Cons Bio Final Review

According to Maxwell et al. (2020) how much of the earth's land and marine areas are currently within protected areas? Describe one way that these protected areas could receive better funding for proper management.

15.3 of terrestrial areas are protected and 7.5 of marine areas are protected. Having proper cost benefit analysis could help reallocate funds, as well as creativity and proper socioeconomic models.

What is a 'reference community'?

A historic ecosystem that has systems that existed prior to this time. They are used for restoration to have a basemap of what the ecosystem is supposed to look like.

What is a Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances? In general, what does the public get out of such agreements and what does the landowner get?

A public-private partnership that aims to engage landowners to keep the habitat at a high level and restore and manage it. The public get an improved, secure, and intact habitat, and connected patches. Landowner gets incidental take during covered activities, such as agriculture and recreation.

What is an umbrella species? Name two benefits and two drawbacks of using such a tactic in reserve design?

A species that is the focus of conservation in an area. Species tends to be charismatic to attract funding, and in turn you also conserve the area. However focusing on the charismatic species might take away from the needs of other species.

In their 'climate aware' approach to reserve design, what do Pearson and Dawson (2005) suggest in terms of general reserve shape/layout and with regards to corridors? What is the rationale behind these suggestions?

Allowing latitudinal or longitudinal movement within reserves will help with resilience to climate change. Corridors will help as well, but won't be of much assistance when species' climate envelope will be swept away and they can't escape fast enough

Heller et al. (2015) provide an example of how we might prioritize acquisition of particular land parcels based on certain criteria. What do they advocate in terms of criteria we should consider?

Assigning priorities in a targeted way to expand the climate gradient. By looking at current climates and making decisions based on the scope and resilience of an area.

What is the current "Post-2020" Protected Area goal (Target 3) from the Convention on Biological Diversity? How does this compare to the Biden administration's recent goal-setting?

At least 30%. The biden administration isn't set on that number but still wants something around that realm. Established America The Beautiful for this reason

Describe/show what experimental design is commonly used to identify local adaptation.

Collect plants from a transect, grow them in common gardens to find genetically based local adaptation

What are two common approaches to dealing with externalities? Provide an example of each.

Command and control: regulating by setting standards. Ex: setting emission standards. The drawbacks are that there is no incentive to reduce, and you don't know if you are being the most efficient by controlling everyone at the same standard. Incentive based markets: use incentives to achieve a goal and giving people what they want. Ex: paying a fee if an individual exceeds emissions.

Name 5 characteristics of a restored community.

Contains a mix of species that occur in a reference ecosystem, species are present in an appropriate amount, consists of native species to the best possible extent, the environment is capable of sustaining reproduction, is resilient enough to withstand periodic stress events.

What is CITES and what is it intended to do?

Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. 1975. Voluntary participation of parties involved (usually countries). Implementation of CITES happens at domestic level: we regulate CITES in the US through the Endangered Species Act. Serious violations go through the Lacey Act. Aims to ensure that international trade doesn't negatively impact the sustainability of these species. To ensure that international trades in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species.

Provide a brief definition of the following under the ESA: endangered, threatened, critical habitat.

Endangered: likely to become extinct throughout all or a large portion of their range. Threatened: likely to become endangered in the near future. Critical Habitat: vital to the survival of endangered or threatened species.

In very large-scale reseeding efforts in Nevada, there is typically a 1% rate of successful establishment. What is the most probable reason behind this?

Environmental factors and a mismatch between genotypes and the environment (wrong type of seeds).

Kareiva and Marvier (2003) argue that using simple metrics like richness and endemism to identify biodiversity hotspots may leave important elements of biodiversity "out in the cold". List and briefly describe three such elements/features that might be important to consider in designating hotspots.

Evolutionary distinction (captures depth that wouldn't be available by only mapping richness), geographic balance (some places will have more biodiversity than others so we have to pay attention to places that may not have high diversity like the tropics), ecosystem function/service (some places provide unique services even though they're not species rich).

Various restoration-related endpoints might characterize a particular project. Describe and graph each of these potential endpoints in terms of their achievement of species composition/complexity and ecosystem function/processes.

Full restoration is how close we can get from the degraded to the original ecosystem. Revegetation might focus more on individual species, not the processes. Rehabilitation focuses on the process, not so much biodiversity.

In simulating future climate conditions in 2100 in Bay Area parks/reserves, what do Ackerly et al. (2010) find in terms of current versus future temperature distributions in these areas?

Future places will be warmer and drier in places that have never seen those kinds of temperatures. They found that there is little overlap between the two types of temperatures, but when there is overlap its only within the hottest variables.

List at least three questions/requirements that must characterize a species or DPS if it is to be considered for listing under ESA.

