cross cultural final

Be familiar with studies about the consequences of different acculturation strategies and the general conclusion of those studies.

4 factors: economic concerns, duration of stays, religion, perceived attitudes of host community

Be able to describe the classic studies of conformity (Sherif's and Asch's) and the types of social influence they imply.

Asch- (1955) had participants pick the line of similar length to see if they would pick the obviously similar line, most people would pick the wrong line even if it was obviously wrong- normative influence: the conformity is motivated by fear of social rejection Sherif- (1936) "autokinetic studies" had participants in the dark say how far a laser pointer moved in inches. All participants could hear each other, and after 3 sessions all participants reached consensus- conformity motivated by belief that others are correct and you aren't

16. Understand and be able to describe the four strategies in acculturation processes according to John Berry.

Assimilation (strong to new culture, weak to original) - People who consider their culture of origin to not be important and who want to identify and interact mainly with the new culture are said to be using an assimilation strategy. Dominant culture expects the melting pot (model of U.S.) Separation (weak to new culture, strong to original) Ethnic enclaves People who value their heritage culture and do not want to learn about the new culture. These people are adopting a separation strategy to acculturation. Dominant culture expects segregation Marginalization (weak to new and original cultures) - People who neither identify with their heritage culture nor with the new culture are pursuing a marginalization acculturation strategy. Dominant cultures expects exclusion Integration (Biculturalism) - (strong to new and original cultures) - People who seek to maintain their heritage culture and learn from and interact with the new culture are considered to be using the acculturation strategy of integration, or bicultural strategy. Dominant culture expects multiculturalism

Make sure you understand and be able to describe the general different approaches to immigrants by the large society (the receiving countries).

Assimilation = melting pot; the immigrant is expected to assimilate into society with no care given to the original culture by the new culture Separation = segregation; The immigrant can remain in their old culture but only if it's separate from the new culture Integration = Multiculturalism; effective biculturalism Marginalization = Exclusion

Describe procedures/methods can be used to obtain linguistic equivalence.

Back Translation - taking research protocol in one language, translating it into another language, and then have someone else translate it back to the original language. If the back-translated version is the same as the original then it is generally considered equivalent. Decenter - Concept underlying procedure of back translation involves eliminating any cultural specific concepts of the original language or translating them equivalently into the target language Establish language approach equivalence in a committee - Several bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language. The debate is about the various forms, words, and phrases that can be used in the target language compared to their understanding of the language of the original protocol. Shared consensus of a linguistically equivalent protocol across languages and cultures.

Math and culture have a very special relationship because math skills are not logically constructed on the basis of abstract cognitive structures, but rather are forged out of a combination of previously acquired (or inherited) knowledge and skills, and new cultural input. Be familiar with what and how some of the cultural factors influence math achievement.

Children in Western countries tend to be worse at math than children in Asian countries. It is clear that there is no biological reason for this and is a result of culture. Western societies view competency in math as stagnant as opposed to Asian countries that view it as something to be improved. U.S. praise correct answers; value uniqueness and individualism Japan - focus on incorrect answers and use them as an example for discussion - they value a group process and shared responsibility Differences in language and content/ when and how students are taught different concepts In Micronesia, they use navigation and marketing to learn math Education is the most important mechanism of instruction in many societies Education is affected by language, school system, family values, attitudes of students, praise, teacher style, and teacher relationships with kids

Be able to explain what stereotype threat is, and what might be the underlying mechanisms; be familiar with some classic studies of stereotype threat. Claude Steele & Joshua Aronson Cohen and Garcia Underlying mechanisms

Claude Steele & Joshua Aronson Tried to explain the gap in test scores between whites & blacks Argued that blacks in test situations may feel apprehension about confirming existing negative stereotypes of intellectual inferiority Black students did as well as white students on GRE verbal when led to believe that the test was being tested, not the student Cohen and Garcia Found the existence of collective threat - fear that an ingroup member's behavior can reinforce negative stereotypes about one's group Collective threat resulted in lower self-esteem, lower academic performance, self-stereotyping, and physical distancing from ingroup member who reinforced negative stereotypes Underlying mechanisms Causes emotional arousal & reduces accuracy Diverts attention onto task-irrelevant worries Low performance expectation may cause withdrawal of effort Stereotype threat might be expected to undermine the standardized test performance of African Americans relative to European-Americans who do not suffer from added threat

Be familiar with the cross-cultural studies and results on conformity, compliance and obedience discussed in the textbook and in class. Be aware of the potential problem in addressing differences in conformity, compliance and obedience between American-based research and findings obtained in other cultures.

Conformity in this context is yielding to the social pressure to stay within social norms Bary- (1967) found higher levels of conformity in agricultural societies that had tighter social groups that were dependent on each other Bond and Smith- (1996) Largest conformity study: found that conformity had a lot to do with the cultures tightness; Related conformity with values: higher conformity in societies that held values of conservatism, collectivism than societies valuing autonomy, individualism and status achievement American bias typically has a negative connotation to conformity Research on child rearing-indicates that Asians and Puerto Ricans value conformity and obedience Conformity is typically lower in upper-middle-class groups and higher in lower socio- economic groups. It is higher in stratified and authoritarian societies as well, where parents are concerned about making their children conform to existing social norms Milgrims' study is the most famous US conformity study but it doesn't hold up across cultures. When replicated conformity varies from 16% (Australia) to 92% (Netherlands) Cross-Cultural Milgrim (shock) study: In countries with high-power distance, rates of obedience are higher than in countries with low-power distance Recent research suggests that this may be a result of disease-causing pathogens. In countries that had more trouble with disease conformity is beneficial to have a bigger community and more obedience to follow rules Cc Conformity studies seem to show that low stress situations like the line test yield more conformity across cultures than a high stressor like the shock Obedience- following direct orders from people in authority Compliance- yielding to social pressure in ones public behavior even if your beliefs aren't changing Cultural Fit- taking into consideration your culture when making decisions EA cultures are more likely to give credit to others because it increases their social standing

Cultural Psychology and Cross-cultural Psychology are two related subfields of psychology. Describe the main similarities and differences between the two. Based upon the discussion in the text and in class, which approach is correct?)

