CST 110 EXAM 1

v. Models of communication:

1. The Action Model (also known as the linear model): One-way process that involves the sender encoding and the receiver decoding the message. 2. The Interaction Model: Adds to the action model by showing a two-way process in which the sender encodes and the receiver decodes the message, and the receiver then provides feedback (verbal or nonverbal) to the sender. This model also includes the context, or the environment, where the communication takes place. 3. The Transaction Model: Shows that communication happens simultaneously. Communication flows both ways with each person involved acting as both the sender and receiver.

I. Language characteristics - words only have meaning insofar as we give it to them. Language has four attributes.

A. Arbitrary: symbols themselves, having no direct connection with the thing they represent. i. Semiotics: the study of the social production of meaning from sign systems such as language. ii. Signifier: the physical thing we perceive in the world. iii. Signified: the meaning associated with the sign; that comes from an idea or mental construct of the thing. iv. Sign: an arbitrary symbol that can be interpreted as having meaning B. Ambiguous: words do not have absolute meanings and can be used in a variety of contexts and for different purposes (Example: "wicked" can mean the name of a musical, evil, or that something was cool). i. Denotative meaning: dictionary or literal definition. ii. Connotative meaning: comes from a set of associations the word brings up in our mind. a. Can be based on experiences and emotions of the person who is assigning meaning to or interpreting the word. iii. Since words have two different types of meanings, there can be much ambiguity among an audience. C. Abstract: not tangible or concrete; the more specific a speaker can be, the less abstract the language will be, thus making it easier for the speaker and audience to share the same (and intended) meaning. D. Negative: by labeling what something is, we are also labeling what it is not.

I. Guidelines for dialogic nonverbal communication

A. Ask clarifying questions: nonverbal communication can be quite ambiguous so it is important to ask a person what is meant by their action to gain clarity (Example: if someone is furrowing their brow it could mean they are concentrating or that they are confused. Clarify by asking if they are following your message). B. Don't assume others understand the meaning of your nonverbal expressions. Be mindful using nonverbal expressions with people who do not know you well. C. Control your nonverbal reactions: practice self-restraint to avoid laughing or grimacing at the wrong time during an interaction. D. Use situationally appropriate nonverbal expressions (Example: when showing up to a professor's office for an unplanned meeting, do you walk right in and sit down, or knock and wait to be invited in?). E. Learn cultural differences in meaning: Do not behave in an ethnocentric manner and expect the other party to understand your nonverbal expressions and values, nor hold others to behaving the same way you do.

Co-cultures are smaller, more specific cultures

A. Co-cultures exist within and alongside larger cultural groups B. People simultaneously belong to many different co-cultures i. Sometimes people may feel conflicted between the different cultures to which they belong

I. Communicating in a culturally diverse world means acknowledging and appreciating diversity that cultural differences provide our society.

A. Communicate with the purpose of understanding others instead of trying to convince them of something and be perceptive of the context. B. Follow these tips to enhance communication: i. Make the message accessible: Take differences into account when talking to your audience. For example, you may use captions on video clips or incorporate stories that use references anyone can relate to ii. Focus on similarities, not differences: focus on the ties that bind an audience rather than the things that make them different. Do not draw attention to different abilities or backgrounds iii. Avoid "ist" language: "ist" language calls attention to or disrespects members of a separate group. Racist, sexist, and ageist language depicts groups as objects, making them seem less important.

Principles of nonverbal communication

A. Conveys emotional and relationship information i. Helps people understand the emotional aspect of a message. ii. Nonverbal expression carries emotional weight. iii. Example: A nonverbal cue like a smile, helps us understand that a person is happy when they say, "I am doing well." B. Maintains a relationship with verbal messages i. Verbal messages help us interpret nonverbal messages and vice versa. The two have a symbiotic relationship. ii. We need both verbal and nonverbal communication to accurately convey our message. iii. But sometimes verbal and nonverbal communication can contradict each other. We must strive to maintain consistency in our messages. C. Relies on context for its meaning i. What goes on around the nonverbal message (the situation, events that influence the sender, what we know about the sender, and what is said while the nonverbal message is being sent) essentially feeds the meaning we assign it. ii. Meaning of nonverbal communication is tied to culture 1. Cultures have different norms for expressing emotion. 2. There certain behaviors, however, that seem to be universally attached to particular emotions.

