CompTIA Project+ (2009) Change, Control and Communication [PK0-003]

Pareto chart

A Pareto chart is a special type of bar chart where the values being plotted are arranged in descending order. The graph is accompanied by a line graph, which shows the cumulative totals of each category, left to right. The chart is named after Vilfredo Pareto, and its use in quality assurance was popularized by Joseph M. Juran and Kaoru Ishikawa. A Pareto chart is a histogram where items (such as number of defects) are ordered by frequency of occurrence, as shown in the below example: Example of a Pareto chart It is a type of chart that consists both bars and a line graph, where individual values are represented in descending order by bars, and the cumulative total is shown by the line.

Resource histograms

A Resource histogram is a bar chart showing the amount of time that a resource is scheduled to work over a series of time periods. It shows the resource requirements by time period. Resource histograms are handy tools for the project management team, as they allow a quick and easy single page view of exactly what resources are available, what resources are being utilized at the present time, and how long those resources are expected to be tied up.

Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)?

A benefit-cost ratio (BCR) is an indicator, used in the formal discipline of cost-benefit analysis that attempts to summarize the overall value for money of a project or proposal. A BCR is the ratio of the benefits of a project or proposal, expressed in monetary terms, relative to its costs, also expressed in monetary terms. All benefits and costs should be expressed in discounted present values. For e.g., a BCR of $3.8 indicates a payback of $3.8 for each dollar expended.

The change control process

A change control process includes the identification, evaluation, notification, and actual change in scope, time, cost, schedule, and budget. All changes should be undertaken only through the change control process. The following are guidelines client can use for these changes. Use a standard change request form. This form should include a description of the change, the reason, and who is requesting the change. Managing change means evaluating and implementing changes. • Investigate the overall impact of the change request on the project. • Use a formal approval process to accept or reject the request. • Relay this information to the stakeholders. • Include the approved changes in the project plan documentation.

Change control system

A change control system is a collection of formal documented procedures that define how project deliverables and documentation will be controlled, changed, and approved. Change control is a part of the configuration management system.

What is a control chart?

A control chart charts a process over time, as shown in the diagram below. A process is in control if it remains within 3 standard deviations of the mean. Upper and lower control limits reflect the capability of the machine, operator, and/ or processes. Upper and lower specification limits reflect the customer's quality requirements. A run chart is a control chart without control or specification limits. Example of a control chart By comparing current data to upper and lower lines on a control chart, you can draw conclusions about whether the process variation is consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation).

Diverse project teams

A diverse project team representing various styles, approaches, skills, and knowledge needs early and ongoing development. The process of establishing a sound basis for team development is described in the following table:

Flowcharts and scatter diagram

A flowchart is used to map process or information flow, or the flow of an item through the shop-floor, as shown below in diagram A. A scatter diagram shows a relation (correlation) between two variables, as shown below in diagram B.

Communication skill

A good communication skill is one tool that a project manager cannot do without his or her managerial toolbox. Without effective and timely communication, project development and implementation will suffer and as a result, the organization will have a difficult time reaching its project objectives. Communication skills are part of general project management skills used to exchange information. Project managers must communicate well in order to integrate and maximize the performance of team members. Oral and written communications are the backbone of every successful project. During the different phases of a project, a project manager has to communicate in different manners (for example, documentation, meeting updates, etc.) and must ensure that the information communicated is explicit, clear, and complete. Communication has several dimensions including: • Written, oral, listening, and speaking • Internal (within the project) and external (customer, media, public) • Formal (reports, briefings) and informal (memos, ad-hoc conversations) • Vertical (up and down the organization) and horizontal (with peers)

Histograms

A histogram is a graphical-bar representation that illustrates a visual impression of the distribution of data. These are used to plot density of data, and often used for density estimation: like estimating the probability density function of the underlying variable.

Product Breakdown Structure (PBS)

A product breakdown structure (PBS) is an exhaustive, hierarchical tree structure of components that make up an item, arranged in whole-part relationship. PBS can help clarify what is to be delivered by the project and can help build a work breakdown structure.