Has a large % of its habitat been destroyed/degraded? Has it been overconsumed by commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes? Is it threatened by disease or predation?

Chornesky et al. (2015) propose Suisun Bay as an example of "managing for change". What two main points do they make with this case study?

If we don't do something about it now, there will be massive changes to the region. The cheapest time to do it is now while there are still options.

Name 6 management scenarios we explored for Loggerhead turtles, what were the general outcomes of each, and why? Be able to graph these outcomes.

Improve fecundity Improve hatchling survival Improve large juvenile survival Improve adult/subadult survival

Describe three indigenous management practices discussed by Dr. Badik and how they might help achieve current conservation goals.

Increased biodiversity through increased disturbance -Intermediate disturbance hypothesis Increased carbon storage -aboriginal burning in Australia Sustainable rangelands -Herd management in Africa

What parts of an economy do most people generally consider? What roles does nature play in this? Are these roles typically considered? Use a simple diagram to support your answer.

It is usually a system consisting of households supplying goods and services to markets, which demand resources from companies, who provide goods as their output. Nature's role is also providing natural resources to households and companies, but they also receive the waste products from these as well. Often considered externalities.

Loarie et al. (2009) introduce the idea of "climate velocity". How does this concept apply to a landscape like California or the Great Basin and what does it mean in terms of how species may be able to respond to climate warming?

It shows which places would be the easiest to move to for species when the climate changes. It describes how quickly species will be able to move when their climate envelope moves from underneath them.

Describe the idea of "novel ecosystems". Do you think this is a helpful or harmful idea in conservation and restoration? Why?

Its a new species combination that arises spontaneously and irreversibly. Helpful: it is a realistic view because restoration can be very expensive and climate change might not allow ecosystems to go back to their historic ways. Harmful: it discourages biodiversity values, and no real ecological threshold has ever been demonstrated.

In our loggerhead turtle PVA, in order to project how many individuals would be in the "large juvenile" class from one year to the next, what demographic information did we have to consider?

Its mortality and its growth would lead it to the next class. Population size, rate of mortality, and growth rate.

Provide an example of "conservation in the matrix" and why this matters in conservation planning.

Land sharing and land sparing, using incentives to diversify the landscape and intensifying our use to maximize our resources. This allows for more space to be allocated to other species.

Name 5 potential sources of information that a restoration ecologist might use to identify their reference community or historic ecosystem.

Maps (old handwritten ones provide enough information), old photographs, repeat photography (comparison of photos taken at different times), dendrochronology and fire (tree rings and burn scars give fire dynamics over time for prescribed burns), packrat middens (build dens from materials collected nearby, fossil debris become preserved).

Describe two general methods of assigning a value to an environmental good or service, describe one example of each.

Market valuation: an actual conventional market where the product has a direct market value. Ex: wood. Non-market valuation: contingent valuation methods. Ex: interview based techniques. Ask people to assign value to something.

List and describe 3 ways in which conservationists can begin to plan in a "climate aware" way. Provide an example of each.

Minimize non-climate stressors to impart greater resistance and resilience; -manage for change= alternative plans for the future Restoration to past states may not be feasible; asses value of "novel" states; maximize the "matrix" -"novel" (degraded) habitats in urban and peri-urban landscapes compared native versus "novel'' sites for bandicoots (endangered). "Novel" sites had higher abundance; females in good body condition; high residency; evidence of local reproduction Target ecosystems, not just individual species, focus on a range of systems and function -create a landscape that will optimize the adaptive capacity, benefits, and options for desired transitions.

Name four criticisms of CITES. Suggest approaches or new perspectives that might alleviate these problems.

Notion that this is just a species focus list, and is too simple. It is a negative list, meaning it's just listing the problem but no sustainable solution. It doesn't identify critical habitat or any provisions for recovery. Membership is expensive, so some nations can't afford to join even though they have the most endangered species.

The Red List category in which a species is placed is based on what four types of population/species information.

Pop. size reduction, or the trajectory of the population; spatial extent across which it exists; population size, even without trend data; probability of extinction.

The Dixie Valley Toad received emergency listing under the ESA on April 4, 2022. What are three major threats this species faces?

Proposed geothermal project, groundwater pumping from this project, and predation by non-native frogs.

What are the 3 R's that are typically considered and planned for in a species recovery plan; provide a brief description of each.

Representation: includes representation of each ecological subunit of the taxon resiliency: getting the population and habitat to a level that allows them to persist through environmental change redundancy: several of those same ecological units so that there is a buffer against loss.

List and describe two examples of incentive-based market approaches.

Setting charge systems: having people pay a quota if they exceed a limit of pollution. Cap and trade: a cap is set for pollution and every firm is given units of emissions that they can use or sell to other companies.