Cross cultural psychology - study of the relationships between cultural context and human behavior, from a comparison perspective Comparative field - involves inclusion of people of different cultures Examines psychological similarity and diversity Not topic specific Cultural psychology - Examines the cultural foundations of psychological processes and human behavior Linkage between culture and the psychology of individuals Human behavior is meaningful when viewed in a social context in which it occurs

Describe cultural display rules for expression of emotions, and give examples of display rules that affect how emotions are expressed across various social situations.

Culturally prescribed rules that govern how universal emotions can be expressed Can modify expressions by Expressing less than actually felt (deamplification) Associated with collectivist cultures - expressive regulation for all emotions is important to preserve social order Expressing more than actually felt (amplification) Associated with individualistic cultures - especially with positive emotion Showing nothing (neutralization) Showing emotion but with another emotion to comment on it (qualification) Masking or concealing feelings (masking) Showing emotion when not felt (simulation) Individualistic cultures are associated with higher recognition of negative emotions & tend rate intensity of emotions higher than collectivist cultures

Understand the relationship between culture and language

Culture influences thoughts feelings and beliefs and language is passed down and reinforces those All humans are born with the potential for language (Broca area- language production/ Wernicke area- language comprehension) Infants produce the same range of phonemes across cultures Knowledge of a mother language is transmitted by an elder of that culture There is a hypothesis that students of language may learn the language better if they learn about culture The cultural and biological are interdependent, and cannot exist without each other

Be able to describe Darwin's evolutionary theory of facial expressions.

Darwin's theory was published in 1872 Emotions are biologically/evolutionarily adaptive and all humans and animals express their emotions in similar ways Facial expressions of emotions have communicative and adaptive value - provide internal information to the individual about well-being/the environment AND social information for others High level of agreement was seen in the interpretation of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise

You should be able to name some of the important socialization agents within the microsystem of the Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory of Human Development, and explain the important roles they play in the socialization of children.

Development is the result of relationships between people and their environment Studying kids in relationship to their particular context = key to understanding development Microsystem - Direct interaction with child, face to face (parents, peers, school) Mesosystem - Connections between the components of the microsystem (parents and school during a parent teacher conference) Exosystem - When an environment that child has never been exposed to still affects them (parents workplace) Macrosystem - Larger context within which the child exists (religion, culture, social class) Chronosystem - Social historical conditions that occur within the child's life

Physiological Response to emotion

Each universal emotion had a physiological signature in the autonomic nervous system Specific patterns in brain activity as well

Culture molds and shapes many aspects of emotion; be able to describe and give example how different cultures differ in emotional experience, concepts, values, believes about emotion, and the location of emotions (p 219-223; note how individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in construction of emotional experience).

Emotional experience People in collectivist cultures tend to experience socially engaging emotions (friendliness, respect, sympathy, guilt, shame) more than socially disengaging emotions (pride, self-esteem, sulkiness, frustration) most experienced by individualistic cultures In Japan, pleasantness is correlated with interdependent concerns (not the case in USA) Emotional complexity - co-occurrence of both pleasant and unpleasant emotions More prevalent in East Asia than in Western cultures Due to dialectical thinking European Americans who experience positive emotions more frequently experience negative emotions less frequently Emotional experiences are culturally constructed or a set of "socially shared scripts" consisting of physiological, behavioral, and subjective components - they develop as people are enculturated Emotions reflect the cultural environment and are as integral to culture as morality and ethics This is a cyclical process - cultures have realities and ideals that lead to customs, norms, practices and institutions These lead to individual realities (comprised of recurrent episodes) Recurrent episodes produce habitual emotional tendencies (ways of feeling -> behavior) Concepts USA - people try to be aware of and in touch with their feelings Childrens' emotions are almost given the same status as those of adults Individualist - emotions are individual/personal - we value the diversity of emotions What we call emotion here doesn't mean the same thing elsewhere People in Tahiti and Micronesia do not have a word for emotions Samoans do not have a word for emotion, but have a word that refers to feelings and sensations In Japan, they have words for typical emotions like angry and sad, they also consider words like considerate and lucky to be emotions Some countries do not have equivalents to English words and vice versa - this does not mean they do not have feel those emotions Hypercognize - variations of emotions are identified and words are created for those variations - greater amounts and forms of knowledge, awareness, and thought compared to the usual Hypocognize - relatively few variations of emotions exist - fewer amounts and forms of knowledge, awareness, and thought compared to the usual Attitudes, values, and beliefs Universal values by Shalom Schwartz Affective autonomy - degree to which cultures emphasize the promotion and protection of people's independent pursuit of positive experiences - fosters pleasure and excitement France, Switzerland, Canada, Denmark, and Austria value this dimension the most; Egypt, Cameroon, Senegal, Yemen, and Ghana value it the least Uncertainty avoidance - degree to which people feel threatened by the unknown and have developed beliefs, institutions, or rituals to avoid them - associated with anxiety/stress Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, and Belgium value this the most; Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark, Sweden, and Hong Kong value it the least Cultural values about emotion are about how people want to feel (ideal affect) more than how people actually feel (actual affect) Cultural values predict ideal affect Temperament and personality traits predict actual affect Members of collectivist cultures associate emotions with assessments of social worth Members of individualistic cultures tend to associate emotions with individual evaluations of the environment and reflect something about the self, not relationships Locations USA - emotions are located within oneself in the heart Speaks to the importance of feelings as unique/individual Pintupi aborigines and Solomon Islanders - emotions are statements about relationships among people or people and events Some African Fulani words refer to a situation more than a feeling Japanese - emotions are located in the gut Cheong of Malay - feelings/thoughts are in the liver Tahitians - emotions are within intestines