There are five misconceptions that people generally hold about communication:

A. Everyone is an adept communicator: Our experience as communicators does not make us good communicators. Similarly, all those who cook often, are not chefs. B. Communication can solve any problem: There are times when communication can make things worse. In certain circumstances, it can be better to not address or discuss matters. C. There is only one type of communication: We must adapt our communication to each unique context in order to decrease chances for misunderstanding. D. Any communication is good communication: Just because you feel the need to contribute, doesn't mean you should (i.e. interruptions can actually create a negative experience). E. More communication will make people agree with you: At times, people perceive that others disagree with them simply because those people do not understand their ideas and therefore continue to communicate their ideas, pushing their opinion. This can actually cause people to disagree even more.

Managing the perceptions of ourselves in different contexts is a mental task.

A. Facework: The behaviors we use to create and maintain a positive perception of ourselves. We conduct facework in three different contexts... i. Fellowship face: an effort to fulfill the need to have others respect us; this applies to social relationships like friends, romantic partners and others you encounter in social settings. ii. Competence face: the effort to promote expertise on subjects so that others respect you; manifests in professional settings. iii. Autonomy face: This is based off our need to feel independent; the perception that we can do things on our own and avoid others making decisions for us. B. Face threats: things that threaten to damage the image we work to present to others (Example: when a first date does not go well it threatens our fellowship face). C. Managing our faces. i. Image management: the process of coordinating the presentation of our self-concept with various groups in different situations. 1. Image management is collaborative because our self-concept is constantly influenced by the interaction between ourselves and others. 2. Image management is complex because we encounter multiple audiences and have to monitor all the different parts of ourselves we show to others.

I. Age: The generation that someone lives in shapes their experiences, expectations, and attitudes toward others.

A. GI generation: generation that fought during WWII, sometimes referred to as the Greatest Generation B. Silent generation: too young to fight in WWII, came into adulthood during rise of the middle class and the relatively prosperous time that followed C. Baby boomers: children of the GI generation, grew up with Woodstock and the Vietnam War, tended to focus on careers and set high expectations for their children D. Generation X: Graduated high school in the 80s and 90s, tend to be independent, resilient, and adaptable E. Millennials: graduated high school after 2000, tend to be protected by their parents and had high expectations set for them

Dimensions of culture (six dimensions of national culture according to Hofstede) exist on a continuum

A. High versus low power distance: the amount of inequality in power distribution i. High power distance means high levels of inequality in power; this type of culture values stability and experience (example: dictatorship) ii. Low power distance means low levels of inequality of power; this type of culture values freedom of expression (example: democracy) B. High versus low uncertainty avoidance: the amount of tolerance for ambiguity and the possibility for uncomfortable or unstructured situations. i. High uncertainty avoidance: low tolerance for ambiguity and strive to minimize the possibility of unstructured situations by enforcing strict rules, safety measures; value planning and stability ii. Low uncertainty avoidance: higher tolerance for uncertainty so have fewer rules, take risks, and are more tolerant of change; more flexible and open to spontaneity C. Individualist versus collectivist i. Individualistic cultures expect that people look out for and take care of themselves and their immediate family; individualist societies have looser ties; value personal achievement and personal opinions (example: United States - people speak their mind regardless of the impact) ii. Collectivist cultures have stronger ties between individuals and often live in extended families; value group harmony over any one person or group (example: Japan - people talk around issues) D. Masculine versus feminine refers to how the emotional roles are distributed between genders as well as the value between men and women i. In masculine cultures, men are assertive and competitive, and women are somewhat assertive and competitive ii. In feminine both men and women are more modest and caring. Feminine cultures emphasize consensus iii. Genderlect (coined by Tannen) is used to describe how gender is a cultural difference and that men and women just communicate differently E. Long-term versus short-term i. Long-term cultures are pragmatic and focus on future rewards. They value persistence and adaptation ii. Short-term cultures focus more on the past and the present and saving face in the here and now. Short-term cultures emphasize national pride, tradition, and social obligations iii. Keep in mind that even what is considered long and short can vary across cultures. For example, long term to some people may mean in the next five years, whereas others may view long term as twenty years or for whole generations F. Indulgent versus restrained i. Indulgent: value individual happiness, vacation, leisure time, expression of emotion and thought ii. Restrained: have strict social norms and discourage acting out of want; leisure time and vacation are not seen as important iii. Accounting for the differences between indulgent and restrained cultures is critical to the work environment G. An additional dimension known as high versus low context (developed by Hall), is known as the amount of emphasis placed on nonverbal cues i. High context: a great deal of meaning is placed on nonverbal expressions, the environment, and situation in which the communication is taking place and less emphasis is placed on words 1. Example nations: Korea, Saudi Arabia ii. Low context: meaning is derived from language used in an interaction and less emphasis is placed on nonverbal expressions 1. Example nations: United States, Germany

Culture is defined as "the distinctive ideas, customs, social behavior, products, or way of life of a particular nation, society, people, or period."

