CRJU 151 Ch. 1-4 test The Core by Siegel 5th Ed.

Consensus view

•The law defines crime. •agreement exists on outlawed behavior. •Laws apply to all citizens equally. 17

Conflict view

•The law is a tool of the ruling class. •Crime is a politically defined concept. •"Real crimes" such as racism, sexism, and classism are not outlawed. •The law is used to control the underclass. 17

Biosocial Theory - Evolutionary

•The major premise of the theory is that as the human race evolved, traits and characteristics became ingrained. Some of these traits make people aggressive and predisposed to commit crime. •The strengths of the theory include its explanation of high violence rates and aggregate gender differences in the crime rate. •The research focuses of the theory are gender differences and understanding human aggression. 118

Biosocial Theory - Biochemical

•The major premise of the theory is that crime, especially violence, is a function of diet, vitamin intake, hormonal imbalance, or food allergies. •The strengths of the theory are that it explains irrational violence and shows how the environment interacts with personal traits to influence behavior. •The research focuses of the theory are diet, hormones, enzymes, environmental contaminants, and lead intake. 118

Biosocial Theory - Genetic

•The major premise of the theory is that criminal traits and predispositions are inherited. The criminality of parents can predict the delinquency of children. •The strengths of the theory include the fact that it explains why only a small percentage of youths in high-crime areas become chronic offenders. •The research focuses of the theory are twin behavior, sibling behavior, and parent-child similarities. 118

Biosocial Theory - Neurological

•The major premise of the theory is that criminals and delinquents often suffer brain impairment. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and minimal brain dysfunction are related to antisocial behavior. •The strengths of the theory are that it explains irrational violence and shows how the environment interacts with personal traits to influence behavior. •The research focuses of the theory are CD, ADHD, learning disabilities, brain injuries, and brain chemistry. 118

John Bowlby

ATTACHMenT THeORy According to psychologist John Bowlby's attachment theory, the ability to form an emotional bond to another person has important psychological implications that follow people across the life span. 83 Attachments are formed soon after birth, when infants bond with their mothers. Babies will become frantic, crying and clinging, to prevent separation or to reestablish contact with a missing parent. Attachment figures, especially the mother, must provide support and care, and without attachment an infant would be helpless and could not survive. Failure to develop proper attachment may cause people to fall prey to a number of psychological disorders, some of which resemble attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Such individuals may be impulsive and have difficulty concentrating—and consequently experience difficulty in school. As adults, they often have difficulty initiating and sustaining relationships with others and find it difficult to sustain romantic relationships. Criminologists have linked people who have detachment problems with a variety of antisocial behaviors, including sexual assault and child abuse. 84 It has been suggested that boys disproportionately experience disrupted attachment and that these disruptions are causally related to disproportionate rates of male offending. 119

Cesare Beccaria

Classical Criminology By the mid-eighteenth century, social philosophers began to argue for a more rational approach to punishment. Reformers stressed that the relationship between crime and punishment should be balanced and fair. This more moderate view of criminal sanctions can be traced to the writings of an Italian scholar, Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), who was one of the first scholars to develop a systematic understanding of why people commit crime. Beccaria believed that in choosing their behavior people act in their own selfinterest: they want to achieve pleasure and avoid pain. People will commit crime when the potential pleasure and reward they believe they can achieve from illegal acts outweigh the threat of future punishment. To deter crime, punishment must be sufficient—no more, no less—to counterbalance the lure of criminal gain. If it were too lenient, people would risk committing crimes; too severe a punishment would be unfair and encourage crimes. For example, if rape were punished by death, criminals might be encouraged to kill their victims to prevent identification; after all, they would have nothing to lose if both rape and murder were punished equally. Beccaria's famous theorem was that in order for punishment to be effective it must be public, prompt, necessary, the least possible in the given circumstances, proportionate, and dictated by law. 14 The writings of Beccaria and his followers form the core of what today is referred to as classical criminology. As originally conceived in the eighteenth century, classical criminology theory had several basic elements: •People have free will to choose criminal or lawful solutions to meet their needs or settle their problems. •Crime is attractive when it promises great benefits with little effort. •Crime may be controlled by the fear of punishment. •Punishment that is (or is perceived to be) severe, certain, and swift will deter criminal behavior. This classical perspective influenced judicial philosophy, and sentences were geared to be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. Executions were still widely used but gradually came to be employed for only the most serious crimes. The catchphrase was "Let the punishment fit the crime." 9 As you may recall from Chapter 1, rational choice theory has its roots in the classical criminology developed by the Italian social thinker Cesare Beccaria, whose utilitarian approach powerfully influenced the criminal justice system and was widely accepted throughout Europe and the United States. 2 Although the classical approach was influential for more than 100 years, by the end of the nineteenth century its popularity had begun to decline. During this period, positivist criminologists focused on internal and external factors—poverty, IQ, education—rather than personal choice and decision making. 84