Be familiar with the concepts acculturation; how it is different and similar with enculturation

Enculturation: the process of a child learning its own culture Acculturation: is the change that follows when different cultural groups come into contact with each other/the effects of two cultures interacting with each other; can be a result of first hand contact (immigration) or adopting new cultural practices

be able to provide examples how language structures and use are influenced by culture

Environmental factors are important to consider Dry climates have negative effects on vocal cord movement - some complex tone patterns are less likely to exist Critical features of all languages Lexicon- vocab; there are a different number of words for things in different languages depending on the goal of the word and the values of the culture (34 words for snow) Self-referents We always use I or we no matter who we are talking to Japanese language - what you call yourself and others is dependent on the relationship between you and the other person If you are of a higher status than the other, you would refer to yourself by your position; ex. Teacher calls themself teacher and would call student "you" or their name If you are of a lower status, you use the equivalent of "I" - different terms for I depend on gender, degree of politeness, and degree of familiarity with the person They also use different words to count different things (like shape) Behavior and language may differ depending on if the other person is a member of the same culture Semantics- some languages have the same words but very different meanings for the word Phonology - pronunciation Pragmatics- how you use the language in social context (introductions, compliments, apologies, politeness, level of formality) High context cultures - promote communication in which many messages are conveyed indirectly in context - collectivist Low context cultures - promote direct communication in which messages are convey primarily and directly in verbal language - individualistic Honorific speech - speech styles that indicate status differences among interactants Phonemes - smallest, most basic units of sound Morphemes - smallest, most basic units of meaning in a language; ex. un

Equivalence is of critical importance in conducting cross-cultural research. Describe several challenges (biases) to equivalence that are unique to cross-cultural research

Equivalence - similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between/among cultures - gives comparisons meaning Challenges Conceptual bias - degree to which a theory or set of hypotheses compared across cultures are equivalent Method bias Sampling bias - are the samples in the cultures tested appropriate representatives of their culture and equivalent to each other? Procedural bias - do the procedures by which data are collected mean the same in all cultures tested? Measurement bias - degree to which measures used to collect data in different cultures are equally valid and reliable Response bias - tendency to respond in certain ways to items or scales Socially desirable responding - giving answers that make one look good Acquiescence bias - tendency to agree Extreme response bias - tendency to use ends of scale regardless of item context Reference group effect - tendency to implicitly compare themselves to others in their group Bias in interpreting findings Cause effect versus correlation interpretation Avoiding bias of over generalizations Cultural attribution fallacies - claim that between group differences are cultural without empirical justification Researcher bias - interpretation of data is biased by researchers' cultural filters

Be able to define the concepts of emics and etics, and provide examples. Which of these concepts is more important to cross-cultural psychology?

Etics - phonetic - universal constructs or principles - universal, outsider's view Ex. translation and back translation of existing questionnaires Emics - phonemic - constructs or principles that are culture specific - specific, insider's view - MORE IMPORTANT IN CROSS-CULTURAL Ex. use indigenous sources, do an exploratory factor analysis to reveal new factors

Emotional Antecedents

Events or situations that trigger or elicit an emotion - Ex: Losing a loved one=sadness Participants in this study wrote about an experience that led them to feel one of the seven basic emotions. Coders than sorted the situations based on: - good news/bad news - temporary/permanent separation - success/failure in achievements Many similarities across cultures in the frequency of an event that elicited an emotion - Ex: Happiness was with relationships and friends. Temporary meeting with friends, and achievement situation - Elicitors for anger were: -Relationships -Injustice - Elicitors for sadness: -Relationships -Death

Be familiar with ways of assessing prejudice, and the advantages/disadvantages of implicit and explicit measures.

Explicit: prejudice that is verbalized & made public Disadvantage: Respondents may be biased and respond in a socially desirable or politically correct way Advantage: Prejudice is declining Implicit: Attitudes, values, or beliefs that are unspoken & perhaps even outside conscious awareness

Be familiar with the cognitive difficulties that bilinguals may face when using second language as discussed in the textbook

Foreign language processing difficulties - problems associated with learning a foreign language such as taking more time to respond and experiencing cognitive difficulties while processing information. Foreign language effect - A temporary decline in the thinking ability of people who are using a foreign language in which they are less proficient than their native tongue. Code frame switching - switching from one cultural meaning to another

Be familiar with the cross-cultural differences of some aspects of nonverbal communication we discussed in class, such as eye gaze, interpersonal distance, use of gesture, silence, etc.