A. Hofstede defines culture as "the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from another. The category can refer to nations, regions within or across nations, ethnicities, religious, occupations, organizations, or the genders." B. Culture influences self-images, priorities, personalities, and how we communicate

I. Ideological Diversity: Diversity of thought is just as important to consider when accounting differences while communicating. Diversity of thought usually emerges in politics.

A. Ideology: set of ideas, beliefs, and ideals that form one's worldview and provide a basis for action B. People hold ideologies about how policies and effective governance Although we think of our country as having two, distinct political parties, there are many different ideologies represented within each party

I. Religious Diversity: There are numerous faiths practiced and each one has its own cultural norms and religious perspectives, practices, and beliefs

A. It is important not to make assumptions about people based on their affiliation with a specific religious group or about those who are not affiliated with a religious group

Types of nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is about more than facial expressions and hand gestures

A. Kinesics: The study of the human body's motions and movements. i. Kinesics can be any movement of the body including: 1. Gestures: physical movements used to convey a message. 2. Posture: the physical framing and orientation of the body to another person. a. Open posture is when you have the majority of your body facing the audience or the other person, indicating interest and attention. b. Closed posture is when you shield your body from the other person, shows lack of interest or maybe even fear. c. Mirror: replicating the posture of the other person to show mutual interest. ii. Kinesics come in a variety of forms: 1. Emblems: Takes the place of a word or phrase, such as the peace sign or thumbs-up sign. 2. Illustrators: Hand gestures that help explain what we're talking about, such as pointing when giving directions. 3. Affect displays: Displays of emotion through our bodies, like jumping up and down to show excitement. 3. Regulators: Helps control the flow of conversation, such as glancing at our watch to show that you need to leave. 4. Adaptors: Comforting gestures such as touching your hair your face or your body or adjusting your clothes or glasses. Can lead people to believe you are nervous or even being dishonest. B. Oculesics: The use of eye contact to send messages. We can convey how we feel about someone based on how we look at them. This can vary based on cultural norms, however. C. Proxemics: the use of space to convey information. i. Intimate space: physical contact to 18 in; reserved for people we have intimate relationships with. ii. Personal: ranges from 18 in to about 4 ft.; indicates friendship iii. Social distance: from 4 ft up to 12 ft; for people we have little connection to; business transactions occur in this distance. iv. Public distance: 12 ft and beyond; conveys a formal situation. D. Haptics: the way touch communicates meaning. i. We use touch to exert control, convey emotion, and express an affiliation with another person, and the meaning and values placed on expressing messages through touch are culturally driven. E. Chronemics: The use and value of time. i. Monochronic: preferring to do things one at a time; breaking things up into small manageable units. ii. Polychronic: trying to several tasks at one time; having a more fluid approach to scheduling time. iii. How people treat time can show you who they are what they value. 1. Being late makes it seem like a person has more important things to do. 2. People who hold more power have greater control over the use of their time. F. Olfactics: nonverbal communication related to smell. i. Smells can create certain environments for people based on their memories associated with the smells. ii. Meanings of smells also vary by culture. In certain cultures, people do not cover up body odors, for example. G. Vocalics: the things that contribute to the sound of what you are saying. It is not what you are saying but how you are saying it. i. Volume: how loud or soft a person's voice is; loud volumes can communicate excitement or anger while softer volumes can convey little interest or that a person is shy. ii. Tone: the emphasis we place on syllables, sounds, words, and phrases 1. Contributes the overall sense of warmth our voice. 2. Monotone can convey disinterest in a subject. iii. Rate: how fast you deliver a message. 1. The average rate of speech is 150 words a minute. 2. Rate influenced by circumstances and culture. iv. Vocalized pauses: there are silent and vocalized pauses. 1. Silent pauses are when there is no sound; can enhance credibility and give audience time to digest your message. 2. Vocalized pauses are fillers such as "um"; can distract from your message and take away from your credibility. v. Gasps and sighs: the use of breadth to convey a message. 1. Gasps can communicate surprise or fear. 2. Sighs usually signal frustration, discomfort, or exhaustion. H. Artifacts: actual objects used to communicate information. i. Express your attitudes, feelings, mood, beliefs, interests, hobbies and even ideology. What we surround ourselves with, what we wear, and even the colors with which we choose to decorate ourselves and our environment reveals a great deal about us without saying a word (Example: how someone arranges the furniture in their office can communicate their preferred working relationships).