Monitoring work performance

A project represents a set of promises that are made to stakeholders about what will be achieved with a set of resources in a given timeframe. Monitoring the work performance of those directly involved in the project provides crucial information about how the project is performing, which helps decision makers and other stakeholders track how well the 'promises' made are being kept. Monitoring is a powerful management tool that provides project managers with necessary information to track these promises (project implementation), so that they can identify whatever obstacles are impeding the project's success as early as possible and intervene in a timely manner. The Data for monitoring work performance data is collected as part of the Direct and Manage Project Execution processes. Work performance measurements are created from the work performance information. WPMs are an output of Control schedule, Control cost, and Control scope processes, which are monitoring and controlling processes. WPMs consist of planned versus actual performance indicators with respect to scope, schedule, and cost. They are documented and communicated to the stakeholders and are used to make project activity metrics.

Run charts

A run chart also called as a run-sequence plot, is a graph that displays process performance over time sequence. They are one of the most important tools for assessing the effectiveness of change. Run charts have a variety of benefits: • They help improvement teams formulate aims by depicting how well (or poorly) a process is performing. • They help in determining when changes are truly improvements by displaying a pattern of data that you can observe as you make changes. • They give direction as you work on improvement and information about the value of particular changes.

What is triple constraint?

A triple constraint states three specific components in a project, as shown in the below diagram: • Scope: Deliverable for the project • Time: Schedule for the project • Cost: Budget for the project The triple constraint A project is considered successful when it's delivered on time, within cost constraints, and meets the scope. Constraints are limitations imposed on working project and can be financial or resource-based.

Acceptance response

Acceptance response is a part of the Risk Response planning process. Acceptance response delineates that the project plan will not be changed to deal with the risk. Management may develop a contingency plan if the risk does occur. Acceptance response to a risk event is a strategy that can be used for risks that pose either threats or opportunities. Acceptance response can be of two types: • Passive acceptance: It is a strategy in which no plans are made to try or avoid or mitigate the risk. • Active acceptance: Such responses include developing contingency reserves to deal with risks in case they occur. Acceptance is the only response for both threats and opportunities.

Optimizing a Project

After the project plan is defined, the project manager begins to review the allocation of the resources. If some resources are unacceptably overallocated or underallocated, s/he must optimize the plan to more evenly distribute the workload. During this process, or as a result of the process, the project manager may find that the project end date or the cost of the project may change significantly. So what can a project manager do to optimize resources? • Identify and review any overallocated or underallocated resources • Review resource workloads regularly • Account for overallocations by adding overtime • Calculate overtime costs • Resolve any resource overallocations • Distribute project work evenly • Specify resource availability Change a duration • Delay a task • Interrupt work on a task Be aware that optimizing resources will have impact down the line. For example, when you delay or interrupt work on a single task, be aware that if the task is linked, delaying the one task might change the scheduling of any and all successor tasks. Regular audits and reviews of a project throughout the life of a field ensure that the project manager has selected the most appropriate well designed resources of a project. Adjustments and improvements can be implemented along the workflow to ensure best return on investment. There are many tools that can be used to optimize projects: 1. Project optimizer: It helps project managers in optimizing project plan and organization by reviewing project plan (tasks, timelines and priorities) and project organization (contexts, categories). 2. VIP Organizer: It is a software that works as a flexible task list manager, and used to plan time, control priorities and create checklists. 3. VIP Task Manager: This software allows clients to manage business tasks and projects, plan working time, schedules and control team performance in real-time system. Optimizing the project defines that clients really have clear aims, rational project plan and smart project organization.

Exploit response

Amongst all the strategies used to negate risks or threats that appear in a project, exploit response is one that may be selected for risks with positive impacts where the organization wishes to ensure that the opportunity is realized. Exploiting a risk event provides opportunities for positive impact on a project. Assigning more talented resources to the project to reduce the time to completion is an example of exploit response.

Budget at Completion (BAC)

Budget at Completion (BAC) is the Baseline Cost field. It is displayed in the Earned Value Cost Indicators table. This field represents the total planned value for the completed task. Example: You have a project to be completed in 12 months and the total cost of the project is $100,000. Six months have passed and $60,000 is spent but on closer review you find that only 40% of the work is completed so far. Given: Budget At Completion = $100,000 Actual Cost (AC) = $60,000 Planned Value (PV) = 50% of $100,000 = $50,000 Earned Value (EV) = 40% of $100,000 = $40,000

BCWP (or EV)

Budgeted cost of work performed (BCWP) or earned value (EV) is the value of completed work. It is the budgeted amount for the work actually completed on the schedule activity during a given time period.

