criminology theories
Merton's typology
groups respond to these demands (1) conformity (2) innovation (3) ritualism (4) retreatism (5) rebellion
Lombroso's theory
"born criminals; compared physical characteristics of Italian prisons to soldiers; the criminal has not evolved as much as law-abiding citizens, so he is defective
rule creators (moral entrepreneurs)
"crusading" reformer try to change rules to better reflect their moral beliefs and values. ex. overthrow legal abortions
symbolic interactionism
(1) argues human actions are best understood in terms of the meanings that those actions have for actors. people first define the meaning of the situation they are in than act toward those situations in ways that make sense within the context of those meanings. (2) each persons self-image is constructed primarily through social interactions with other people; known as the "looking-glass self" (Cooley); self-image is our sense of how they see us and how they interact with us.
relativists (perspective on deviance)
(constructionist approach) deviance varies across cultures; its a social construction; deviance changes over time and space, cu;ture and societies, and int he same culture and society; an act is not deviant until its labelled as such; deviance is usually socially constructed by the ruling class or those in power.
Social determinants of criminal behavior
Guerry and Quetelet were among the first to challenge rational choice theory; they both concludd that sciety not free will was responsible for criminal behavior; Guerry found crime was related to class
moral development
Kohlberg; develops in three phases (1) preconventional morality (2) conventional morality (3) postconventional morality
Informal controls and desistance
Sampson and Laub (2003) argues that convicts who became married, had kids, joined the military, and/or worked full time legitimate jobs desisted from crime; considered "turning points" that bind the individual to society; gives them "social capital" to lose; leads to long-term behavioral change; individuals are less likely to commit crimes if they are more integrated into society and have greater attachments to conventional actors.
outsiders
a person who has accepted their role as a rule-breaker (criminal) and differentiates herself from non-rule breaking people; live OUTSIDE of social norms and laws
hypoglycemia
a condition that occurs when the level of sugar in the blood falls below an acceptable range
social disorganization
a form of community disruption that occurs in the presence of transient and diverse residents; inhibits the formation of social bonds between residents; breaks down informal social control; disrupts community organizations that achieve neighborhood goals and solve community problems.
involvement (Hirschi)
a preoccupation with activities that promote the interests of society; involvement in school related activities (homework) rather than in adult activities (drinking); e.g., after school programs
Park & Burgess-social ecology
about the temporal and spatial relationship of human behaviors in urban contexts that are in process of change an flux; examined area characteristics rather than individuals; catergorizes transitions and regional population shifts in terms of "invasion" and "succession"; divided up the city into 5 concentric zones based upon growth, character, structure and organization
influence assessment of rational choice
alcohol and drugs, peer pressure (being included), emotions (i.e., anger), personal experience.
feminist criminology
an approach that examine linkages between inequality and crime using an intersectional theoretical framework; attends to issues of race, class, gender, sexuality, age, nationality, religion, physical ability, and other locations of inequality as they relate to crime and deviance; started in the early 1970s
Sutherland's differential association theory
an individual becomes delinquent because of the behavioral definitions learned that are favorable to violating the law rather than unfavorable to it. whether people obey or violate the law depends on how they define their situation. clarified this argument to include the frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of association determines how much impact they have on a person.
Durkheim's
anomie is a state of "normalessness"; when old rules/norms no longer apply, typically brought about by sudden social change; anomie is when people's expectations go unfulfilled; he argues it can result in suicide
Shaw and McKay-social disorganization theory
applied the human ecology model to develop social disorganization theory, and understand the spatial distribution of crime; CLAIM: criminals are normal individuals whose crimes are promoted by their environment
labeling theory
argues that criminals arent inherently evil but are labeled as such based on some behavior or action that is deemed by society/those in power as bad.; criminal acts are not significant but the social reaction to these acts is significant; focuses on how and why society applies the label of criminal to certain people and behaviors
Agnew's anomie
argues that failure to achieve material goals is not the only reason for committing crime. criminal behavior may also be related to emotional states (specifically negative emotional states result from social relationships;
Dahrendorf (conflict theory)
argues that social change is the one constant; social conflict that are tied to social changes are ever present; the two are interrelated (social change and social conflict); disintegration and change are ongoing as well; all societies are characterized by coercion of some people by others; BUT conflict can be either destructive or constructive depending on the outcome (destructive when it leads to the break down of broad social structure, constructive in situations where there are positive changes within society
"birds of a feather flock together"
argument against differential association; the fact that people will commonly associate themselves with other who share the same beliefs.
consensus model of law breaking
assumes that member of society largely agree on what is right or wrong ; the law is a mechanism to settle disputes that rise when individuals stray too far from what the community considers acceptable ; society is a stable entity in which laws are created to the general good ; deviant acts are part of the normal functioning of society and are necessary ; it reinforces social norms ; unifies society ; releases social tension without structural change
Lombroso's characteristics of a born criminal
asymmetry of face or head; large monkey-like ears; large lips; receding chin; twisted nose; excessive cheek bones; long arms
attachment (Hirschi)
attachment takes three forms: (1) attachment to parents (2) attachment to school/teachers (3) attachment to peers
belief (Hirschi)
belief consists of assent to the society's value system; the value system on any society entails respect for its laws and for the people and institutions that enforce them.