Gaze: disrespectful in other culture but is an expectation in the US Has evolutionary roots in animal behavior - associated with dominance, power, aggression, affiliation, and nurturance Animals also do the staring contests humans engage in Arabs tend to hold gaze longer than Americans Contact cultures (those that facilitated physical touch or contact during interaction) engage in more gazing and had more direct orientations when interacting with others, less interpersonal distance, and more touching than noncontact cultures Americans tend to believe foreigners are lying when they look away, but this is most likely not true Gesture: hand movements used to convey meaning Speech illustrators - nonverbal behaviors that accompany speech Emblems - culture specific gestures to convey meaning; do not need speech Middle Eastern and Latin cultures encourage the use of large gestures East Asian cultures discourage the use of big gestures Distinct gestures tend to fade when people are assimilates in other cultures Paralinguistic cues - aspects of voice that convey information such as tone, intonation, pitch, speech rate, and silence Anger - voice tends to be louder and speech rate increase Fear - higher pitch and sudden inhalations Sadness - softer voices and decreased speech rates Expressive cultures use louder voices and higher speech rates Pronunciations require different production of sounds and rhythms - could be associated with different emotions Proxemics: use of space in interpersonal interactions (intimate, personal, social, public) - regulates intimacy Arabs learn to interact with others close enough to feel each other's breath Males tend to sit closer to each other than American males - more direct and confrontational body orientations -- also have greater eye contact and speak louder Latin Americans tend to interact more closely than Europeans Indonesians tend to sit closer than Australians Italians interact more closely than Germans and Americans Columbians interact more closely than Costa Ricans When interacting with people from the same culture - Japanese sat furthest away, Americans in the middle, then Venezuelans the closest Foreigners who spoke in English adopted the American conversational distance compared to when speaking in their native language with people of the same culture Haptics: touch - contact vs noncontact cultures

Matsumoto and Juang identified three important sources of the origins of cultural, understand and be able to describe how each factor contribute to a culture.

Group Life - Division of labor (accomplish more than any one person), efficiency, increase survival Groups increase chance of survival Downside of groups - social conflict/chaos as people are different -- can become inefficient Environments - Climate (harsh winters, humid all year round, hot summers - influence way of living. Humans need to regulate temperature, grow food etc. Harsher the weather the greater risk of food shortage which means stricter diets and more health problems like disease Population Density (ratio of the number of people that live in a specific area relative to the size) Arable Land (land that can sustain life by food production of some sort) Diseases Previous Cultures Contact with other cultures (all of these influence people's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors) Resources - Food, water, money (more money = people are less in sync with others because cooperation is not as essential) Harsh climates push people toward valuing the idea of hospitality and helping one's family and neighbors as resources are limited. Evolved Human Mind - Basic human needs and motives (reproductive success), universal psychological toolkit (cognitive abilities, emotions, personality traits)

What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity? Based upon the textbook and our discussion of this hypothesis in class, is linguistic relativity supported or not supported? Please explain with research evidence.

Hypothesis - each language is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather a shaper of ideas - language structures thoughts and provides framework to make sense of the world (think 1984) - speakers of different languages speak differently because of the differences in language There are a few levels of this hypothesis The weak version of the theory is supported by data The data from areas of investigation concerning color naming, counting & arithmetic, reasoning, visual memory, etc. indicate that the use of certain specific terms can influence how we remember and perceive The best studied area is lexical differences, which provides weak support BUT Lexicon is only minimally related to thought process Syntactic and grammatical differences (less studied) provides evidence that language influences cognition Challenges Berlin and Kay - 11 basic color terms form a universal hierarchy (people in different cultures perceive colors in the same way) Pinker - thoughts can form without words; some people grow up without language

Make sure you understand the major dimensions defined by Hofstede, and the characteristics of each dimensions. Individualism-collectivism Power distance Uncertainty avoidance Masculine-feminine Restraint vs. Indulgence Long-term or short-term time orientation

Individualism-collectivism Most discussed Individual focused vs. group oriented - integration of individuals into primary groups Individualist - right of privacy, others classified as individuals, task prevails over relationships, purpose of education is learning how to learn, personal opinion expected, health to speak one's mind, transgression of norms leads to guilt Collectivist - stress on belonging, harmony should be maintained, relationship over task, purpose of education is learning how to do, others considered in vs out group, transgression of norms lead to shame Power distance Is the power structure hierarchical or are people seen as more equal? Different solutions to problem of inequity Small power distance - use of power should be legitimate, parents and children are equal, older people are not feared, student centered education, subordinates are consulted, hierarchy is established for convenience, majority vote, corruption is rare, incode is distributed more equally, religions stress equality Large power distance - power is a part of society; doesn't matter if it's legitimate, children are obedient, elders are feared, teacher centered education, hierarchy means existential inequality, subordinates are told what to do, a lot of corruption and covering up of scandals, income distribution is very uneven, religions with a hierarchy of priests, government based on co-optation Uncertainty avoidance Extent of comfort/stress with uncertain future situations Strong uncertainty avoidance cultures - higher stress/anxiety/neuroticism/emotionality, need for clarity/structure, uncertainty must be fought, lower score of health and wellbeing, what's different is dangerous, teachers should have all of the answers, stay in job regardless of liking, citizens are seen as incompetent towards authorities, belief in ultimate truths Weak uncertainty avoidance cultures - uncertainty is accepted as a part of life, lower stress, more self control, higher well being and health, teachers can not know the answers, tolerance of differences, can easily change jobs, dislike of rules, citizens are seen as competent towards authorities, belief of relativism and empiricism Masculine-feminine Assertive/unemotive vs. collaborative/emotional - division of emotional roles Strength of gender roles Masculine cultures - work over family, admire the strong, fathers decide size of family, less women in political positions, religions is focused on god(s), sex is a performance Feminine cultures - sympathy for the week, men and women should be modest and caring, mothers decide on size of family, women in political positions, religion focuses on human beings, sex is a way of relating Restraint vs. Indulgence Suppression vs. gratification of wants and needs Indulgent cultures - higher birth rates, maintaining order is not a high priority, people are happier and experience more positive emotions, tends to be more obesity, lenient sexual norms, more involvement in sports, freedom of speech is very important, believe there is control in own life Restrained cultures - less happier people, life is not in your control, stricter sexual norms, more police officers, less importance of leisure, lower birth rates Long-term or short-term time orientation Do people tend to plan in the long or short term? How is time valued? Long term - perseverance, thrift, ordering relationships by status and sense of shame, most important events in life will occur in the future, attribute success to hard work, fast economic growth, good and evil depends upon circumstances Short term - proud of country, value tradition, personal stability, reciprocating social obligations, most important events happened in the past or take place now, students attribute success and failure with luck, slow or no economic growth, there are universal guidelines for good and evil