Provide an example of 'command and control' regulation. Describe one benefit and one drawback of such approaches.

Setting emission standards. The drawbacks are that there is no incentive to reduce, and you don't know if you are being the most efficient by controlling everyone at the same standard. A benefit is that you are setting a maximum amount of pollution so that the problem doesn't get worse.

What was/is the SLOSS debate? Name three points that proponents of each side of this debate might highlight as the benefit of their approach.

Single large or several small. Single large has less habitat fragmentation, minimized edge effects, less stochasticity. Several small has a defense to disturbances, can have corridors, many species already have this type of dispersal.

What categories can species fall into under CITES? Provide a brief description of each.

Species fall under Appendices depending on their level of endangerment. Appendix I: species threatened with extinction, legal trade only happens in very exceptional circumstances. Appendix II: not threatened with extinction, but trade must be controlled to ensure it won't negatively affect their survival; often confused with Apx. 1. Appendix III: protected in at least one country; the country is asking CITES to protect the species

What agency (or agencies) oversee the Endangered Species Act?

The US Fish and Wildlife Service for freshwater and terrestrial species and National Marine Fisheries Service for marine species.

Draw a conceptual life history model for the Yellowstone Grizzly bear. Why is it important to identify the different life stages for this population?

The adult stage is the only one that is reproductive. The sub adult stage lasts approximately 3 years, from the 3rd to the 5th year of life.

Provide a definition for the fields of environmental and natural resource economics.

The application of the principles of economics to the study of how environmental and natural resources are developed and managed. How we can most effectively use regulations. Used when there needs to be decisions made on how resources should be allocated.

Briefly describe the New York City Watershed Protection Program and how this case provides an important example of valuation of ecosystem services.

The city needed to keep its water quality at a good enough level without spending too much money on a filtration system, so they asked the nearby farms to reduce their runoff. The farms began the Whole Farm Planning program where they came up with ways to reduce their runoff, and at the same time got benefits from the city. Both the city and the farmers saw a value in keeping their watershed clean: the city saved money from not building a plant and the farmers could be cleaner and more efficient with their farming practices.

What is local adaptation?

The existence of genotypes well suited local biotic and abiotic conditions. Taken from transplants and common gardens.

In its petition to the US Fish and Wildlife service to list the Dixie Valley Toad under the ESA in 2017, what imminent threat did the Center for Biological Diversity highlight, and what data did they use to support the significance of this threat.

The frogs have coevolved with their water resource. The pumping of water for the geothermal project could affect the availability of these springs the frogs depend on. Their evidence was a graph showing the flow rate of Jersey Valley hot springs after a geothermal plant was placed. The graph had a downward slope, even though there isn't evidence that the relationship was causal, it still shows enough correlation.

Appleton (2002) notes two critical lessons learned from the New York City Watershed Protection Program that can be applied to other situations, what are they?

The highest economic benefit comes from identifying high level ecosystem services and targeting them. Monetizing services so that a value can be captured, and changing policies and regulations to allow it.

What is adaptive management? Why is such an approach critical when implementing "climate-aware" conservation practices?

The incorporation of a formal learning process into conservation action. Specifically, it is the integration of project design, management, and monitoring, to provide a framework to systematically test assumptions, promote learning, and supply timely information for management decisions. This approach is critical when implementing "climate-aware" conservation practices due to scientific experimentation involved. It can be replicated and reassessed as conditions continue to change.

What is the mission of The Nature Conservancy? What is a major difference in how the TNC of Nevada operates in comparison to their activities elsewhere?

The mission of The Nature Conservancy is to conserve the lands and waters on which all life depends. TNC of Nevada's strategy is to protect land/water, climate, public lands, and renewable infrastructure.

According to the IPCC, what is climate adaptation?

The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects. Human systems are moderating harmful effects or exploiting beneficial opportunities. In natural systems, human intervention is necessary to facilitate enduring effects of expected climate change.

Provide a general definition of 'restoration' as provided by the Society for Ecological Restoration.

The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.

Provide a schematic, perhaps similar to that in Breckheimer et al. 2014, that show how restoration for one taxon may or may not be of benefit to another species. Which of these would support the idea of an "umbrella species" and why?

The synergy one supports the idea of umbrella species because by protecting the bird you are also protecting the butterfly.

Describe the overall life history of Loggerhead turtles. Name three life stages in which these animals face threats, describe these stage-specific threats. Describe potential management activities that might minimize each of these threats.

The three life stages in which these animals face threats are hatchlings, large juvenile, and adult. Potential management activities that might minimize each of these threats is to protect nesting areas, reduce poaching, and reduce deaths by nets.