I. Why and how we listen

A. Listening helps us form or perceptions of the world around us. There are four purposes to listening: i. For appreciation: For enjoyment; not high in cognitive commitment ii. For comprehension: For understanding or learning something new; requires more mental effort iii. To show support: For relationship maintenance; to show value and that we care about what the person is saying. iv. Critical listening: For evaluation to see whether or not we agree; requires the most mental effort of all listening purposes. B. Two ways we listen: i. Active listening: paying a high degree of attention to the message. 1. We process, interpret, and store information. 2. Active listening is shown by giving eye contact, leaning in or nodding ii. Passive listening: listening without engaging in a noticeable way; trying only to absorb what is said. 1. There is likely little evaluation No assessment of our own understanding about what is being said.

Listening myths

A. Listening is the same as hearing. People often treat the two as synonymous. i. Hearing is the physiological process of capturing sound conducted by hears to the brain. Hearing is something our bodies do. ii. Listening is the cognitive process of receiving and interpreting spoken and/or nonverbal messages. Listening is a skill - something we can improve. B. I am a good listener: People tend to overestimate how good they are at listening which is problematic because usually when people are good at something, they stop working at it. C. Effective listening is hard to learn: Actual listening skills are not hard to understand or implement, they just take consistent practice and concentration. D. Intelligent people are better listeners: there is no correlation between IQ level and listening ability. There is a correlation between emotional intelligence and IQ level, however. i. Emotional intelligence: the ability a person has to identify, assess, and manage his or her own emotions while also appreciating and responding to the emotions of others in a civil manner. ii. People with high emotional intelligence are other-centered which makes them better listeners. E. Older people are better listeners: Age has nothing to do with listening skills. If we practice good listening skills early on, though, then we will be great listeners overtime (i.e. when we are older). F. Women are better listeners than men: Gender or sex do not predict listening ability. i. According to Deborah Tannen, men and women communicate differently. No way is better than the other. Women use rapport talk, while men use report talk. ii. Rapport talk: language meant to develop relationships and exchange emotional information. 1. People oriented communication used to build connections. iii. Report talk: the exchange of information, solutions, and problem-solving strategies. 1. Content oriented Concentrate on the substance of the message versus the emotion

I. Terms and structures of language

A. Metaphoric language can be used to help get the meaning across and can help make a message more memorable to an audience. i. Simile: language device that compares two things using "like" or "as". ii. Synecdoche: metaphor that uses one part of something to refer to the whole thing (Example: ABC's). iii. Metonym: metaphor identified by its use of tangible objects to refer to intangible things ("heart" refers to "passion"). iv. Archetypal: use common human experiences to help describe another object. v. Mixed metaphors: make use of two different metaphors that do not logically fit. vi. Dead metaphors: commonplace phrases that have lost their creative element. B. Language structures can be used to organize our messages to be more appealing to our audience. i. Repetition: repeating words or phrases either immediately after the phrase or in the same location throughout the whole message (MLK's I have a dream speech). ii. Alliteration: using the same vowel or consonant sound at the beginning of consecutive words. iii. Parallelism: placing related words or phrases in a pattern to make clear what they have in common. iv. Antithesis: placing two contrasting ideas side by side in a phrase v. Narrative: using stories (narrative paradigm). a. Narrative coherence: content of story hangs together and makes sense. (Are the characters acting in a consistent way? Does the order of the events make sense?). Narrative fidelity: how well the story reflects the beliefs and values of the audience or rings true to them

What is not dialogue

A. Monologue: a style of communication where only one voice is respected (works well when there needs to be one directive, like in the military). Debate: competitive form of communication; critically listen with a goal to defeat the opponent

I. Physical diversity goes beyond appearance. It includes our abilities and limitations (Example: blindness, muscular strength).