BCWS (or PV)

Budgeted cost of work scheduled (BCWS) or planned value (PV) is the authorized budget assigned to the scheduled work to be accomplished for a schedule activity or Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) component.

Change control

Change control is usually the weakest part of a project and, if not monitored, can lead to significant resource waste and missed schedules. As a project evolves, understanding of the problems and possibilities also evolves. This evolution sometimes necessitates changes to the project scope statement. Successful project managers do the following: • Place great emphasis on managing changes, insisting they are carefully defined, accurately budgeted in terms of cost, and formally approved. • Amend the project management plan to reflect the impact of any changes. • Use change orders for making changes. • Have a contract describing who pays for the changes. Examples of changes to a project include, but are not limited to, the following: • Scope: The customer redefines requirements after the project has begun. • Personnel: Promotions, hiring, downsizing, reassignments, illnesses, or accidents occur. • Management: A change in the organizational structure or corporate ownership takes place. • Economics: Reallocation of budgets due to financial factors affecting the organization happens. • Environment: The project or company moves to a new location, or data resources become unavailable. • Priorities: Management shifts organizational priorities.

Change requests

Change requests are requests to expand or reduce the project scope; modify policies, processes, plans, or procedures; and modify costs or budgets or revise schedules. These requests for a change can be direct or indirect, externally or internally initiated, and legally or contractually imposed or optional. A project manager needs to ensure that only formally documented requested changes are processed and only approved change requests are implemented.

Delaying a project

Companies may choose to cut a project for a variety of reasons, the most common being a lack of resources (money, people, etc.). However, delaying is a tactic that can be used to try to save a project from being cut from the company's plans altogether. Delaying a project is different from cutting a project. A delay is a nod from management that the project in question is still active, still worthy, and will be resurrected at some point in the future.

Contingency reserves

Contingency reserves are estimated costs to be used at the discretion of the project manager to deal with anticipated, but not certain, events. These events are "known unknowns" and are part of the project scope and cost baselines. The contingency reserve is calculated by multiplying the probability and the impact for the risk event value for each risk event. The sum of the risk events equals the contingency reserve for the project.

Cost performance index (CPI)

Cost performance index (CPI) is used to calculate performance efficiencies. It is used in trend analysis to predict future performance. CPI is the ratio of earned value to actual cost. The CPI is calculated based on the following formula: CPI = Earned value (EV) / Actual cost (AC) If the CPI value is greater than 1, it indicates better than expected performance, whereas if the value is less than 1, it shows poor performance. The CPI value of 1 indicates that the project is right on target.

Delphi technique

Delphi is a technique to identify potential risk. In this technique, the responses are gathered via a questionnaire from different experts and their inputs are organized according to their contents. The collected responses are sent back to these experts for further input, addition, and comments. The final list of risks in the project is prepared after that. The participants in this technique are anonymous and therefore it helps prevent a person from unduly influencing the others in the group. The delphi technique helps in reaching the consensus quickly.

What is Earned Value (EV)?

Earned value is a technique that permits clients to quantify the overall progress of the project in monetary terms. Earned value uses original project estimates and actual progress to show whether the actual costs incurred are above, at, or below the budget. For example, a project with a baseline cost estimate of $100,000 that is half complete in terms of tasks accomplished has an earned value of $50,000. If only one third of the tasks have been accomplished and half the budget has been spent, the earned value would be $33,000 against an actual cost of $50,000, leading to a negative $17,000 cost variance. This indicates the project is over budget and behind in task completion.

EAC

Estimate at completion is the forecasted cost of the project, as the project progresses. There are a number of different ways to determine the EAC. The most common way to determine EAC is a "bottoms-up" formula where the actual costs (AC) are added to the forecasted remaining spending - the estimate to complete (ETC). EAC = actual costs (AC) + estimate to complete (ETC) If the project has encountered a variance that is expected to recur and continue to affect the project (typical), the following formula may be used: EAC = budget at completion (BAC) ÷ cost performance index (CPI)

Estimate To Complete (ETC)