Albert Cohen
believed that subcultures offer solutions to the working class boy's status problem (his inability to achieve middle-class goals due to class linked handicaps)
zone 1 (Park & Burgess)
central business district
Tarde's law of imitation
claimed criminals were normal people who were raised in environments where they learned crime as a way of life. (1) people imitate one another in proportion to how much close contact they have with one another. (2) the inferior usually imitates the superior. (3) the newer fashion displaces the older ones.
Berger (social control)
claims that the worst form of informal social control is banishment. we are human because of social ties and banishment removes part of one humanity (humanness)
commitment (Hirschi)
commitment to or investment in conventional lines of actions; e.g., vocational aspirations or educational expectations; the greater the aspiration and expectation, the more unlikely delinquency becomes
zone 5 (Park & Burgess)
commuter zone; suburbs
Shaw and McKay's finding
crime rates were differentially distributed throughout the city; areas with HIGHEST crime rate was next to central business district (zone 2); areas with LOWEST crime rate was farthest from business district (zone 5); remained consistent over a 40 year period;
labeling theory of crime (Tannenbaum 1938)
crime that arises through conflict between youths and adults in an urban neighborhood; youth see themselves as playing in street with one another in playgroups; as teenagers, the playgroups become more dangerous, rambunctious and threatening (to social order) which provokes hostility of adults; HARMLESS CHILDS PLAY STARTS TO BE DEFINED AS SOMETHING ELSE; at first the adults define the children but as deviance goes one the adults eventually define youths themselves as bad; the youths then being to identify with these defintions and view themselves as bad; they begin to enact this role; suggests that it starts to predict future behavior
Turk (conflict theory)
criminality is a social status, which is imposed on the subjects who then become the subordinate class (labeling); authorities and subjects learn to interact as performers in their dominant and submissive roles; conflict arises when people refuse to go along and challenge authorities.
social control theories
explanation of criminal behavior that focuses on control mechanisms, techniques, and strategies for regulating human behavior; focuses on how and why individuals obey and conform (rather then why they commit crime); deviance and crime happen when social controls break down or are ineffective, so individuals dont feel compelled to obey.
Modern deterrence theory
deterrence doctrine remains the philosophical foundation for modern western criminal law and criminal justice system. the most common policy reaction to crime problems: increased penalties (ex. three strikes law), more severe sentences, additional to the police force so more arrests can be made, increased certainty of conviction and sentencing
Marxist class conflict theory
discussed the negative effects of the industrial revolution; all aspects of life are determined by economic organization; BOURGEOISIE and PROLETARIAT; society is organized in a hierarchical manner; the owner exploits the labor of the proletariat and get rich by underpaying and overworking them
secondary deviance (Lemert)
due to repeatedly engaging in deviant behavior, and expediting escalating social reactions, you are not labeled as "deviant" (labeled not as you just did a bad thing but that you are now deviant); this affects your self-concept negatively; self-fulfilling prophecy: the self-image fuels subsequent criminal and deviant behavior (likely to think that they cant change or are unwilling to do so.)
absolutists (perspective on deviance)
explanation of deviance is simply that people are good or bad; just kind of who you are and what you do; if someone is bad they commit deviant acts; also called positivistic
Becker's typology of deviance and crime
for different types: conforming behavior: exhibiting no deviant behaviors; law abiding (not labeled) falsely accused: following the rules but accused of deviant behavior (labeled) secret deviant: committing deviant acts but able to hide their actions (not labeled) pure deviant: engaging in deviant behaviors and breaking laws/norms/rules (labeled)
social disorganization theory
emerged out of chicago school; interested in the new social changes [problems] that resulted from vast population shifts in America (rural to urban, immigrants to factory jobs); result of HUMAN ECOLOGY;
rule enforcers (moral entrepreneurs)
enforcer makes sure rules are followed; the enforcer may or may not agree with the rules; they enforce them because this is their occupation; it may be that an enforcer is their master status (judge, police)
(4) retreatism (Merton's typology)
ex. alcohol drug addict, hermit, homeless person; REJECTS goal; REJECTS mean; these people in some ways withdraw from society at large
(5) rebellion (Merton's typology)
ex. anarchist or rebel who wants their own goals accepted; REJECTS goal; REJECTS means; these people are doing it for specific political reasons; they want to bring about a different political structure.
