CP Week 11B, "Writing with Evidence"
__________ can be slippery, so you want to represent what someone else feels in words that the person would see as accurate.
Beliefs
_________ consists of verifiable details that have relevance to a claim a writer makes.
Evidence
____________ is usually a matter of facts or well-supported theories, although the perspectives and biases of those who narrate and interpret past events have been questioned.
History
____________, on the other hand, is undeniable evidence in support of the claim.
Proof
_____________ are the result of a formal study--an experiment, a survey, a protracted qualitative research project, a questionnaire, or a review of data.
Statistics
T/F: As we all know, the majority can be wrong.
True. A genuine critical analysis does not kowtow to the status quo.
T/F: Debatable points (i.e., those that have not been proven) are those that, for example, consider the reasons people smoke even though they have full knowledge of the dire consequences.
True. A writer can explore this and can supply evidence to support or refute the claim.
T/F: Many scientific discoveries and theorems, such as the laws of gravity, can be considered facts, although new discoveries will displace some of them as scientists progress in understanding the natural world.
True. Although these are often supported with substantial evidence in the form of observations, experiments, etc., scientists can modify these to account for new evidence and new discoveries as they manifest.
T/F: Medically speaking, there is no reasonable counterargument to the claim that smoking is bad.
True. An essay's thesis that claims that people should not smoke because of the medical evidence has merely stated the obvious.
T/F: Writers tend to succumb to superficiality when they worry about the validity of their theses.
True. If establishing a criterion might jeopardize a point, some writers disregard that criterion and slip into something less deep.
T/F: The problem with personal experiences resides in the inability of an audience to verify the writer's personal experiences.
True. Readers simply cannot believe everything a writer tells them. Many writers exaggerate experiences, remember details incorrectly, leave out parts of a story that might complicate the point, or simply lie.
T/F: Qualifiers, such as "from my observation" or "I imagine" can be used when no statistical evidence is available, as can vague statements like "quite a few" or "many."
True. Such phrases do not count as statistical evidence.
Stating your claim is correct because it is popular constitutes a logical fallacy that undermines your credibility. What is a common term for this fallacy?
bandwagon
Dictionaries should be consulted for ________ definitions. However, some concepts are better explained in extended form. For example, a philosophical movement, such as stoicism, existentialism, or postmodernism, needs more than a thumbnail sketch to be accurately represented.
basic
Confirm _______________ or sensitive information through several websites just to be sure.
controversial
An audience would have little interest in reading about a position that has no reasonable _______________.
counterargument
Evidence for a claim makes sense only if it is compared or applied to an agreed-on standard by which it can be evaluated. These agreed-on standards by which we base claims are called ______________.
criteria
Whether your writing task involves asserting a claim, suggesting a possibility, or weaving in another type of thesis, you need to...
critically examine the information you use to support your reasoning.
While background information might set the stage for your evidence, establishing criteria to make that information sound like evidence would ___________ your thesis.
dilute
Writers can become ____________ when they know a great deal about a subject. If research has been done, they sometimes desire to show what they know and forget that some of the information is irrelevant to supporting a suitable thesis.
distracted
Confirming the definition of a key term can prevent __________ moments. Keep the advice about "Language Choices in Writing" in mind.
embarrassing
A(n) ____________ or a website would supply more thorough information about complex ideas like belief systems.
encyclopedia
When you concede, you should explain that your point might seem weaker when viewed through a given set of criteria, but....
establish why the criteria you chose more appropriately assess the situation.
Sometimes a topic has to be ___________ deeply to find an issue.
explored
Yet, narratives and personal examples can be used as evidence. Sometimes, the body of the paper will be an __________ personal example.
extended
The strongest type of evidence is a(n) _________. These cannot be disputed. They span a range of disciplines and Thelin considers these to be neutral.
fact
For historical __________, encyclopedias or websites will give enough information to verify most information you might use. When using websites, confirm if they are legitimate.
facts
For example, the word _______________ evokes many reactions. If you use the term, make sure you understand its meaning and the specific context in which it is used to avoid misusing it. Thelin notes a recent error (at the time of that writing) in which a student confused this term with "sexism."
feminism
If one of your criteria is that many people should agree with a point of view for it to be worthy, supplying evidence to that end seems helpful in securing readers' acceptance of the claim. But this criterion is ____________.
flawed
Without the structure of criteria, your argument might ___________ include information without showing its relevance.
haphazardly
Writer also need to avoid inadvertently __________ the use of statistics. Even statements that start with "the majority feels" or "most people think" indicate statistical numbers, since both phrases are understood in relation to the marker of 50 percent.
implying
The numbers produced from research come from ________________ of the information in the study. Therefore, these can be and often are challenged, leading to follow-up studies that produce statistics that counter the previous study.