Estimate to complete (ETC) is a forecast of how much more money will need to be spent to complete the project. ETC can either be determined by building a bottom-up estimate, usually by asking your work package owners, team members, or vendors for revised estimates or by deducting the actual costs (AC) from the estimate at completion (EAC). ETC = new estimates ETC = estimate at completion (EAC) - actual costs (AC) Example You are three months into the five month bathroom remodeling project. The original budget (BAC) was $1,500 and you have completed approximately 40% of the work. You currently are running over-budget, as indicated by a cost performance index (CPI) of 0.67. Actual costs to-date have been $900. If you learn that the contractor found some mold in the sheetrock and needed to replace it, causing a one-time variance, you could use the atypical formula to forecast the EAC and the ETC: EAC = AC + BAC - EV = $900 + $1,500 - $600 = $1,800 (how much we will spend at the end of the project) ETC = EAC - AC = $1,800 - $900 = $900 (how much more we will spend from this point forward) If, however, you learn that the workers that are being used are actually much more expensive than you originally estimated, this would be a typical variance as it's going to continue to affect the project. EAC = BAC ÷ CPI = $1,500 ÷ 0.67 = $2,239 ETC = EAC - AC = $2,239 - $900 = $1,339 Notice that for the "typical" scenario, the EAC and ETC forecasts are much higher than the "atypical" results. This is due to the fact that the variance is going to continue to affect the project. Of course, the other option to forecast your project costs would be to simply ask your team / vendors for a new estimate to complete the remaining work. This ETC would then be added to the actual costs (the money already spent) to determine the EAC. EAC = ETC + AC

Fast tracking a project

Fast tracking is a frequently used technique to compress a project's schedule. It is often the most effective way to shorten the duration of a project. You fast-track a project by scheduling tasks that were originally scheduled to run in sequence, to run instead in parallel. It is the process of shortening the project schedule without reducing the project scope or compromising on quality. The problem with fast-tracking is that there is no free lunch. Additional resources pulled in to do the parallel tasks might make mistakes, or even seasoned resources could make mistakes, skip crucial steps, make assumptions because results from the necessary parallel step were as yet unavailable. If something goes wrong, your schedule could slip or the quality, scope, or budget could suffer. In general, the risks are small. However, to make the most of fast-tracking, look at the longest tasks on the critical path first. These provide the largest potential decrease in duration with the fewest number of risks to manage.

Project float

Float, or slack, in project management terms, is the amount of time an activity can be delayed without affecting any subsequent activities. There are two types of floats: • Free Float: Is the amount of time a schedule activity can be delayed without delaying the early start date of any immediately following schedule activities. • Total Float: Is the total amount of time that a schedule activity may be delayed from its early start date without delaying the project finish date, or violating schedule constraint. Float is calculated by using the critical path method technique.

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory, also known as Two Factor Theory, was developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist who found that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction acted independently of each other. Two Factor Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. Two Factor Theory distinguishes between the following: • Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth. • Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) which do not give positive satisfaction, although dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects, such as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary. Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed in order to motivate an employee to higher performance, Herzberg also further classified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work-related action because you have to, then that is classed as movement, but if you perform a work-related action because you want to, then that is classed as motivation.

Risk mitigation

Mitigation is a risk response planning technique associated with threats that seeks to reduce the probability of occurrence or impact of a risk to below an acceptable threshold. Risk mitigation involves taking early action to reduce the probability and impact of a risk occurring on the project. Adopting less complex processes, conducting more tests, or choosing a more stable supplier are examples of mitigation actions.

Opportunity cost

Opportunity cost or economic opportunity loss is the value of the next best alternative forgone as the result of making a decision. Opportunity cost analysis is an important part of a company's decision-making processes but is not treated as an actual cost in any financial statement.

Crashing a project

Project crashing is the process of expediting project schedule by compressing the total project duration. A project manager is often confronted with having to reduce the scheduled completion time of a project to meet a deadline. While project durations can be reduced (or got back on track) by assigning more resources (people, material, or equipment), they typically increase the project cost. So the decision to reduce the project duration must be based on an analysis of the trade-off between time and cost, as well as the benefits of reaping the results of the project sooner. For example, if the penalty to pay if the project is not delivered on time is much higher than the cost of additional resources, crashing is a good option. Crashing works for activities where additional resources will shorten the duration while minimizing costs over the life of the project. Approving overtime, bringing in additional resources, paying to expedite delivery to activities on the critical path are examples of crashing. Some guidelines: • Crash ONLY activities which are on the critical path. • Prioritize which activities on the critical path to crash depending on which activities provide the most schedule compression at the least possible cost.