(2) innovation (Merton's typology)
ex. drug dealers, prostitutes; ACCEPT goal; REJECTS mean; they hit blocked opportunities and reject conventional means to attain these goals; do so by deviant or criminal methods
(1) conformity (Merton's typology)
ex. non "deviant" lawyer, doctor, teacher; they are not breaking laws or being deviant; ACCEPT goal; ACCEPT means
(3) ritualism (Merton's typology)
ex. school teacher who no longer cares about students and teaches poorly; REJECTS goals; ACCEPTS means; they still go through the motions; they are still deviant because they are rejecting the broad social goals
psychoanalytic
explanation for delinquency focus on abnormalities or disturbances in the individuals emotional development from early childhood. criminality results from an overactive superego or conscience.
Durkheim
he says there is a purpose of function to crime; very macro perspective; focused on the social structure and institutions; claims that crime is a normal part of society; can be beneficial because it can serve as an illustration of what not to do.
Ferri's theory
he stressed that society needed protection against criminal acts that it was the purpose of criminal law and penal policy to provide that protection. he was interested in controlling crime through preventative measure.
mechanisms of social control
how we encourage one another to conform to social rules: norms, laws, customs, morals, ethics, etiquette
sameness (feminist criminology)
idea that men and women are essentially similar and should be treated equally; the law is not gender neutral but assumes a male standard
deterrence
if there is a punishment that is a little more severe than the crime it will deter people from committing the crime.
conventional morality
individuals approach moral problems as a member of society; start thinking they are apart of a larger group; concerned with upholding normative expectations
Vold (conflict theory)
individuals constantly clash as they try to advance the interests of their particular group over those of all the others
two social controls
informal controls: occur through informal systems; they are enacted via techniques such as: rumors, gossip, shaming, banishing formal controls: legal systems, laws, law enforcement; powerful groups in society; social and economic directives of governmental or private groups;
character (stigmatization)
information is revealed about someone and what that person did; a flaw that is attached to recent or former behavior; can be used as a short hand sign to label a person and stigmatize that person; ex. person who were incarcerated are expected to get jobs, but it is hard to get a job because they are stigmatized due to their past behavior
conflict theorists cycle
laws are created by interests of the few --> these few people shape society's values --> values shape the laws --> and back again
conflict theory
laws do not exist for the collective good but represent the interests of specific groups; laws are based on POWER (and who possesses the power); through such power struggles various interest groups manage to control lawmaking and law enforcement (they also work to keep the powerless down)
Akers- differential reinforcement theory
learning can take place through association and direct interaction with the environment through the principle of operant conditioning; claims criminal behavior is learned both in nonsocial situations and through social interactions.
preconventional morality
the interest s of the individual are considered in terms of rewards and punishments; if stuck in this level you are more likely to commit a crime
low intelligence
most often used to explain criminal and delinquent behavior within the psychological approach; used against other races to show that they were inferior; not really bought into any longer; IQ is a result of the environment rather than genetic factors.
cultural and subcultural theories
particular cultures promote specific ideas that are favorable to law violation; historical roots of violence... (1) exaggerated sense of "honor" among southern gentlemen (2) the institutionalized violence associated with maintaining a part of the population in slavery (3) the defeat by the northerners in the civil war (4) the subsequent economic exploitation of southern states by the north and so on.
post conventional morality
people are guided by moral principles that are seen as broader than those o any particular society
social learning theory
people learn theories or idea that support law violations; assumes ideas and behaviors are learned and support and encourage law violation. focus on the content of what is learned and the processes by which that learning transpires.
classical (aka rational choice theory)
people rationally calculate pleasure and pain (gain or loss) during the exercise of freewill to commit or refrain from crime.
Marx and crime
people who are kept in a state of poverty will rebel by committing crimes
moral entrepreneurs
people whose high social position gives them the power to make and enforce the social rule by which members of society have to live; by erecting and sustaining rules, they set the stage for labels to be applied. 2 types
factors of a social disorganized neighborhood
poverty: high concentration of families in poverty in a certain area population heterogeneity: diverse ethnic, racial and immigrant groups who may not share similar values. residential impermanence: rapid population mobility and transience; people were eager to leave the worse zones so did not view their situation as permanent
severity of punishment (rational choice)
the more severe the punishment the less likely it is to be applied (e.g., death penalty); the less certain the punishment the more severe it must be to deter crime.