Review and be able to summarize cross-cultural differences in ingroup/outgroup relationships described in the text and in class. individualistic/collectivist cultures

Individualistic cultures: Belong to multiple ingroups and move easily from ingroup to ingroup More likely to treat outgroup people more equally with less distinction between ingroups and outgroups (less distinction) Engage in relationship building behaviors with outgroup individuals that collectivist cultures would only do with in groups Require less harmony and cohesion - less importance on conformity to norms People are less willing to sacrifice individuals goals, needs, desires, etc. for the group More expressive of personal feelings, attitudes, and opinions without fear or worry of consequences to the group Survival of individuals and society is more dependent on effective functioning of individuals Collectivistic Cultures Belong to fewer ingroups but have greater commitments to those groups - deeper quality of commitments and relationships Identify more strongly with groups Require a greater degree of harmony, cohesion, and cooperation within ingroups People are more willing to make sacrifices to pursue group goals and try harder to cooperate, even if they have to downplay their feelings, thoughts, behaviors, individual goals, etc. Will minimize interpersonal differences to have harmony in group More pressure to identify with group and conform to norms Greater lack of concern for outgroups; greater distancing aloofness & discrimination to outgroups Ingroup derogation - degree to which individuals have negative attitudes/beliefs about their own ingroup East Asians are more likely to rate their relationships, universities, cities, countries, and sports teams less favorable relate to Americans Can be due to differences in dialecticism (degree to which individuals can tolerate contradictory thoughts) Ingroup favoritism In a 73 nation study, favoritism was highest in countries with demanding climates and low income - lowest in countries with demanding climates but high income Arbitrary symbolic markers can play a role Participants played a coordination game that had consequences for payoffs for self and others - players selected a shape to indicate themselves and their shape There was an increased inclination overtime to request partners with the same shape Groups were formed based off linkage of something observable (shape) and behaviors important for social coordination

Stereotyping has consequences. Be able to describe some of the possible positive and negative consequences of stereotyping.

Influence how we feel, relate to, and perceive others We often are exposed to behaviors/situations that don't match our expectations which may lead to negative attributions about the causes of those behaviors/events/characteristics Require substantive processing - most affected by emotion Negative attributions reinforce effect on the value/expectations that began process We tend to pay more attention to events that support our stereotypes and ignores ones that do not (cocktail party phenomenon) People who believe individual's characteristics are fixed tend to pay more attention to information that is consistent with their stereotypes than those who believe characteristics change When presented with stereotypical and non stereotypical information, participants in one study tended to remember and tell other people the stereotypical information Well known stereotypes are activated automatically, whether they are applied depends on a person's motivation to be non prejudiced or if they are encouraged to be aware of egalitarian norms/standards Stereotypes change based on major events - stereotypes are fluid and situational factors matter Negative: Any police-initiated action based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than a person's behavior Positive: stereotype that Asians are hardworking or Germans are scientifically minded Negative consequence of this - stereotype of deficient sociality

Be able to differentiate individual racism and institutional racism; be able to describe the color-blindness ideology, and some of the problems with the colorblind approach.

Institutional Racism is the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups. Examples of this can extend to the education and criminal justice systems and unequal access to employment housing wealth and the ability to vote - Institutional forms of discrimination are committed collectively against a group - May be unconscious - it is not a function of awareness of discrimination Individual racism is when people believe that they are superior to others because of the color of their skin or their ethnic background Color-Blind Racism is the use of race-neutral principles to defend the racially unequal status quo - White attitudes toward African Americans - Attitudes are subject to change - Less progress was made in the late 20th & beginning of the 21st centuriesThan was made in the relatively brief period of the 1950s and 1960s - The pursuit of a color-blind agenda has created lower levels of support for politics that could reduce racial inequality if implemented Problems with the color-blind approach - Many Americans view colorblindness as helpful to people of color by asserting that race does not matter. But in America . . . Most underrepresented minorities will explain that race does matter - it affects opportunities, perceptions, income etc. When race-related problems arise, colorblindness tends to individualize conflicts and shortcomings instead of looking at the larger picture with cultural differences, stereotypes, and values placed into context

What are the key points of Kelley's attributional model, and how do people make "attribution" according to this model? Make sure you will be able to apply this model if given hypothetical scenarios.'

Kelley 's (1967) covariation model is the best-known attribution theory. He developed a logical model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some characteristic (dispositional) of the person or the environment (situational). Able to determine peoples attributions if we have information on consensus (whether other people have the same feeling); Consistency (does this person usually act this way in this situation); distinctiveness (does this person act this way in other situations). Reading- collectivist cultures are more likely to take into account both the personal and situational attributes because its more socially convenient where are individualist cultures tend to value the personal

Briefly describe the key components and subjective elements of the definition of culture adopted by the authors of the textbook and as we discussed in class.