Project reporting for different types of stakeholders

Project managers are used to reporting on projects, but not all of them realize that the same kind of reports cannot be sent to all types of stakeholders. The CEO of the company would not be interested in the same level of detail as the business customer, for example. Here are some guidelines:

Quantitative Risk Analysis

Quantitative risk analysis is the process of numerically analyzing the effect of identified risks on overall project objectives. This process generally follows the Qualitative Risk Analysis process. It is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting the project's competing demands. The quantitative risk analysis process should be repeated after plan risk responses, as well as part of monitor and control risks, to determine if the overall project risk has been decreased.

The RACI chart

RACI is an acronym that was derived from the four key responsibilities most typically used: Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed. It is a type of responsibility assignment matrix used to ensure clear divisions of roles and expectations when the team consists of internal and external resources.

Resource leveling heuristics

Resource leveling heuristics is a prioritization method that allocates inadequate resources to critical path activities first. It is a schedule network analysis technique useful to a schedule that has already been analyzed by the critical path method. It is used when shared or critical essential resources are only available at certain times, in limited quantities, or to keep resource usage at a constant level. It is a technique that resolves resource conflicts by delaying tasks within their slack allowances.

Stakeholder Risk Tolerance

Risk tolerance is often misunderstood or overlooked by project managers. The levels and perspectives of risk tolerance are dynamic throughout the life of the project. The stakeholder 's risk tolerance is influenced by project objective. Each stakeholder has a different tolerance level for risk, but they are rarely asked about it. It is important to get their buy-in for risk sharing, as much as it is important to get their sign-off on the project charter! Unfortunately, failures in communication between the stakeholder and project manager are quite common because there are few applicable tools available to support the process. In most organizations, stakeholders place their trust in the project manager, without fully understanding the impact of a risk until it's too late. Understanding the risk tolerance of each stakeholder and formulating a risk management plan in conformance to those levels is a key factor to the project manager 's success at dealing with project related risks.

Schedule performance index (SPI)

Schedule performance index (SPI) is the measure of schedule efficiency on a project. It is used in trend analysis to predict future performance. SPI is the ratio of earned value to planned value. The SPI is calculated based on the following formula: SPI = Earned value (EV) / Planned value (PV) If the SPI value is greater than 1, it indicates better than expected performance, whereas if the value is less than 1, it shows poor performance. The SPI value of 1 indicates that the project is right on target.

The Pareto principle

The Pareto principle (also known as the 80-20 rule, the law of the vital few, and the principle of factor sparsity) states that, for many events, roughly 80 percent of the effects come from 20 percent of the causes. Business management thinker Joseph M. Juran suggested the principle and named it after Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, who observed that 80 percent of income in Italy went to 20 percent of the population. It is a common rule of thumb in business; e.g., "80 percent of your sales come from 20 percent of your clients." Pareto's law holds that a relatively small number of causes will typically produce a large majority of the problems or defects, where 80 percent of the problems are due to 20 percent of the causes.

Monitoring quality

The first step in quality monitoring is to determine what needs to be measured (quality control). By working closely with the sponsor and team and by using the project scope statement, the project manager should do the following: • Identify applicable quality standards and determine how to satisfy them. • Develop the quality metrics that characterize it. These tasks normally go beyond the functional and technical requirements into such areas as: • Ease of use of the deliverable. • Customer acceptance of the deliverable. • Sponsor or customer assessment of project communication approaches.

Cost functions related to quantitative risk analysis

The following cost functions are related to quantitative risk analysis: • Exposure factor (EF): It is defined as the percentage of loss experienced by an organization when a particular asset is violated by a realized risk. • Single loss expectancy (SLE): It is defined as the cost related to a single realized risk against a particular asset. The following formula is used to calculate the SLE: SLE = asset value ($) * exposure factor (EF) • Annualized rate of occurrence (ARO): It is defined as the expected frequency of occurrence of a particular threat or risk in a single year. • Annualized loss expectancy (ALE): It is defined as the yearly cost of all instances of a particular threat against a particular asset. The following formula is used to calculate the ALE: ALE = single loss expectancy (SLE) * annualized rate of occurrence (ARO)