A. Note that people with the same impairment are not necessarily limited in the same way

Attitudes necessary for dialogue

A. Open-mindedness: listening without judgment, taking into account that others may have ideas as good, or better, than our own. B. Genuineness: keeping your contribution true, honest, and direct (like when apologizing). C. Sensitivity: caring how your message may affect others. i. Sensitive: understanding and respecting diversity. D. Agreeableness: giving yourself a chance to agree with the other; emphasize those points of agreement. i. Agreeable: remaining open to the idea that you might agree with someone. E. Ethical integrity: applying our values (sense of fairness) to situations. i. Morality: inner sense of right and wrong. ii. Integrity: consistent application of our values in every situation.

Perception is a key component to understanding how communication influences our identity and the world around us.

A. Perception is noticing and giving meaning to the things around us. B. There are three stages of perception: i. Stage one - Selection is the act of consciously or subconsciously attending to stimuli in the environment. 1. We usually pay attention to things that are unusual, common, and intense (remember that what is common for one person may be uncommon for another). ii. Stage two - Organization: after we decide what to attend to, we classify it based on other things we are already familiar with that are either similar or dissimilar to the new stimuli. 1. Schemas: mental framework (or shortcut) used to organize experiences. iii. Stage 3 - Interpretation: Assigning meaning to the stimuli. Our interpretation is influenced by many different variables, our expectations being one of them. 1. Expectancy violation theory: asserts that we hold expectations for what we deem appropriate or typical for a type of person or relationship. When expectancies are violated, we go through an evaluation process to determine how to respond. a. We assess the valence of the violation, which can be negative or positive (Example: someone talking too loudly in an environment that is typically silent would receive a negative evaluation). b. We then assess the communicator reward value, which is our feelings toward the person who did the violating.

We communicate not only to get things done but to fulfill needs, much like those outlined by Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Communication is, therefore, purposeful.

A. Physical needs include food, sleep, and other basic/physiological needs. As humans, we are social beings and need to have contact with others. In communication, this could be a support group. B. Instrumental and task needs include safety and practical needs. This includes communication used to share phone numbers, get directions, or to build a bridge. C. Relational need is the need for companionship with others and communication is how we establish and maintain relationships or build connections. These types of connections can be face-to-face or digital. D. Identity need is the need to define (and redefine) and understand who we are. We use communication to construct our self-image. E. Spiritual need includes the need to be driven by purpose or understand the profound questions of life.

Nonlistening is giving the appearance that you are listening without actually paying attention to the message

A. Pseudolistening: hiding our lack of attention by using nonverbal and verbal responses to make the speaker think we are listening (Example: saying "yeah" in conversation every so often). B. Glazing over: when you lose complete attention with what is going on and are thinking about something else entirely. i. Spare brain time: the gap between the 150 words per minute spoken and the 650 words per minute we can mentally process. The gap creates opportunities for our brains to turn our attention on something else. C. Ambushing: focusing only on the weaknesses in a message and ignoring the strengths of the position. This type of nonlistening exacerbates interpersonal tension. D. Prejudging: entering an interaction with a judgement about what we believe will be said before the message is presented. Since we think we know that message, we are less likely to pay attention. E. Selective listening: choosing what the main points are regardless of what the speaker says. F. Advising: interrupting a person to offer suggestions and opinions in an effort to be helpful even when suggestions are not requested. We must wait until the speaker actually asks for advice.

Race and ethnicity in culture

A. Race is a cultural marker that refers to a set of physical characteristics shared by a group of people, such as skin color, body type, facial structure, and hair color. Generally inherited and reflect geographic region where ancestors are from B. Ethnicity is another cultural marker and refers to a group of people who identify with each other based on common experience. Common experience can include geographic or national origin, ancestry, history, cultural and social norms, religion, race, language, ideology, food, or dress Ethnic heritage can serve as reinforcement for individual identity through cultural celebrations (Example: Feast of San Gennaro - the food festival celebrated by Italian Americans)

Functions of nonverbal communication can help and sometimes hinder the effectiveness of your message

A. Repeating: physical actions that follow what is said, reinforce the message (Example: Saying hello and then immediately extending your hand for a handshake). B. Accenting: nonverbal behaviors that help highlight or intensify parts of the message and are performed while the message is being delivered (Example: pounding fist on the podium while making an important point). C. Complementing: nonverbal behaviors that occur at the same time that the message is being delivered and communicate the same content (Example: laughing while telling a joke). D. Substituting: physical actions that take the place of verbal messages (Example: shrugging your shoulders to indicate that you don't know something). E. Regulating: the actions that govern the course of interactions with others (Example: raising your hand to speak). F. Conflicting: when a verbal message says one thing while corresponding nonverbal behaviors indicate something different (Example: saying "turn right" while pointing left)

In addition to knowing and combating the myths listed above, becoming a competent communicator involves five more important communication behaviors. First though, communication competence is defined as the ability to effectively and appropriately communicate in any situation.