Key components - knowledge, beliefs, values (subjective, meanings vary), artifacts, behavior patterns Function - allows group to meet basic human needs, pursue well-being, and derive meaning from life Subjective elements Values (individualism vs. collectivism, power distance) Beliefs (societal cynicism, religion) Norms (etiquette, expressions) Attitudes (stereotypes and prejudice, positive/negative) Worldviews (cultural worldviews, attributions) Culture is learned, shared, socially transmitted, prescriptive (defines what's acceptable), and dynamic (changes over time) - cultural boundaries are not distinct Groups that have culture - countries, language, ethnicity, gender, disabilities, sexual orientations Constructs that are not culture - race, personality, popular culture

What are the underlying factors that can support cultural adaptation?

Lack of consistency in findings and a drastic rise in studies Germany Berry's 1997 model Receives a lot of immigrants, largest % from Turkey Asylum seekers considered guests Can't get citizenship, hard time staying in country No high hopes for assimilation Minorities attitudes towards acculturation: tried to adopt more of German culture as possible, in order to try and blend in Assimilation Conclusions: segregation of minorities, positive view of german culture eased acculturation, negative view of german culture = harder acculturation Israel Jewish immigrants Birthright citizenship Non-jewish immigrants Process for naturalization Systematic discrimination/Especially arab individuals Jewish immigrants: integration Other: assimilation, exclusion

Different cultures vary in Children's exposure to their peers. Describe how cultural changes affect the level of peer influence on socialization.

Low influence: Postfigurative cultures- cultural change is slow and socialization occurs mostly from elders/ parents passing knowledge down. They are the ones who know what it takes to be a successful adult Some influence: Cofigurative cultures- cultural change occurs more rapidly but adults are still responsible for socializing their kids. Peers have more of a role in socialization and they may turn to each other for advice High influence: Prefigurative cultures- Culture changes so fast that children may be teaching adults. Adults may not be aware of changes and therefore can't educate the kids

Why is nonverbal language likely to be more of a problem in intercultural communication than verbal language?

Nonverbal language can be interpreted differently in different cultures - we tend to make the mistake that we all communicate nonverbally the same Nonverbal channels are actually more important in understanding meaning and emotional states - we tend to pay more attention to verbal language

Be familiar with concepts related to Culture and Parenting - parental cultural belief system (ethnotheories); the general style of parenting they exhibit, cultural variation in some specific dimensions of parenting styles.

Parental cultural belief system (ethnotheories) - beliefs, values, and practices about the proper way to raise a child based on their cultural beliefs - by observing parents, we observe the essence of culture Affection and warmth between parents and children Amount of time breastfeeding Development: When a child walks, talks, chooses friends Why children misbehave and how to discipline them Sleeping patterns Found that sensitivity beliefs ARE NOT related to sensitive cultures Parenting style - manner in which parents raise their children Authoritarian - expect obedience, need to control child; low warmth and responsiveness Kids = more anxious and withdrawn Permissive - Warm, nurturing, responsive, but provide no guidelines for child (child regulates life; low control) Kids = immature, lack control, not independent Authoritative - Firm, fair, reasonable, clear guidelines with a high level of control Kids = noncompliant and demanding Uninvolved - Meets physical needs of the child, indifferent to kids, not committed Most extreme form is neglect Conceptualization of parenting styles may be different for other cultures Specific dimensions of parenting styles, such as warmth, may be different across cultures Ex: European American children, authoritative is the most beneficial, however, for Arab societies Authoritarian parenting style is optimal For European Americans, children with authoritative parents Better school performance, higher positive mood, self-reliance, and confidence Higher emotional and social skills Secure attachment

Subjective Emotional Experience

Participants asked to rate their subjective feelings, physiological sensations, motor behavior, and expressions when they felt anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, shame, and guilt All responses differed significantly and strongly However, geographical and sociocultural factors were much smaller in their differences Concluded: - Strong and consistent differences between reaction patterns for the seven emotions - More similarities in the responses across cultures than there were differences which provides evidence for universal, psychobiological emotional patterning in subjective response.

In addition to some of the cross-cultural universality studies such as those by Ekman and colleagues, what other evidence supports the idea of universality of emotions?

People born blind make the same facial expressions as people who are not Newborns make appropriate and identifiable facial expression - have the same facial musculature that exist in adult humans and is fully functional at birth Newborns show distaste and crying In the first year of life, babies have relatively undifferentiated facial expression so negative emotions Discrete expressions of anger and sadness are shown in early part of the second year of life Preschool age kids display discrete expression of other emotions as well Study of olympic athletes (Matsumoto and Willingham) Nonhuman primates shown facial expressions of grimaces similar to human emotions of fear/ surprise Tense mouth display was similar anger Make a similar play face to happy face of humans and a pout similar to human sadness Chimps have more similar facial expression than macaques For some emotional states, bonobos (less related to humans than chimps) have more emotions in common with humans Siamangs have a limited facial expression repertoire, yet have distinguishable facial expressions accompanying sexuality, agonistic behavior, grooming and play

As we discussed in class, cross-cultural research went through several phases, from the earlier stage of cross-cultural variation study phase to the linkage studies. Make sure you are able to describe and discuss the key features of each phase.

Phase I: Cross-Cultural Comparisons Documenting cross-cultural similarities and differences Involve participants from two or more cultures who are measured on some psychological variable of interest Responses obtained from the different cultural samples are compared Phase II: Identifying Meaningful Dimensions of Cultural Variability These dimensions aid researchers in interpreting their findings. Phase III: Cultural Studies E.g., individualism-collectivism on the cultural level was linked with the concept of self on the individual level. Phase IV: linkage studies Both specific cultural context variables and dependent variables are measured, and empirically linked.

Be able to define the concept of prejudice, and be able to explain the major contributing factors/theories of prejudice (e.g., realistic-conflict theory, scapegoating theory, social identity theory, social learning theory, etc.)