Karl Marx

Conflict Criminology In his Communist Manifesto and other writings, Karl Marx (1818-1883) described the oppressive labor conditions prevalent during the rise of industrial capitalism. Marx was convinced that the character of every civilization is determined by its mode of production—the way its people develop and produce material goods. The most important relationship in industrial culture is between the owners of the means of production (the capitalist bourgeoisie) and the people who perform the labor (the proletariat). The economic system controls all facets of human life; consequently, people's lives revolve around the means of production. The exploitation of the working class, Marx believed, would eventually lead to class conflict and the end of the capitalist system. 22 These writings laid the foundation for conflict theory, the view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that crime is a product of human conflict. However, it was not until the social and political upheaval of the 1960s—fueled by the Vietnam War, the development of an antiestablishment counterculture movement, the civil rights movement, and the women's movement—that criminologists began to analyze the social conditions in the United States that promoted class conflict and crime. What emerged from this intellectual ferment was a critical criminology that indicted the economic system as producing the conditions that support a high crime rate. Critical criminologists have played a significant role in the field ever since. 12

J.K. Lavater

EArLy CrIMInOLOGICAL POSITIVISM The earliest "scientific" studies examining human behavior now seem quaint and primitive. Physiognomists, such as J. K. Lavater (1741-1801), studied the facial features of criminals and found that the shape of the ears, nose, and eyes and the distances between them were associated with antisocial behavior. 10

Criminological Enterprise - Criminal behavior systems

Determining the nature and cause of specific crime patterns. Studying violence, theft, organized crime, white-collar crime, and public order crimes. 9

Criminological Enterprise - Sociology of law/law and society/sociolegal studies

Determining the origin of law. measuring the forces that can change laws and society. 9

Structural perspective

Ecological forces. Crime rates are a function of neighborhood conditions, cultural forces, and norm conflict. 13

Edmund O. Wilson

Development of Trait Theory The view that criminals have physical or mental traits that make them different and abnormal is not restricted to movie plots but began with the Italian physician and criminologist Cesare Lombroso and his contemporaries who conducted the first "scientific" studies of crime. Today their efforts are regarded as historical curiosities, not scientific fact. The research methodology they used was slipshod, and many of the traits they assumed to be inherited are not genetically determined but caused by environment and diet. As criticism of this early work mounted, biological explanations of crime fell out of favor and were abandoned in the early twentieth century. 2 In the early 1970s, spurred by the publication of Edmund O. Wilson's Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, biological explanations of crime once again emerged. 3 Sociobiology differs from earlier theories of behavior in that it stresses the following principles: •Behavioral traits may be inherited. •Inherited behavioral traits have been formed by natural selection. •Behavioral traits evolve and are shaped by the environment. •Biological and genetic conditions affect how social behaviors are learned and perceived. •Behavior is determined by the need to ensure survival of offspring and replenishment of the gene pool. •Biology, environment, and learning are mutually interdependent factors. Simply put, sociobiology assumes that social behavior is often genetically transmitted and subject to evolutionary processes; that is, it changes to meet existing environmental conditions. This view revived interest in finding a biological or psychological basis for crime and delinquency. It prompted some criminologists to conclude that personal traits must be what separates the deviant members of society from the nondeviant. Possessing these traits may help explain why, when faced with the same life situation, one person commits crime whereas another obeys the law. For example, living in a disadvantaged neighborhood will not cause a welladjusted person to commit crime, and living in an affluent area will not stop a maladapted person from offending. 4 All people may be aware of and even fear the sanctioning power of the law, but some are unable to control their urges and passions. 109

