas and articulate thoughts

State four elements that will allow you to distinguish a persuasive piece of writing

Use of repetition, use of emotional appeal, rhetorical questions, statistics.

Forms of Communication

Verbal and non verbal communication

Credibility

What are the author's credentials/institutional affiliation? * Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise? * Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies? * Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organisation? * Is the source published by a university press? If so, the information is likely to be scholarly. * Is this a popular or scholarly journal? This distinction is important because it indicates different levels of complexity in conveying idea

Pidgin

When people who speak different languages find themselves in a situation where they have to communicate with each other for purposes of trade, business or to survive, these people usually devise a form of language communication, called a Pidgin. A Pidgin which becomes the native language of a people having acquired a more complex grammar is referred to as a Creole. Creoles are classified based on the dominant language structure (eg English Creole, French Creole etc).

Registers

a systematic variant of a language appropriate to a particular setting. It also speaks to the level of formality used in written or spoken language

Primary research

designed/original research carried out by 'you' Two types: qualitative, quantitative

Dress

dress can communicate many messages about an individual/group. It is often times used as the basis for making judgements. How you dress can communicate social standing etc. e.g. the wearing of a genuine Louis Vuitton bag may communicate one's wealth.

Language is informative

facilitates the conveying of information to others eg. news broadcasts, bulletin board and textbook.

Language is poetic

focuses on structure and pattern and places emphasis on how the language is manipulated. Literary, stylistic and imaginative ways are considered poetic. The focus here is on the way and not form.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

gives animals human characteristics e.g. The fox spoke to the cubs and then strolled away with a dancing step.

Language is metalinguistic

language being used to comment on language (eg. critiquing on essay, speech etc.)

Nonverbal Communication

message sent not using words. Physical gestures, art forms, facial expression, voice, etc. Body Language - the use of the body to communicate meanings (intentionally or otherwise). E.g. how you sit, stand, your eyes.

Qualitative

relies heavily on findings taken from observation, interviewing and tracing patterns of behaviour. This type of research helps us understand how people feel and why. Samples tend to be smaller and the duration may be longer. Examples of qualitative research are : Historical Research (study of past events eg. The effect of dancehall music on clothing styles in the 19th to 20th century) Ethnographic Research (study of current events in a naturalistic setting eg. The effect of dancehall music on the behaviour of school children)

Video presentation

response should take into consideration : Time of Day (night, morning etc.), Time Period (era, early 20th century), Society (cultural practices). The considerations must be connected with the characters, setting and scenario. Eg. 1960s , evening, Jamaican society, young man with an afro, bellas (wide-leg pants), patterned shirt, smoking a cigar. (Students should aim to be more descriptive while linking it with the scenario) It must be noted that a video presentation is a visual representation, as such any depiction using words must be pellucid. The Language used and its effectiveness- formal, informal(casual), Jamaican Creole(basilect), Standard English (acrolect, mesolect). This should be commented on in relation to the context, audience and purpose.

Graphics & symbols

sign language falls in this category as well as mathematical and science related symbols.

Dialectal variation

speaks to the idea of having a variety of one language common to a particular speech community (which is mutually intelligible). Difference in accent does not indicate a different Dialect because Dialects differ from each other in terms of semantics(word choice), syntax(sentence structure), grammar and morphology(word forms) whereas accents refer to pronunciation. The Dialect spoken by the dominant group in the society commands the most prestige. Education, publishing and an established body of Literature enhances the status of of the prestigious dialect and it becomes the STANDARD.

Verbal communication

that type of communication which is spoken or written. ● Oral - talking to oneself, dialogue, telephone calls. ● Visual - communication through maps, graphics, traffic signals, advertisements. ● Written - memos, letters, reports, papers. ● Electronic - facilitated by the interface with a computer, modem, telephone, fax, email, etc.

Acrolect

the Jamaican Standard English and it is the last point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in formal situations.

Basilect

the form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms and is said to be the first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons

Mesolect

the form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect and is said to be the point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.