Critical Thinking

In which argument do premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3)? - (1) Broccoli is high in important nutrients like vitamin C. (2) Broccoli also has antioxidants that prevent cell damage. (3) I told you that broccoli was healthy! - (1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation. - (1) The Titanic famously capsized in 1912, even though people thought it was very safe. (2) There have been high-profile passenger plane crashes around the world. (3) Clearly traveling is not without some risk. - (1) The new candidate has significant experience in the field. (2) Furthermore, they were recommended by someone I trust. (3) I think we should hire them.

(1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation. The two premises rely on each other to provide support for the conclusion, so this is conjoint support.

Which argument would require a conjoint, hidden assumption to be paired with premise (1) when mapped? -(1) We can either eat out at a restaurant or stay in. (2) We should not stay in. (3) So we should go out to a restaurant. -(1) If it had rained last night, the sidewalk would still be wet. (2) But the sidewalk is dry. (3) So it must not have rained last night. -(1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A. -(1) If we want to support a reasonable tax plan, we should vote for Candidate A. (2) We do want to support a reasonable tax plan. (3) So we should vote for Candidate A.

(1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A. The hidden assumption "we should watch the funniest movie" is required to support the conclusion (2).

Which statement correctly identifies the subpremise, the main premise, and the main conclusion in the following argument? (1)The elementary school should run more earthquake drills next year. (2) We have reason to believe that the likelihood of an earthquake is increasing because (3) a federal report released last year said that our area's earthquake danger is on the rise. -1 is the main premise, 2 is the subpremise, and 3 is the main conclusion. -1 is the main premise, 2 is the main conclusion, and 3 is the subpremise. -1 is the main conclusion, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the subpremise. -1 is the subpremise, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the main conclusion.

(1) is the main conclusion, and it is supported by (2), which is in turn supported by (3).

Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? -I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter. -I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem. -Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased. -While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is right.

- I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter. - I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem.

Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers. -Hey, let's go to lunch at noon today. -Mangino's has the best pizza. -They will likely put the other restaurants out of business. -Do you like Mangino's pizza?

- Mangino's has the best pizza. - They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.

If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald. Which type of logic error is this an example of? -Begging the question -The fallacy fallacy -Denying the antecedent -Affirming the consequent

-Affirming the consequent

All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly. Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers. -Deductive -Valid -True -Sound

-Deductive -Valid

If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave. Which type of logic error is this an example of? -Affirming the consequent -Denying the antecedent -Begging the question -The fallacy fallacy

-Denying the antecedent

An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall. Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers. -Deductive -Valid -Strong -Cogent

-Strong -Cogent

Section 4: Lesson 1 summary: Just Review

-The ad hominem fallacy is committed when one attacks the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. -The genetic fallacy is committed when one argues that the origin of an idea is a reason for rejecting (or accepting) that idea. -The straw figure fallacy is committed when one misrepresents another's argument then attacks the misrepresented (weaker) argument rather than the actual (stronger) argument. -The red herring fallacy is committed when one introduces an irrelevant topic. -The appeal to authority fallacy is committed when one appeals to an unqualified authority in support of one's claim. -The appeal to force fallacy is committed when one uses a threat to compel agreement with one's claim. -The appeal to popularity fallacy is committed when one appeals to the popularity of a belief as a reason to affirm its truth. -The appeal to consequences fallacy is committed when one appeals to the bad (or good) consequences of accepting a claim as a reason to reject (or accept) it as true. -The fallacy of equivocation is committed when one's argument mistakenly uses the same word in two different senses.

Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research. Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers. -Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion -The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive -The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars - Banks should help fund industry research

-The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars - Banks should help fund industry research

Jordan says, "I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car." Taylor, Jordan's best friend, totally agrees. Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan's comments? Choose two answers. -Weak argument -Proposition -Inference -Strong argument

-Weak argument -Inference

Which are propositions? Choose 2 -What should we do today? -I sentence you to life in prison -2+2=5 -Let's take a break -My next shift is a double -Pass me the pepper

2+2=5, My next shift is a double

Sub-conclusion:

A conclusion in a sub-inference

Informal Fallacies

A fallacy that can be detected only through analysis of the content of an argument

Reese's partner was unfaithful, and this led to the end of their relationship; Reese has decided to avoid relationships because people cannot be trusted. Which fallacy of weak induction is exemplified in this argument? -Slippery slope -Hasty generalization -Equivocation -Appeal to ignorance

A hasty generalization occurs when one generalizes about a group of people or things or events, but one does so too quickly and without enough evidence or with too small of a sample.