Lemerts 2 stage process of labeling
primary deviance and secondary deviance
heterogeneous society
punishment is not used to preserve solidarity but rather to right the wrong done to a victim; what we have now; "justice"; much more about the individual than the society; the victim wants retribution.
cohesive society
punishment of members who deviate reinforces the value system and preserves common beliefs and solidarity (only applies if you are apart of a cohesive society).
conflict model of law making
questioned the system itself; asked whether the laws are really working for all of our interest - they are not
personality
refers to the emotional and behavioral attributes that tend to remain stable as the individual moves from situation to situation.
certainty of punishment (rational choice)
refers to the probability of apprehension and punishment for a crime (how likely you are to be caught and punished). helps to deter crime
celerity of punishment (rational choice)
refers to the swiftness that criminal sanctions are applied after crimes are committed. helps to deter crime.
rational choice
the oldest criminological perspective; depicts crime as the calculated choice of individuals who weigh crimes benefits against its costs in the headlong pursuit of their self-interest; individuals choose to obey or violate the law by a rational calculation of the risk of pain vs. potential pleasure derived from an act.
zone 4 (Park & Burgess)
residential zone; single family homes-yard/garages
stigma
signs that expose something about a person and imply deviance; likely to treat you differently; three ways people become stigmatized: body, character, tribal
anomie or strain theory
social strain causes crime and deviance (Durkheim, Merton, and Agnew)
attachment theory
the strength of emotional bond between individuals; occurs in childhood and is pretty much set for life; a child must experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with a MOTHER in order to form a secure attachment.
ecology
the study of plants and animals in relationship to each other and to their natural habitat
non-economic (Agnew's anomie)
stress or strain caused by removal of positively valued stimuli. People trying to seek revenge or escape their feelings through drug use and other things (ex. your partner cheats on you so you kill them); stress or strain caused by the presentation of negative stimuli (ex. and abusive step parent)
broken window theory
suppress minor crimes to stop bigger crimes in areas
environmental criminology
takes into account the location and context in which crimes occur (the environment will influence how you assess); examines how physical location in time and space interacts with the offender, the target, victim and the law; examine crime patterns through mapping.
Code of the streets
there are 2 types: (1) decent people: live according to a civil code that includes many middle-class values; this code has no value on the street; however even decent people can code-switch if necessary (can emulate violence by street people) (2) street people: reject the middle class civil code. create different norms and behaviors that fit their experience better; always signal you can take care of yourself; especially in physical ways; cultural adaptation of inner-city residents.
Hirschi's bond theory
there are 4 social bonds that promote socialization and conformity: (1) attachment (2) commitment (3) involvement (4) belief
institutional anomie
they argue that the cultural emphasis on monetary success stresses that the economy pervades and dominates every other institution (school, family, religion) in America. younger institutions care less than the older generations; the dominance of the economy interferes with the proper functioning of other institutions (need to acquire money); ***the theory argues that if these other institutions were still equally prominent to material success the U.S. would not have such a high crime rate.
Durkheim's anomic suicide
this kind of suicide is related to too low of a degree of (social) regulation; occurs during times of great stress or change; w/o regulation a person cannot set reachable goals and in turn people get extremely frustrated; life becomes meaningless to them; macro level of society
proletariat (Marx)
those who labor for the bourgeoisie (they were denied a lot of rights and were taken advantage of)
bourgeoisie (Marx)
those who own the means of production (own factories, machinery)
Richard Cloward and Lloydd Ohlin
three specific types of subculture: (1) criminal subcultures: populated by boys growing up in areas with well-organized adult criminal groups (2) conflict subcultures: populated by disadvantaged youth growing up in disorganized slum areas that offered not stable adult role models (3) retreatist subcultures: populated by "double failure" youngsters who unable to achieve goals through organized criminal groups or conflict subcultures retreated into drug use.
Merton's strain theory
to specifically account for the cases of deviance and crime; anomie is not caused by sudden social change; anomie is when you hit socially structured barriers to your goal attainment "blocked opportunity"; people cope with anomie by accepting the means or the goals or rejecting them.
zone 2 (Park & Burgess)
transitional zones; recent immigrant groups; deteriorated housing; factories; abandoned buildings
body (stigmatization)
what their body looks like; ex. someone with a disability being treated as a second class citizen
tribal (stigmatization)
who you associate with; ex. ethnicity, religious group, gang members, etc.; "normals" those who do not possess the stigma
zone 3 (Park & Burgess)
working class zone; single family tenements
primary deviance (Lemert)
you commit a deviant act and get a social response (ex. shoplifting); they have to be caught or seen doing the act; this dos not affect the person's self-concept because they are not labeled yet.