Conflict perspective

Economic and political forces. Crime is a function of competition for limited resources and power. Class conflict produces crime. 13

Criminological Enterprise - Criminal statistics

Gathering valid crime data. devising new research methods; measuring crime patterns and trends. 9

James Q. Wilson/Richard Hernstein

IQ and Criminality The IQ-crime link controversy was reignited more than 30 years ago, when the influential criminologists Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang suggested a link existed between intelligence and crime. Youths with low IQs, they found, do poorly in school, and school failure and academic incompetence are highly related to delinquency and later to adult criminality. 108 Their findings were supported by James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein in their influential book Crime and Human Nature, which also concluded that low intelligence leads to poor school performance, which enhances the chances of criminality. 109 In another widely read book, The Bell Curve, Herrnstein with Charles Murray confirmed that adolescents with low IQs are more likely to commit crime, get caught, and be sent to prison. Conversely, at-risk kids with higher IQs seem to be protected from becoming criminals by their superior ability to succeed in school and in social relationships. 110 In addition to these micro-level studies, others using macro-level state and county data found that IQ and crime rates are associated. A number of research projects concluded that states and counties whose residents have higher IQs experience lower crime rates than those with less-intelligent citizens. 111 Although these reviews supported an IQ-crime link, this issue is far from settled. An evaluation of research on intelligence conducted by the American Psychological Association concluded that the strength of any IQ-crime link is "very low." 112 The IQ-criminality debate is unlikely to be settled soon. Measurement is beset by many methodological problems and charges that IQ tests are biased against members of racial minority groups. Even if it can be shown that known offenders have 127

Cesare Lombroso

In Italy, Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), known as the "father of criminology," began to study the cadavers of executed criminals in an effort to determine scientifically how criminals differed from noncriminals. Lombroso was soon convinced that serious and violent offenders had inherited criminal traits. These "born criminals" suffered from "atavistic anomalies"; physically, they were throwbacks to more primitive times when people were savages and were believed to have the enormous jaws and strong canine teeth common to carnivores that devour raw flesh. Lombroso's version of criminal anthropology was brought to the United States via articles and textbooks that adopted his ideas. 16 By the beginning of the twentieth century, American authors were discussing "the science of penology" and "the science of criminology." 10

Biological/psychological perspective

Internal forces. Crime is a function of chemical, neurological, genetic, personality, intelligence, or mental traits. 13

Choice Theory - Rational Choice

Major Premise: law-violating behavior occurs after offenders weigh information on their personal needs and the situational factors involved in the difficulty and risk of committing a crime. Strengths: explains why high-risk youths do not constantly engage in delinquency. Relates theory to delinquency control policy. It is not limited by class or other social variables. Research Focus: offense patterns—where, when, and how crime takes place. 103

Choice Theory - Specific deterrence

Major premise: If punishment is severe enough, criminals will not repeat their illegal acts. Strengths: Provides a strategy to reduce crime. Research Focus: Recidivism, repeat offending, punishment type, and crime. 103

Psychological Theory - Cognitive

Major premise: Individual reasoning processes influence behavior. reasoning is influenced by the way people perceive their environment. Strengths: Shows why criminal behavior patterns change over time as people mature and develop their reasoning powers. may explain the aging-out process. Research Focus: Perception; environmental influences. 124

Choice Theory - Incapacitation

Major premise: Keeping known criminals out of circulation will reduce crime rates. Strengths: Recognizes the role that opportunity plays in criminal behavior. Provides a solution to chronic offending. Research Focus: Prison population and crime rates, sentence length, and crime. 103

Psychological Theory - Behavioral

Major premise: People commit crime when they model their behavior after others they see being rewarded for the same acts. Behavior is reinforced by rewards and extinguished by punishment. Strengths: Explains the role of significant others in the crime process. Shows how media can influence crime and violence. Research Focus: media and violence; effects of child abuse. 124

Choice Theory - General deterrence

Major premise: People will commit crime and delinquency if they perceive that the benefits outweigh the risks. Crime is a function of the severity, certainty, and speed of punishment. Strengths: Shows the relationship between crime and punishment. Suggests a real solution to crime. Research Focus: Perception of punishment, effect of legal sanctions, probability of punishment, and crime rates. 103