Which statement is the burden of proof fallacy? -A mother tells her child it is time to go to bed, and when the child asks why, the mother responds, "Because I said so." - Proponents of sex education want to give kids license to have sex with no consequences. -A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot's existence, the hiker replies, 'prove Big Foot is not real. - "Since you have not been able to prove you did not steal the bicycle, I will assume you are guilty."

A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot's existence, the hiker replies, 'prove Big Foot is not real.A burden of proof fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when one attempts to shift the burden of proof to someone else.

Sub-premise:

A premise in a sub-inference

Non-Propositions

A sentence that cannot be true or false. (i.e. Let's go get lunch!, Give me the document, which way is east?, I name this ship the "Jolly Roger".)

Since I received high marks in the course, I conclude that Professor Murdock is a good teacher. What is the unstated assumption in this argument? -Students like and respect Mrs. Murdock. -Mrs. Murdock's class is lacking in educational rigor. -Students who do homework and study for exams get good grades. -A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.

A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades. This argument makes a cause-effect assumption linking good teaching techniques with high grades.

Casey is a vegetarian who enjoys plant-based foods that taste like real meat. However, Casey will not eat vegetarian products if they look like meat. Even though he knows they do not contain animal protein and would taste good, Casey is disgusted by their meat-like appearance. What cognitive bias explains why Casey is disgusted by vegetarian foods that look like meat? -Alief -Anchoring -Confirmation Bias -Representativeness

Alief Casey has an instinctive belief-like attitude toward things that look like meat that conflicts with his reasoned-out beliefs.

Sub-inference:

An inference from a premise to another premise

Arguments

An inference from at least one premise to a conclusion

Which of the following is the most pertinent question to ask when trying to identify the fallacy of begging the question? -Are the premises known to be true? -Is the argument relevant to the topic of the debate? -Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument? -Is the conclusion known to be true?

Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?The question-begging fallacy occurs when a person supports a conclusion with a premise that is identical to the conclusion. As such, the conclusion is not supported, but merely assumed to be true. Therefore, it is relevant to ask this question to identify the question-begging fallacy.

Which indicator is a premise indicator? -Hence -Because -Thus -Therefore

Because

It is wrong to cheat on a test, since cheating on a test is morally bad. Which type of logic error is this an example of? -Affirming the consequent -Denying the antecedent -Begging the question -The fallacy fallacy

Begging the question

Critical thinkers are constantly alert for possible biases in their own thinking. When the potential for bias is present, which two actions may strong critical thinkers take to help minimize bias in their thinking? Choose 2 answers. -Employ heuristics for decision-making -Look for consensus on social media -Broaden their sources of information -Slow their thought process

Broadening information sources can help minimize the natural tendency to rely on the first information encountered in a given situation (anchoring). Deliberately slowing one's thought process and employing a more analytical, reflective approach may help minimize the natural tendency to jump to conclusions using heuristics, or mental general rules, that may or may not apply to particular situations.

Which action can simply be taken in many instances to gain a clearer, more accurate understanding of a situation? -Checking social media -Affirming the consequent - Narrowing the topic -Broadening our perspective

Broadening our perspective- Looking at a situation in isolation, sometimes called "narrow framing," can lead to poor decision-making.

Which statement is a simple proposition? -Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car. -I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work. -I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk. -By noon, the sun was shining.

By noon, the sun was shining.

hypothetical statemnt

Complex proposition: if X, then Y. (If I have the flu, then I am sick)

An individual does not believe the moon landing ever occurred. She claims there are plenty of internet postings that agree with this idea, and while photos, documentation, witness accounts, and physical evidence of a moon landing may exist, these are all things that can easily be manufactured by the government, which cannot be trusted. Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate? -Anchoring and adjustment -Confirmation bias -Denying the antecedent -Representativeness

Confirmation bias (Confirmation bias refers to the natural tendency to minimize or ignore evidence contrary to one's beliefs, while seeking out and relying on evidence that supports one's beliefs.)

Which error may the principle of charity help minimize? -Representativeness -Confirmation bias -Denying the antecedent -Anchoring and adjustment

Confirmation bias Confirmation bias refers to the natural tendency to minimize or ignore evidence contrary to one's beliefs, while seeking out and relying on evidence that supports one's beliefs.

Which two statements are true with respect to heuristics? Choose 2 answers. -They are problematic because they represent formal logic fallacies. -They are problematic because they can lead to cognitive biases. -They are helpful because they enable fast, efficient decisions. -They are problematic because they lack validity.