Prejudice: Stereotyped beliefs, an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude & feelings toward a group and its members Realistic-Conflict Theory - Groups compete for limited resources; conflict or tension between competing groups Exploitation Theory - Prejudice is rationally & economically motivated on the basis of self interest Dominant group benefits from prejudice in that it is rooted within the exploitation of group Criticisms Not at all subordinate groups are exploited equally Prejudice occurs from reasons other than economic Prejudice is not necessarily rational & may undermine dominant group interests Scapegoating - frustration leads to blaming others for own troubles Provides an outlet for anger by blaming someone else Minorities are "safe targets" Criticisms Fails to explain why two individuals who share same experience vary in tolerance One group is used as a scapegoat while the other group is not Social Identity Theory - People favor ingroups & discriminate against outgroups in order to enhance their own self-esteem Ingroup favoritism & out-group hate are not mutually exclusive We categorize people into social groups and then place ourselves within a category Social Learning Theory - We learn by parents, peers, community, and media

Emotional Appraisal

Process by which people evaluate events, situations, or occurrences that lead to them having emotions Respondents asked to rate whether the antecedent helped them achieve their goals or blocked their goals -Happiness - Goal attainment or accomplishment -Anger - Goal obstruction Findings indicated that the basic emotions appraisal were more similar than different Basic emotions seem to be processed in a similar way across cultures

Understand the definitions of, and be able to differentiate the following concepts: race, ethnicity, nationality and culture. These terms are often treated as if they are synonymous with culture, which is problematic. Explain how race, ethnicity and nationality are different from culture as defined in the textbook.

Race - a group of people sharing certain biological/physical characteristics Not considered a culture More of a social construction than biological Racial differences give little scientific use Culture gives race meaning Ethnicity - groups characterized by common nationality, geographic origin, culture, or language (includes concepts of race and culture) Groups typically referred to as ethnic groups - AAPI, Latinx, African American, Indigenous people Considered culture Nationality - a person's country of origin When people talk about national culture, they're really talking about the dominant culture -- there are variations of culture and subcultures in every nation Culture - umbrella term encompassing social behavior, norms, knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits found in human societies

Be able to describe several strategies for improving intercultural communication and avoiding conflict and misunderstanding discussed in the text.

Respectful interaction - Try to resist stereotyping, try to appreciate someone's culture Mindfulness - allows for ethno-relativism; allows people to be conscious of their own habits, mental scripts, and cultural expectations concerning communications; especially important in dealing with conflict Motivational factors - needs of interacts, attraction between them, social bonds, self-conceptions, and openness to new information Knowledge factors - expectations, shared networks, multiple perspectives, alternative interpretations, and similarities and differences Skill factors - ability to empathize, tolerance of ambiguity, adapt communication, create new categories, accommodate behavior, gather appropriate information Tolerance for ambiguity- Being open to more than one interpretation. Intercultural communication is often ambiguous because of differences in ground rules Uncertainty reduction - efforts to reduce the level of uncertainty and anxiety that one feels when decoding messages Be aware of your "face" and its maintenance - concerns with one's appearance in public or reputation and the potential embarrassment or shame associated with a threat to that appearance Members of individualistic cultures who communicate with people from collectivist cultures should be mindful to not be pushy, be sensitive to quiet observation, practice attentive listening, discard model of dealing with problems directly, and let go of conflict if other party doesn't want to deal with them directly Members of collectivist cultures who communicate with people from individualistic cultures should focus on resolving major issues and expressing feelings/opinions openly, engage in assertive conflict behavior, take individual responsibility, provide verbal feedback, use direct verbal messages, and commit to working out the problem directly with other person Emotion regulation - involves the ability to control one's negative emotional reactions; enables one to engage in a more constructive intercultural process Negative emotions are associated with judgment

Be familiar with the general findings from cross-cultural studies on self-serving bias phenomena.

Self-serving bias: people tend to attribute success and good-deeds to their internal attributions, but tend to attribute bad deeds or failures to external attributions (true across all cultures but not to the same degree) Members of collectivist societies (EA)are more likely to adjust situation and less likely to make the error All CC studies have shown that there is a cultural difference Americans are almost always self serving

Seven Basic emotions

Seven basic emotions that are universally expressed and recognized Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise Contempt (added most recently) Over 27 studies have been done where people in different cultures have viewed facial stimuli Meta-analysis over 168 databases examined the judgements of emotion in the face and other nonverbal stimuli. Each time emotion recognitions were way over level of chance

Understand the concept and factors involved in social categorization.

Social categorization - thinking about others in terms of their social groups as opposed to individuals Influences our beliefs, perceptions, and expectations for individuals belonging to specific social categories Primary social categories - age, sex, race Neuro-psychology of categorization - we divide people into categories based on visible physical characteristics After primary social categories, we have further classify individuals based on what we pay attention to Perceptual similarity - distinctiveness across social categories Accessibility - we rely upon frequently/recently used social categories used in novel situations Perceived threat - in group/out group judgments in the face of perceived danger quickly enact social categorization

Understand the importance of nonverbal signals in communication, especially when they are in conflict with verbal content.

Sometimes verbal communication can be substituted with non verbal communication- babies can still make their needs known even before they have a grasp of the language. People who don't speak the same language can still interact with each other despite being unable to speak the same language. Facial expressions and vocal characteristics Gestures and body postures Interpersonal distance Touching behaviors Gaze and visual attention

Be able to describe and differentiate stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination, and be familiar with Merton's Typology on prejudice and discrimination.