Psychological Theory - Psychodynamic

Major premise: The development of the unconscious personality early in childhood influences behavior for the rest of a person's life. Criminals have weak egos and damaged personalities. Strengths: Explains the onset of crime and why crime and drug abuse cut across class lines. Research Focus: Mental illness and crime. 124

Criminological Enterprise - Theory construction

Predicting individual behavior. Understanding the cause of crime rates and trends. 9

Developmental perspective

Multiple forces. Biological, social-psychological, economic, and political forces may combine to produce crime. 13

Franz Joseph Gall

Phrenologists, such as Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) and Johann K. Spurzheim (1776-1832), studied the shape of the skull and bumps on the head and concluded that these physical attributes were linked to criminal behavior. By the early nineteenth century, abnormality in the human mind was being linked to criminal behavior patterns. 10

Auguste Comte

Positivist Criminology During the nineteenth century, a new vision of the world challenged the validity of classical theory and presented an innovative way of looking at the causes of crime. The scientific method was beginning to take hold in Europe and North America. Auguste Comte (1798-1857), considered the founder of sociology, argued that societies pass through stages that can be grouped on the basis of how people try to understand the world in which they live. People in primitive societies believe that inanimate objects have life (for example, the sun is a god); in later social stages, people embrace a rational, scientific view of the world. Comte called this the positive stage, and those who followed his writings became known as positivists. Positivism has a number of elements: •Use of the scientific method to conduct research. The scientific method is objective, universal, and culture-free. •Predicting and explaining social phenomena in a logical manner. This means identifying necessary and sufficient conditions under which a phenomenon may or may not occur. Both human behavior and natural phenomenon operate according to laws that can be measured and observed. •Empirical verification. All beliefs or statements must be proved through empirical investigation guided by the scientific method. Such concepts as "God" and "the soul" cannot be measured empirically and therefore are not the subject of scientific inquiry; they remain a matter of faith. •Science must be value-free and should not be influenced by the observer/ scientist's biases or political point of view. 10

Charles Goring/Gabriel Tarde.

Psychological Trait View The second branch of trait theory focuses on the psychological aspects of crime, including the associations among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior. This view has a long history, and psychologists, psychiatrists, and other mental health professionals have long played an active role in formulating criminological theory. Among nineteenth-century pioneers in this area were Charles Goring (1870- 1919) and Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904). Goring studied 3,000 English convicts and found little difference in the physical characteristics of criminals and noncriminals. However, he uncovered a significant relationship between crime and a condition he referred to as "defective intelligence," which involved such traits as feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity, and defective social instinct. 79 Tarde was the forerunner of modern learning theorists, who hold that people learn from one another through imitation. 80 In their quest to understand and treat all varieties of abnormal mental conditions, psychologists have encountered clients whose behavior falls within the categories that society has labeled criminal, deviant, violent, and antisocial. A number of different psychological views have various implications for the causation of criminal behavior. The most important of these theoretical perspectives and their association with criminal conduct are discussed in the following sections. 118

Classical/choice perspective

Situational forces. Crime is a function of free will and personal choice. Punishment is a deterrent to crime. 13

Process perspective

Socialization forces. Crime is a function of upbringing, learning, and control. Peers, parents, and teachers influence behavior. 13

Emile Durkheim

Sociological Criminology At the same time that biological views were dominating criminology, another group of positivists were developing the field of sociology to study scientifically the major social changes taking place in nineteenth-century society. The foundations of sociological criminology can be traced to the work of Émile Durkheim (1858-1917). 18 According to Durkheim's vision of social positivism, crime is normal because it is virtually impossible to imagine a society in which criminal behavior is totally absent. 19 Durkheim believed that crime is inevitable because people are so different from one another and use such a wide variety of methods and types of behavior to meet their needs. Even if "real" crimes were eliminated, human weaknesses and petty vices would be elevated to the status of crimes. Durkheim suggested that crime can be useful—and occasionally even healthful— for society in that it paves the way for social change. To illustrate this concept, Durkheim offered the example of the Greek philosopher Socrates, who was considered a criminal and was put to death for corrupting the morals of youth simply because he expressed ideas that were different from what people believed at that time. In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim wrote about the consequences of the shift from a small, rural society, which he labeled "mechanical," to the more modern "organic" society with a large urban population, division of labor, and personal isolation. 20 From the resulting structural changes flowed anomie, or norm and role confusion. An anomic society is in chaos, experiencing moral uncertainty and an accompanying loss of traditional values. People who suffer anomie may become confused and rebellious. Is it possible that the loss of privacy created by widespread social media, a technology that can cause a private moment to go "viral," has helped create a sense of anomie in our own culture? 11