Correct. Heuristics, mental shortcuts or general rules, often lead to cognitive biases, which represent errors in perception and thinking resulting from an individual's subjective interpretation of reality. Correct. Heuristics, mental shortcuts or general rules, allow us to make quick decisions when we lack the time, resources, or motivation to conduct a more objective, thorough examination of relevant evidence.

All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example? -Deductive -Invalid -Inductive -Abductive

Deductive (Deductive arguments are mathematical arguments such as proofs, logical arguments, arguments from definition, and so forth. If the premises are true and the argumentative structure is good, then the conclusion must be true.)

Main Conclusion:

Final conclusion of the argument

Affirming the Consequent

I I have the flu, then I am sick I am sick, Therefore I have the flu INVALID

Lesson 6 Summary : Review

Identify missing assumptions. Use the principle of charity to fill in the premise(s) that best support an argument's conclusion. Incorporate missing assumptions into argument maps. Identifying missing assumptions is an inherently evaluative process. A good argument has a series of topics or terms that are linked together in the right way. In reconstructing an argument and identifying what hidden premise it rests on, we set ourselves up to evaluate whether it is a good argument. We can evaluate general principles by seeing if we can come up with counterexamples.

Modus Tollens

If I have the flu, then I am sick I am not sick Therefore, I do not have the flu VALID

Denying the Antecedent

If I have the flu, then I am sick I do not have the flu, therefore, I am not sick. INVALID

Modus Ponens

If I have the flu, then I am sick I have the flu, therefore I am sick. VALID

Affirming the consequent (code)

If X, Then Y Y, therefore, X.

Denying the antecedent (code)

If X, then Y Not X, therefore, not Y.

"That restaurant served me a great lasagna. Therefore, they will probably serve a good hamburger." Identify the hidden assumption that would best complete this argument. -If a restaurant makes one dish well, they are likely to make other dishes well -The restaurant makes good hamburgers. -The chefs at the restaurant are world-class experts in all forms of cooking. -I am hungry.

If a restaurant makes one dish well, they are likely to make other dishes well. This assumption and the stated premise together provide conjoint support for the conclusion.

Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument. (1) Over 70% of residents say that traffic congestion is a major problem in our city. (2) The research group that conducted that survey has a great track record, by the way. (3) And other nearby cities that have invested in transportation have seen significant economic benefits. (4) This all shows that it would be a good idea for our city to invest in transportation. -Other nearby cities spent significant sums to build subway systems. -Residents' levels of concern regarding transportation are higher than their concern regarding education, public safety, or public recreation. -If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to benefit as well. -The research group has a perfect track record on surveys regarding economic issues in particular.

If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to benefit as well. In order for premise (3) to support conclusion (4), it is necessary to assume that the nearby cities' situations are analogous to the speaker's.

"Al will certainly pass his calculus class. After all, he did well in his algebra class." Identify the hidden assumption that would best complete this argument. -Al will pass his calculus class. -Al did well in his algebra class. -Calculus classes teach the exact same material as algebra classes. -If someone does well in algebra, then they will do well in calculus.

If someone does well in algebra, then they will do well in calculus.This assumption and the stated premise together provide conjoint support for the conclusion.

We should buy an electric car. Granted, they are more expensive up front than gas cars, but we have the money, and we will save on gas in the long run. Additionally, electric cars are better for the environment. And they are becoming more stylish! Which is a hidden assumption of the given argument? -If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it. -Gas cars will continue to become cheaper in the future as they lose popularity. -Electric cars' batteries do not have any negative consequences for the environment. -We do not have enough money for an electric car because we spent all our money on a vacation this year.

If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it. To make the inference from "they are better for the environment" to "we should buy one," they must assume that being better for the environment is a reason to buy something.

Suppose that Smith asserts a claim that could be true but seems implausible. Jones recognizes this point and asks Smith to provide evidence for his claim. Smith responds: "Why don't you try to disprove my claim?" Which fallacy is found in this argument? -The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof -The fallacy of oversimplification -The fallacy of selective attention -The red herring fallacy

If the person tries to avoid the responsibility of shouldering the burden of proof by shifting that burden onto someone else, then the person is shirking an intellectual duty.

Strong Argument

If the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true

Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example? -Valid -Sound -Inductive -Deductive

Inductive (Inductive arguments are arguments from analogy, arguments from qualified authority, causal inferences, scientific hypothetical reasoning, extrapolations from samples, and so on. Even if the argumentative structure is great, the truth of the premises only makes the conclusion probably true at best.)