Stereotype - cognitive - a generalized (often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people that can either be positive or negative Prejudice - affect/thinking - involves stereotyped beliefs, an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude and feelings toward a group and its members Contributions to prejudice Kinship sentiments - racial and ethnic groups are viewed as extensions of kin and may predispose people to act more favorable to one's own kin -- social biology and evolution Discrimination - behavior/doing - unfair treatment of others based on group membership Experiencing discrimination is linked to major depression and general anxiety Have similar effects to traumatic life events like war exposure Chronic exposure to racial discrimination is linked to greater daily discrimination and distress Merton's Topology

Be able to define the concept of stereotype, and familiar with reasons how stereotypes are created and why stereotypes resist change.

Stereotypes: Generalized images we have about groups of people, particularly their underlying psychological characteristics and personality traits; products of psychological processes like selective attention, attribution, concept formation and memory There is often ingroup bias with stereotypes with the exception of white americans Autostereotypes - Stereotypes about one's own group Heterostereotypes - Stereotypes about other group There is often overlap between these two ^ Sociotypes - stereotypes based on factual information Stereotypes created: People categorize concepts Concepts - psychological method of classifying events, objects, situations, behaviors, and people with respect to what we perceive as common properties Emotions reinforce important cultural concepts and very emotional reactions to people in different groups (mood & judgement) In one study, participants who were happy had positive judgments of the target people and participants who were sad had more negative judgments I nfluence of mood on judgment was larger when judging mixed race pairs Role of emotions may be greatest when participants engage in substantive processing - requires one to select, learn, and interpret novel stimuli and relate information to preexisting knowledge Role of emotions may affect judgment the least when it involves retrieving pre existing stereotypes Created by random bits of information or generalizations made with prior exposure to knowledge Stereotypes easily reinforced Convince ourselves stereotypes are correct Communication of verbal labels from generation to generation Reinforced by media, television, movies and magazines Limited exposure to a group of people We stereotype ourselves (autostereotype) We make attributions about causes of behavior (both our own and others) Stereotypes persist because Often accurate Confirm themselves (confirmation bias) Diversify through subtypes -Target group disconfirms stereotypes we see them as exceptions to the rule placing them in a separate subcategory

Describe the original universality of emotion studies (by Ekman, et al.), the main results, and how they relate to Darwin's theory of facial expression.

Study 1: Had participants in literate, industrialized, and modern cultures label the expressions that they saw in photos. There was high agreeability for key basic emotions - fear, anger, joy, sad, contempt, disgust, and surprise (contempt added last) Could be because of the media - had shared visual input across cultures Study 2: participants in two preliterate tribes in New guinea were asked to select a story hat best described a facial expression - data was similar to phase 1 Study 3: preliterate culture made facial expressions to show how they would look if they experienced different emotions, and Americans sorted them In both cases there was high agreeability in anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise (same as phase 1 and 2) Study 4: American and Japanese students had their facial expressions recorded (which they were unaware of) while watching highly stressful stimuli (to see spontaneity of emotions) They showed the same expressions at the same time (same data as previous studies)

Be able to define the concepts of socialization and enculturation.

Synonymous when referring to the process by which cultures is passed down Socialization and enculturation happen from the day you're born First through positive reinforcement and social sanctions Culture = proscriptive and prescriptive (external comes first) Enculturation: Process by which people learn requirements of their surrounding culture and acquire the values and behaviors appropriate or necessary to that culture; more focused on acquisition of traits Universal process and society specific Helps to preserve one's own culture Process of learning Social in nature Social process in which cultural elements transfer from one generation to another or from one group to another Teaches what is accepted behaviorally within society's lifestyle Teaches how to fulfill the needed functions and roles Enculturation can be conscious or unconscious Direct teaching - done mostly by parents (adults in parenting roles) Observational learning - watching others around and imitating or emulating their behavior Unconsciously - through events and behaviors All happen simultaneously People, institutions, and organizations ensure socialization and enculturation Socialization: lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn culture; focused on how to operate as a member of society Agents of socialization: Family (parents) The neighborhood Day care School and peer groups Workplace Religion groups Media

Be able to describe the concepts of attribution theory and fundamental attribution error, and describe the general findings of cross-cultural studies on these topics.

We know that the process of forming attributions is a universal psychological process that comes from our ability to see other people as intentional agents. But it's how we form those attributions that has cultural differences. Fundamental Attribution Error. The fundamental attribution error, also known as the correspondence bias, is the general tendency to attribute another individual's behavior to their personality and internal traits rather than the situation or external factors. It is considered a bias of social judgment. Early Research Ross- 1977 fundamental attribution bias: tendency to explain others behavior with internal attributions ad your own with external attributions Jones and Harris- 1967 correspondence bias: same as above- participants shown a pro castro article and assumed that the author supported castro even when told the author had to write a pro castro article. Participants consistently ignored situational attributes Heider- 1976 self serving bias: people tend to attribute good deeds to internal attributes but bad deeds to external attributes Hau and Salili- 1991 asked highschoolers to rate factors of academic success in EA and found internal attributes to be rated more important for both success and failure Crittenden- 1991 similar study to hau found taiwanese women used more external self effacing attributes that american women did- suggests that taiwanese women do this to enhance public and private self esteem and conform to the femine gender role Kashima and Triandis- 1986 japanese are more group oriented when it has to do with memory and and attention but attributed failure to themselves compared to american subjects (cultural difference in responsibility taking) Forgas Furnham and Frey- 1989 different cultural difference in responsibility for personal wealth Romero and Garza- (1986) Hispanic and Anglo women views of job success and failure Hispanic women made more attributions to luck ethnicity and gender in regards to failure