Jack Katz

Sociologist Jack Katz has identified the immediate benefits to criminality, which he calls the seductions of crime, that directly precede the commission of crime and draw offenders into law violations. For example, someone challenges their authority or moral position, and they vanquish their opponent with a beating; or they want to do something exciting, so they break into and vandalize a school building. 49 According to Katz, choosing crime can help satisfy personal needs. For some people, shoplifting and vandalism are attractive because getting away with crime is a thrilling demonstration of personal competence (Katz calls this "sneaky thrills"). Even murder can have an emotional payoff: killers behave like the avenging gods of mythology, glorying in the life-or-death control they exert over their victims. 50 In sum, scholars like Katz believe that those who commit crime believe that it brings both economic and emotional benefits. It follows that crime can be controlled by convincing these potential offenders that they have made a poor choice. Rather than providing "sneaky thrills" or moral authority, committing crime will produce pain, hardship, and suffering. People will not choose crime if they believe that its disadvantages, such as getting caught and punished, outweigh its benefits, such as making lots of money. A number of potential strategies for controlling crime flow from this premise. Among the most important of these are situational crime prevention strategies, general deterrence strategies, specific deterrence strategies, and incapacitation strategies, all of which are discussed in detail below. 92

Criminological Enterprise - Penology: punishment, sanctions, and corrections

Studying the correction and control of criminal behavior. Using the scientific method to assess the effectiveness of criminal sanctions designed to control crime through the application of criminal punishments. 9

Criminological Enterprise - Victimology

Studying the nature and cause of victimization. aiding crime victims; understanding the nature and extent of victimization; developing theories of victimization risk. 9

The Chicago School

THE CHICAGO SCHOOL The primacy of sociological positivism was secured by research begun in the early twentieth century by Robert Ezra Park (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), Louis Wirth (1897-1952), and their colleagues in the Sociology Department at the University of Chicago. The scholars who taught at this program created what is still referred to as the Chicago School in honor of their unique style of doing research. These urban sociologists examined how neighborhood conditions, such as poverty levels, influenced crime rates. They found that social forces operating in urban areas created a crime-promoting environment; some neighborhoods were "natural areas" for crime. 21 In urban neighborhoods with high levels of poverty, the fabric of critical social institutions, such as the school and the family, came undone. Their traditional ability to control behavior was undermined, and the outcome was a high crime rate. 11

Sigmund Freud

The Psychodynamic Perspective Psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) psychology was originated by Viennese psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and has remained a prominent segment of psychological theory ever since. 81 Freud believed that we all carry with us the residue of the most significant emotional attachments of our childhood, which then guides our future interpersonal relationships. According to psychodynamic theory, the human personality has a three-part structure. The id is the primitive part of people's mental makeup, is present at birth, and represents unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other life-sustaining necessities. The id seeks instant gratification without concern for the rights of others. The ego develops early in life, when a child begins to learn that his or her wishes cannot be instantly gratified. The ego is the part of the personality that compensates for the demands of the id by helping the individual keep his or her actions within the boundaries of social convention. The superego develops as a result of incorporating within the personality the moral standards and values of parents, community, and significant others. It is the moral aspect of people's personalities; it judges their own behavior. The psychodynamic model of the criminal offender depicts an aggressive, frustrated person dominated by events that occurred early in childhood. Because they had unhappy experiences in childhood or had families that could not provide proper love and care, criminals suffer from weak or damaged egos that make them unable to cope with conventional society. Weak egos are associated with immaturity, poor social skills, and excessive dependence on others. People with weak egos may be easily led into crime by antisocial peers and drug abuse. Some have underdeveloped superegos and consequently lack internalized representations of those behaviors that are punished in conventional society. They commit crimes because they have difficulty understanding the consequences of their actions. 82 In sum, the psychodynamic tradition links crime to a manifestation of feelings of oppression and the inability to develop the proper psychological defenses and rationales to keep these feelings under control. Criminality enables troubled people to survive by producing positive psychic results: it helps them to feel free and independent, and it offers them the possibility of excitement and the chance to use their skills and imagination. 119