Elliott notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media postings, and other information she sees on the internet support her view on a particular issue. Based on this information, what can Elliott reasonably conclude with respect to their view on the issue? -Most people likely agree with Elliott's view. -Elliott's view is most likely incorrect. - Elliott's view is most likely correct. -Algorithms may be linking Elliott with like-minded information.

Internet algorithms often create information "bubbles" that artificially reinforce and amplify one's personal subjective impressions of the world, regardless of the objective legitimacy of such impressions; thus, Elliott cannot reach any of the listed conclusions from such sources alone.

Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument. (1) We really should be giving more foreign aid to developing nations. (2) It is desirable for the people of the world to have a more equal access to resources, and (3) our nation has more resources than developing nations do. (4) Foreign aid will help give them more equal access to resources. Additionally, (5) there will be more international trade in the future once those nations are further developed, and (6) foreign aid will help them further develop. - In the past, international trade was not necessarily beneficial to developed nations. -We should give more foreign aid to developing nations. -Generosity is a virtue. -It would be a good thing to increase international trade.

It would be a good thing to increase international trade. Premises (5) and (6) together show that foreign aid will increase trade, but the assumption that trade is good is necessary to conclude (1).

To understand how people in a county feel about a proposed increase in property taxes, a person walks door-to-door in his neighborhood, asking people to complete a survey. Which two statements are true with regard to this statistical sample? Choose 2 answers. -Not good because it lacks validity -Good because it is sound -Not good because it is not representative -Not good because it is not random

Not good because it is not representative An appropriate sample must be both random and representative. The sample is not representative of the population of the county because it focuses on only one neighborhood. Not good because it is not randomAn appropriate sample must be both random and representative. The sample is not a random sample of county residents because it focuses on only one neighborhood.

An anonymous survey is conducted to determine what percentage of the population of married couples lies to their spouse, so the following survey question is formulated: "I don't lie to my spouse because that would be wrong," and participants are asked to select "true" or "false." Which statement is true with respect to this study question? -Not good, because the question may lead participants to answer in a certain way. -Not good, because it fails to consider the participant's motives. -Good, because it addresses the central issue in the study. -Good, because the study is anonymous.

Not good, because the question may lead participants to answer in a certain way. - The question should be worded neutrally, perhaps by dropping the reference to wrongdoing, to minimize the risk that respondents will offer the answer they believe to be the most socially acceptable, even in an anonymous study.

Quinn started eating donuts for breakfast every day. Consequently, Quinn is likely to gain weight. Which missing premise best completes the above argument? -Donuts are not healthy. -Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain. -Breakfast is the most important meal of the day. -When I started eating donuts for breakfast, I gained five pounds by the third day.

Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain. This is a general claim that applies to anyone who eats donuts, including Quinn, and forms a good, complete argument by properly linking together eating donuts with gaining weight.

Main Premise:

One among the set of premises that directly support the main conclusion

Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option. Argument: (1) If the dog is itching and scratching, then the dog has fleas. (2) The dog is itching and scratching, (3) So the dog has fleas. Which argument map accurately represents the given argument? -Option A -Option B -Option C -Option D

Option A. Premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3).

Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option. Argument: (1) Unless it is not supposed to rain today, we should carry an umbrella. (2) But it is supposed to rain today. (3) Consequently, we should carry an umbrella. Which argument map accurately represents the given argument? -Option A -Option B -Option C -Option D

Option A. Premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3).

Argument: (1) We have a long way to drive, and (2) the traffic is bad today. (3) So we will have to leave early. Which argument map accurately represents the given argument? -Option A -Option B -Option C -Option D

Option B. Premises (1) and (2) provide independent support for conclusion (3).

Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option. Argument: (1) We are all very hungry, and (2) it is lunch time. (3) So we should get some food. Which argument map accurately represents the given argument? -Option A -Option B -Option C -Option D

Option B. Premises (1) and (2) provide independent support for conclusion (3).

Review the argument mapping and identify the correct option. Argument: (1) The statistics from the last game show that Shiloh scored most goals. (2) so Shiloh did score the most goals, and (3) the player who scored the most goals is the most valuable player. (4) Thus, Shilo is the most valuable player. Which argument map accurately represents the given argument? -Option A -Option B -Option C -Option D

Option C.Premise (1) provides reason to believe premise (2), and then premises (2) and (3) provide conjoint support for the conclusion (4).