interpretation
Our personal experiences and observations have a lot to do with shaping our views of the world. Yet, the narratives or examples we form from those experiences and observations are the ____________ reliable type of evidence a writer can use.
least
Statistics strongly support claims when used. But the facts in statistics are ____________ by when statistics were compiled, what sampling size was used, and other matters about how researchers conducted the study.
limited
As a citizen, for example, you might believe that your governor lacks commitment to cleaning up the environment. However, you would need to find a statement by your governor that supports your view, since you could be _______________ his/her/their actions.
misrepresenting
For instance, we have proof that Richard Ramirez, the infamous "Night Stalker," committed a string of serial killings in Los Angeles during the 1980s. (American Horror Story: 1984 alludes to these events and presents a fictionalized depiction of Ramirez in several episodes.) He never seriously denied his guilt and has been convicted. Writing a paper to assert his guilt would be ridiculous endeavor, since...
no reasonable person would disagree with it.
The subjective nature of narratives leaves them to vulnerable to ______________ narratives. One narrative cannot disprove the other, so you are left at a standstill.
opposing
For an essay to be effective, the writer's implied criteria should __________ the essay and be clear to the audience. You should anticipate audiences' needs and make the categories obvious, even if not stated directly in the text.
organize
Some criteria seem valid but actually do little to supply evidence for a point. One common mistake writers make is to use ____________ as evidence.
popularity
The bandwagon mentality appeals to ____________ ideological assumptions. While few writers intentionally establish a criterion that relies on racism or sexism, this type of appeal does slip in.
prejudicial
Any reference to past events, even _________ ones, should be verified.
recent
Keep the perspective of the person or organization _________ the site in mind. (As you know, you should always consider the source of information and their agenda.)
running
Furthermore, statistics springing from surveys and questionnaires can be understood only in the historical moment. As evidence, they are limited to...
sentiment on a particular date and time and thus can only support a claim marginally.
Narratives or personal examples also tend to ________ the interests of the person telling them.
serve
People can manipulate statistics to hide obvious points while highlighting less sustainable ones. The ________ of statistics, then, must be considered when using the statistics.
source
Our writing frequently deals with issues that contain much ______________.
uncertainty
If your point falls apart when serious criteria are applied, it probably has less __________ than you initially thought.
value
Some forms of evidence carry more _________ than others.
weight
Following are guidelines about what information to check, how much information to check, and __________ to check the information.
where
Instead of establishing superficial criteria, try one of these two options:
1) Acknowledge the validity of opposing points of view 2) Rethink your thesis.
In college-level writing, do not use a dictionary or an encyclopedia as...
a primary source of a paper that requires research. Instead, use such reference materials to check accuracy and to give you a starting point for more detailed research.
The _________ of a research team, especially of its sponsor or financier, can call into question not just the interpretation of the results, but also the validity of the study itself.
agenda
Critical analysis seems fresh and __________ for the very reason that it does not produce the most popular or obvious points of view.
astute
Novice writers frequently consider themselves to be experts and do not bother to verify the facts. Other times, knowledge that has been passed down, perhaps...
by their families, proves to be incorrect or less broad in application than they anticipated.
Think of criteria as ______________. Each of these is an area needed in order to make a decision or form a thesis. For example, if you were writing about someone who is the best at doing a given activity (e.g., sports), you would make comparisons by which to rank these people.
categories
If you have written a very negative description of counterarguments to your claim or of the people making a counterargument...
check your information carefully. Research the purpose of the opposition, the ways they construct their arguments, consider the logic behind their goals, and the strong points in their claims.
In an essay, being able to __________ more than one person who perceived the same thing aids in the acceptance of your thesis.
cite
The _________ can be disproved, but the facts cannot.
claim
Another tip is to look up ________ that an instructor introduces in class.
concepts
The _________________ fallacy is an argument that does not represent the opposing side in a substantial, truthful way. In writing about opposing arguments, they create a caricature (i.e., very biased portrayal) of the actual evidence and claims. Many audiences consider this unethical.
straw man/straw person
The more a writer relies on weaker forms of evidence, the more his or her (or their) claim has to _______________ a conclusion rather than asserting it.
suggest
Establishing __________ criteria does little except make the writer seem to be avoiding the real issues.
superficial
When compiling evidence, you must examine each piece and understand what type of evidence you need to ___________ your thesis.
support
The terms feminism and sexism are not ______________ but are instead in opposition to each other.
synonymous
Writers who use personal examples have to __________ their thesis statement. Your personal examples can allow you to build a theory and share insights with an audience, but your ideas need to be supported by more than just your experiences to gain validity.
temper
Writers should verify information about...
the beliefs of an institution or person, the history of a person, place, or institution, and the definition of key terms.
Writers use firsthand accounts as evidence. Although ______________ statements rely on subjective observation, making them a weaker type of evidence than facts or statistics, firsthand accounts can verify the initial observation of an event and lend it credibility.
witness