The Definition of Crime

The definition of crime affects how criminologists view the cause and control of illegal behavior and shapes their research orientation. 17

Adolphe Quetelet

The first annual national crime statistics were published in France in 1827, about sixty years after Beccaria wrote his book. It soon became clear that the rates of crime in general and of particular crimes such as murder and rape remained relatively constant from year to year. In addition, some places in the nation had higher crime rates while others had lower, and these differences remained relatively constant from year to year. All of this suggested that there might be some broader social causes to crime, instead of it being merely a matter of individual free will. One of the first people to analyze these statistics was Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874). He found that some people were more likely to commit crime than others, especially those who were young, male, poor, unemployed, and undereducated. Young males were more likely to commit crime under any circumstances, so that places with more young males tended to have more crime. But places with more poverty and more unemployment actually had less crime. As it turned out, the poor and unemployed tended to commit crimes in places where there were many wealthy and employed people. Quetelet suggested that opportunities might have something to do with explaining this pattern. He also pointed to an additional factor: the great inequality between wealth and poverty in the same place excites passions and provokes temptations of all kinds. This problem is especially severe in those places where rapidly changing economic conditions can result in a person suddenly passing from wealth to poverty while all around him still enjoy wealth. In contrast, provinces that were generally poor had less crime as long as people were able to satisfy their basic needs. Quetelet found that people with more education tended to commit less crime on the whole but they also tended to commit more violent crime. He therefore argued that increased education itself would not reduce crime. Quetelet concluded that the propensity to engage in crime was actually a reflection of moral character. Relying on Aristotle's views, he identified virtue with moderation: "rational and temperate habits, more regulated passions . . . [and] foresight, as manifested by investment in savings banks, assurance societies, and the different institutions which encourage foresight." Young males often did not have these virtues, and so they committed high levels of crime. Similarly, these virtues tended to break down among poor and unemployed people who were surrounded by wealth. Thus, his main policy recommendations were to enhance "moral" education and to ameliorate social conditions to improve people's lives. Quetelet retained the view throughout his life that crime essentially was caused by moral defectiveness, but increasingly took the view that moral defectiveness was revealed in biological characteristics, particularly the appearance of the face and the head. This also made him a direct predecessor of Lombroso, whose major book was published two years after Quetelet's death. .jrank.org/pages/909/Criminology-Intellectual-History-Positivist-criminology.html#ixzz4ZaJ5cbrU

Criminological Perspectives

The major perspectives of criminology focus on individual factors (biological, psychological, and choice theories), social factors (structural and process theories), political and economic factors (conflict theory), and multiple factors (developmental theory). 13

criminology

the scientific study of nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior.

Criminological Enterprise

the discipline of criminology

National Crime Victimization Survey

•data are collected from a large national survey. •Strengths of the NCVS are that it includes crimes not reported to the police, uses careful sampling techniques, and is a yearly survey. •Weaknesses of the NCVS are that it relies on victims' memory and honesty and that it omits substance abuse. 37

Self-report surveys

•data are collected from local surveys. •Strengths of self-report surveys are that they include nonreported crimes, substance abuse, and offenders' personal information. •Weaknesses of self-report surveys are that they rely on the honesty of offenders and omit offenders who refuse or are unable, as a consequence of incarceration, to participate (and who therefore may be the most delinquent and/or criminal). 37

Uniform Crime Report

•data are collected from records from police departments across the nation, crimes reported to police, and arrests. •Strengths of the UCr are that it measures homicides and arrests and that it is a consistent, national sample. •Weaknesses of the UCr are that it omits crimes not reported to police, omits most drug usage, and contains reporting errors. 37

Interactionist view

•moral entrepreneurs define crime. •acts become crimes because society defines them that way. •Criminal labels are life-transforming events. 17