Which two statements depict the fallacy of presumption called begging the question? Choose 2 answers. -The universe could not have been created from nothing, so it must have been created by the big bang. -People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty also has humility. -Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior. -Washington DC is the capital city of the United States of America. correct

People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty also has humility. Begging the question occurs when one (either explicitly or implicitly) assumes the truth of the conclusion in one or more of the premises. Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior. Begging the question is a kind of circular reasoning. In essence, the premise and the conclusion are the same, only worded differently.

A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has never served in the military. Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter's argument? -Pointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed -Pointing out the reporter's well-known reputation for taking faulty positions -Pointing out the reporter's affiliation with news networks that are known to have a political slant to their coverage -Pointing out that the reporter has never served in the military

Pointing out a flawed premise would undermine the soundness or cogency of an argument.

Inductive Arguments

Premises are meant to give probable support to the conclusion.

Deductive Arguments

Premises are meant to guarantee the truth of the conclusion

People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time. Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence? -Proposition -Inference -Weak argument -Strong argument

Proposition

There is a conversation in which a woman expresses disappointment with her friend for not picking her up at the airport. In response, the friend says, "Well, you never returned the wheelbarrow I let you borrow." Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance? -Red herring -False cause -Genetic fallacy -Straw figure

Red herring is a logical fallacy that occurs when someone deliberately tries to derail the discussion from the relevant issue to a different one.

A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage people to drive fast. Which concept does this conclusion illustrate? -The principle of charity -Anchoring -Selection bias -Representativeness

Selection bias occurs when the sample from which it is generalized is not representative of the general population. In the example given, it is possible that people who tend to drive fast also tend to purchase red cars.

In a political science debate, Student A says she supports raising the national minimum wage to $15 an hour. Student B disagrees with Student A's position. Which response from Student B is a red herring fallacy? -Student B stating her concern about international policy -Student B stating the $15 rate would not help to lift poor families above the poverty line -Student B stating businesses cannot offset the hourly wage increase by raising the cost of goods and services -Student B stating Student A does not have a background in economics

Student B stating her concern about international policy A red herring fallacy is a fallacy of relevance because the arguer is attacking an irrelevant argument. The argument here is relevant to the topic.

Lesson 2 Summary: Review

Take a moment to reflect on what you have learned (10 minutes): -The appeal to ignorance fallacy is committed when someone reasons from our lack of knowledge that a claim is false (or true) to the assertion the claim is true (or false). -The slippery slope fallacy is committed when someone argues, without sufficient reason, one event will lead to a series of events ultimately ending in some further (usually disastrous) event. -The Texas Sharpshooter fallacy is committed when one selectively uses, or "cherry-picks," only the evidence supporting their desired conclusion. -The post hoc fallacy is committed when someone claims some event causes another just because the first event (the alleged cause) occurs before the second event (the alleged effect). -The hasty generalization fallacy is committed when someone generalizes too quickly about a group of people, things, or events.

Which is the most plausible counterexample to the general moral principle that one should never lie? -Telling a lie to save innocent lives -Telling a lie to get out of trouble -Telling a lie to avoid paying income tax -Telling a lie to land a dream job

Telling a lie to save innocent lives It is plausible that it is morally permissible to lie when doing so is necessary for saving innocent lives.

Aircraft and ships have gone missing all over the planet under unknown circumstances, but a number of these disappearances have occurred in an area of the North Atlantic Ocean known as the Bermuda Triangle. So the claim that the Bermuda Triangle is haunted must be true. Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument? -Burden of proof shifting -Slippery slope -Appeal to ignorance -Texas sharpshooter

The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy that is committed when similarities in data are overemphasized.

"If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not have any school spirit." Which two statements accurately describe this argument? Choose 2 answers. -The argument includes a false dichotomy. -The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise. -The argument contains black-and-white thinking. -The argument mistakes causation for correlation.

The argument includes a false dichotomy.A false dichotomy falsely assumes that there are only two options in the given situation. The argument contains black-and-white thinking.The argument assumes that either someone roots for the team at the game or they have no school spirit.

A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views. Which bias does this reasoning reflect? -Availability bias -Anchoring and adjustment bias -Confirmation bias -Representativeness bias

The bias of representativeness occurs when one is experiencing a new situation and responds by applying the closest mental prototype in one's experience to interpret the new situation.

Which two errors represent cognitive biases? Choose 2 answers. -Representativeness -Cogency -Validity -Availability

The bias of representativeness occurs when one is experiencing a new situation and responds by applying the closest mental prototype in one's experience to interpret the new situation. The bias of availability occurs when one interprets a new situation using information readily available without considering additional information or evidence that may affect the situation.