Inputs to the quantitative risk analysis process

The inputs to the quantitative risk analysis process are: • Risk register • Risk management plan • Cost management plan • Schedule management plan • Organizational process assets

Output of the quantitative risk analysis process

The output of perform quantitative risk analysis process is Risk Register Updates. Risk register is updated to take account of a quantitative risk report detailing quantitative approaches and outputs. Updates include the following important elements: • Probabilistic analysis of the project • Probability of achieving cost and time objectives • Prioritized list of quantified risks • Trends in quantitative risk analysis results

Resource calendar

The resource calendar defines when specific team members will not be available to work on the project. A composite resource calendar for a project, which is part of the project management plan, documents working days and nonworking days that determine those dates on which a specific resource, whether a person or material, can be active or is idle. The calendar typically identifies resource-specific holidays and resource availability periods. It identifies the quantity of each resource available during each availability period. Having a well maintained resource calendar is critical to project communications.

Variance at Completion (VAC)

The variance at completion is determined by subtracting the BAC from the EAC: VAC = BAC - EAC A negative VAC indicates that the project is forecasted to not complete with the approved budget. A negative VAC may require either an additional funding allocation or the elimination of some of the project scope. A positive VAC indicates the project will not utilize the allocated budget. This may allow for additional components to be added to the scope of the project. Example: The bathroom remodeling project has an approved budget (BAC) of $1,500. Based on your analysis, the forecast (EAC) is $1,885. VAC = $1,500 - $1,885 = ($385) <-- Indicates the project will exceed the budget by $385. Summary: Variance at completion (VAC) is a comparison of the original budget at completion (BAC) and the revised forecast (EAC). A negative VAC is an indicator that the project may exceed the BAC.

Other types of earned value variables

There are various types of earned value variables. Following are the types: • Budget at Completion (BAC): The original amount budgeted for the entire project to be completed. • Estimate at Completion (EAC) = AC + ETC: An estimate of the total cost for the project, utilizing current project performance and work that still needs to be completed. • Estimate to Complete (ETC) = EAC - AC: The estimated dollar amount for the project work still to be done. • Variance at Completion (VAC) = BAC - EAC: The estimated dollar amount for final variance between the original estimate and the revised estimate of total project cost.

Project tracking

Tracking the project is the major project of project management. This process ensures it is on schedule and the resources assigned to the project are being used efficiently. The project tracking process starts with the identification of the project's progress. Earned value measures such as actual cost (AC), earned value (EV) and planned value (PV) are used to track the project's progress as far as scope, time, and cost is concerned. It is important to track a project's progress and to make certain all milestones are met, deliverables are acceptable, and the project remains within the boundaries of scope, time, and cost. Project planning is an iterative process and plans might have to be modified during execution to include any new information.

The technology barrier

Where is the customer on the technology continuum? If your solution is technology-based, consider the amount of training that will be required within your implementation process. Also, be sure you know what their most pressing needs are and solve them. Don't give them more than they need and don't shoot wide off the mark trying to impress customers with just technology. Technology must be used to effectively solve business problems. All teams concerned: the team implementing the technology, the team supporting the technology once the project goes live, and of course, the business user of the technology based solution must be able to use the technology.

Language barriers

With more and more companies going global or doing business globally, project managers are dealing more frequently with more international meetings and collaborative projects. Regular, clear, complete communication between remote teams is the most critical aspect of success in managing projects from a distance. Not planning ahead to establish all the critical high-bandwidth communication tools that are necessary creates a very difficult road to project success. The project manager should find out at the outset of the project if there are language barriers and make necessary accommodations. For example, many non-English speakers may prefer to have emails and text, than to have live conference calls and voice mails. It is easier to do the translation at one's own pace and with text, than it is to translate in real time and verbally. Or, they may be completely fluent in the language and conference calls or face-to-faces work just as well. Some project managers host a live instant messaging "chat room" alongside a meeting or conference call, to provide the non-English speakers with a means to follow along or obtain definitions without disrupting the flow of the meeting. With today 's global economy, note that the language issue doesn't have to be an English issue. Language barriers can be an issue with any group of people who have no language in common attempt to communicate with each other.

Characteristics of Quantitative risk analysis?

• It uses complex functions. • It uses cost/benefit analysis. • It produces specific values. • It supports the process of automation. • It includes a high volume of information. • It requires significant time and efforts. • It provides useful and meaningful results.