The Devil's Hole pupfish was part of a landmark decision concerning the maintenance of its habitat. What was the source of the conflict between this species and other uses of natural resources from Ash Meadows? And what did the Supreme Court decide concerning this issue in 1976?

The water level began to drop because of local agricultural pumping, something that was stopped by the Supreme Court in order to save the pupfish.

Describe the idea of "states and transitions" within a particular ecosystem or site. Use a simple graphic to explain your answer. What is the overall message of this in terms of setting restoration goals?

There are multiple possible states: once across a threshold, it may be impossible to go back to one state.

Linking reserves with corridors has been controversial at various points in the history of Conservation Biology. Describe two potential benefits and two potential drawbacks of linking reserves with corridors.

There is more species richness in connected spots and less chance of extinction. But there are more edge effects and 'antagonists' (if one place gets invaded, the others will too).

What experimental design did Damschen et al. (2006) use to test the impact of corridors on species richness? What did they find in the original study that spanned 2001-2005? In 2019, they analyzed many additional years of data, what were the two main conclusions of the new study?

They created plots of land that were either connected or not. They found that richness was higher in connected plots from increased colonization, herbivore movement, and pollen movement. Their 2019 conclusions were that colonization went up and there were more plant species in connected sites.

When a petition to list a species under ESA is received, list the 3-4 main steps of what happens next. Describe this in words or with a simple schematic.

They first decide if information is substantial or not, then they go into a status review level, or the 12 month finding. If warranted, it will go into proposed ruling where they will have a comment period for the public to make their opinions known. Lastly there will be a decision of final rule or rule withdrawn.

List three reasons why a restoration ecologist should care about local adaptation.

They maintain historic genotypes, the ability to respond to natural variation, increase the likelihood of establishing in a specific place.

Penrod et al (2012) proposed a protected area linkage network for the California deserts. What process or series of steps did they go through to establish the linkage network?

They used the largest landscape blocks, chose a couple of species and generated habitat suitability maps for all the species and overlaid them to make least cost paths for species movement.

How might a resource economics framework be applied to the conservation of an ESA candidate species?

Through the use of incentives. By placing incentives on land that has a candidate species, that land now has monetary value and gives landowners a reason to protect the land the species lives on.

What is the goal of the Half Earth Project? What is the main conclusion reached by Pimm et al. (2018) concerning which areas we should protect?

To conserve half of the earth for biodiversity, which would protect 85% of species.

hen originally established, what was one of the primary goals of protected areas (that is, what were they protecting?). According to Conservation International's gap analysis, how much of their 'biodiversity hotspots' do these areas capture?

To conserve scenic beauty. Their biodiversity hotspots only overlap with 10% of what is actually protected.

What are the two primary goals of the IUCN Red List?

To identify the species most in need of attention if global extinction rates go down. Provides a global index of state of change in biodiversity.

Penrod et al (2012) proposed a protected area linkage network for the California deserts. What were at least three of their overall goals for the linkage network?

To provide live in and move through habitats for multiple species, ensure availability of key resources, and a buffer against edge effects.

Provide three reasons why restoration ecologists need to identify their reference community for any given project.

To set goals for a degraded ecosystem, to define what needs to be done to restore the ecosystem, to develop a criteria to measure success

Name three ways that 'irreplaceability' might be defined. Plot irreplaceability against threat level and which areas might be your highest priority? What rationale are you using to identify your priority area?

Uniqueness, evolutionary depth, endemism. Its prioritized by endemic rich areas under greatest threat while also protecting equally unique places that aren't yet under threat.

In 2010, the Greater sage grouse was found to "warranted" for listing under the endangered species act. What two reasons did the US Fish and Wildlife Service give for this listing?

Warranted because of loss and fragmentation of habitat and lack of adequate regulatory mechanisms to stem habitat loss.

What does the finding 'warranted but precluded' mean, provide an example of a species that received this listing in the recent past.

Warranted but precluded means that there is enough evidence to say that the species is endangered, but there are not enough resources available to actually help it because there are higher priorities. The Sage Grouse dealt with massive habitat loss to energy development and fires. Warranted but precluded because of a lack of adequate regulatory mechanisms to restore habitat.

Describe what is meant by 'the tragedy of the commons'

We are gaining the benefits from using a product as an individual, but we must share the consequences/cost with everyone else. This is not sustainable in the long run.

What are "externalities"? Provide an example.

When all costs and benefits are not accounted for. Goods and services for the market system are ultimately sourced from nature, and excess residuals are also taken back by nature.

Holsinger has suggested 5 basic steps or principles to reserve design, describe two of these and how you would go about identifying them for a particular area.

Where are the elements of concern found? Can be identified by mapping things such as species richness or endemism. What are the elements of concern? Can be found by making a study of population of a species over time.