My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth is round. This is an example of which type of logic error? -Denying the antecedent -Affirming the consequent -Begging the question -The fallacy fallacy

The fallacy fallacy

Consider the following argument: A pen is a writing utensil. Sometimes, animals are kept in a pen. Thus, sometimes, animals are kept in a writing utensil. What fallacy is found in this argument? -The fallacy of equivocation -The fallacy of begging the question -The fallacy of sweeping generalization -The appeal to popularity fallacy

The fallacy of equivocationThis fallacy occurs when a term is used in more than one sense in an argument. In other words, the fallacy involves ambiguity.

Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit? -The fallacy of appeal to emotion -The fallacy of wishful thinking -The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc -The false dilemma fallacy

The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc This fallacy occurs when one confuses proximity in time with causation.

Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this: Either p is true or q is true. Q is not true. Therefore, p is true. However, there is a third option, r. Which of the following fallacies is present in this argument? -The fallacy of cherry-picking the evidence -The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof -The fallacy of circular reasoning -The false dilemma fallacy

The false dilemma fallacy - This fallacy occurs when a person assumes that only two options are available for consideration, when in fact there are more than two. It is important to note that the argument in the example is not fallacious if premises (1) and (2) are in fact true.

Which of the following is a fallacy of relevance? - The fallacy of hasty generalization -The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof -The fallacy of anthropomorphism - The genetic fallacy

The genetic fallacy is a fallacy of relevance because it involves the mistake of drawing a conclusion based on information that is not relevant to the conclusion.

"A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is obviously false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry." Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example? -Post hoc ergo propter hoc -Appeal to popularity -Begging the question -Genetic fallacy

The genetic fallacy occurs when an arguer critiques the origin of a claim or argument rather than the claim or argument itself.

Politician A proposes new tax cuts for large corporations. Initially Politician B opposes these tax cuts. However, instead of quickly dismissing the proposal as a mere favor to powerful interests, Politician B first considers the strongest available evidence for the argument that Politician A's proposal could create new jobs and stimulate the economy. Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate? -Confirmation bias -The principle of charity -Availability -Heuristics

The principle of charity (The passage illustrates the principle of charity, which holds that one should interpret opponents' arguments in the strongest, most favorable light to best understand and address issues.)

Complex Propositions

Their truth depends on the truth of their parts and their internal logic. (i.e. the symptoms are caused by flu or stress, she has brown eyes and brown hair, if there is smoke then there is fire.)

What fallacy occurs when a person reasons that one event is likely to lead to another event due to a chain of intermediary events, even though the probability of that entire chain being realized is low? -The slippery slope fallacy -The fallacy of ad hominem -The fallacy of avoiding the issue -The bandwagon fallacy

This is a description of the slippery slope fallacy.

Lesson 4: Review

Use argument maps to analyze an argument's structure. Distinguish between the conclusion of an argument and its premises. Distinguish between premises that support a conclusion independently and premises that jointly support a conclusion. Identify the layers of an argument, including sub-premises and sub-conclusions (if present).

Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. Which statement is the conclusion of the argument? -German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. -Dogs are bred for many different purposes. -You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. -It is important to select the right breed for your needs.

You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.

Conclusion

a statement supported by an argument's premises

Premise

a statement supporting an argument's conclusion

Cogent Argument

a strong argument with true premises

fallacy

a type of bad argument

sound argument

a valid argument with true premises

Formal fallacies

arguments with weaknesses or mistakes in form "form" or logical structure

Everyone should vote ___________________. Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence? -because it is their duty -for the most honest candidate -in their assigned district -before the deadline

because it is their duty

Premise Indicators

because, for, given that, since, as

Valid Argument

if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true

antecedent

if x, then y (if I have the flu, then I am sick) X (I have the flu)

consequent

if x, then y (if I have the flu, then I am sick) Y (I am sick)

PROPOSITIONS

sentences that can be true or false (i.e. the flu is caused by a virus, all doctors are excellent, the hospital is on 2nd ave, 1+1=2)

The Fallacy Fallacy

the argument that the earth is a sphere because it is ball-shaped begs the questions. So, we should reject her conclusion and affirm that the earth is flat. concluding someone else's fallacy must be false.

Begging the question

the earth is a sphere because it is ball-shaped (premise -earth is ball-shaped - means the same thing as the conclusion - earth is sphere-)

Conclusion Indicators

therefore, so, it follows that, as a result, thus