A. Self-Awareness: Paying attention to how or what you say/act, influences or impacts others. i. High self-monitors: pay close attention to how they look, sound, and react, as well as what they say when in situations with other people ii. Low self-monitors: pay minimal attention to these things, and are thus not aware that they may be making a negative impression on others. B. Responsiveness and adaptability: Communicating based on how others respond to you. C. Person centered messages: Consistently taking other people's thoughts, feelings, and ideas into account. We can anticipate how others will react to us and adapt accordingly by using... i. Generalized other: a composite mental image we use to "test" our potential statements or behaviors before we actually enact them. ii. Empathy: The ability to understand and feel the same way as others D. Cognitive complexity: the ability to recognize the multiple ways in which a situation can be interpreted; achieved or improved through patience and an open mind. E. Ethics and Civility: Exercising honesty and politeness in communication while also being assertive (not to be confused with aggressive).

I. Perception also affects how we define ourselves.

A. Self-concepts are the images we have of who we believe we are. Our self-concepts are all different, but our identities share four characteristics: i. Shaped by others: We perceive ourselves based on how others respond to us. 1. Can be through direct or indirect communication from others. 2. We are also influenced by what we think others think of us. ii. Are multifaceted: People define themselves differently based on the situation they are in. 1. We are the sum of many smaller selves. 2. Johari Window: A model that describes aspects of self-concept based on what you know about yourself and what others know about you. It is made up of four quadrants. a. Open: Things we know about ourselves and others know. b. Blind: The things others know about you that you do not know about yourself. c. Hidden: The things you know about yourself but do not share with others. d. Unknown: The things that neither you or others know about you (Example: how you might respond to something in the future). iii. Are somewhat subjective: Most of our self-concept is driven by subjective interpretation and so people cannot be counted on to evaluate themselves accurately. 1. People often overestimate their positive qualities or 2. People negatively evaluate their attributes, usually when self-esteem is low. iv. Endure and change: We develop our self-concept over a long period of time. 1. Changing self-concept is a slow process. 2. It changes based on experiences we have and the people we encounter. As we get older, we tend to spend time with those who reinforce our self-concept

Dialogic behaviors - used to create a supportive communication climate

A. Separate facts from interpretations: using qualifiers at the beginning of statements such as "I believe..." so that others know you are stating your interpretation of a fact. This helps bridge the perceptual gap. B. Ask clarifying questions: a tool to seek information without implying judgement (Example "can't you see how that job is beneath you" versus "what new responsibilities will you have in this position?". C. Allow others to speak fully: avoid finishing someone's statement when you think you know where it is going; putting your own desire to speak aside. D. Take notes: a strategy used to keep from interrupting every time you have a comment or question. E. Give complete attention: be fully present and express interest in what is being said. Own your own statements: involves using "I" language instead of "you" language (Example: "you are a liar" versus "I need more convincing").

Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

A. Sex is one's biological classification based on reproductive function i. Sexual orientation is the emotional and romantic dimension of sex and gender and is defined as the sex and gender whom a person is attracted to. B. Gender is a social construction that includes all the beliefs, attitudes, actions, and roles associated with being masculine, feminine, androgynous, and so on i. Gender Identity is informed by one's biological sex, but it goes beyond physical characteristics. It includes a sense of self that includes a range of possibilities that include identifying as a woman, non-binary, genderqeer, agender, or a man ii. Gender roles include the societal expectations for individuals based on their declared gender iii. Gender expression is the way people communicate their preferred gender identity through clothing, hairstyle, etc.

I. Guidelines for dialogic listening

A. Stop talking: when we speak, we are not listening; this means stop interrupting or trying to finish other people's sentences. B. Make listening a goal: make the conscious decision when entering an interaction to listen. C. Remove distractions: recognize what might distract you from listening well and remove such obstacles. If you listen better after lunch (i.e. hunger is a distraction), schedule meetings or your harder classes in the afternoon. D. Listen for ideas: focus on the actual ideas in a message rather than the smaller details. E. Listen to nonverbals as well as content: Do not get hung up on the content in a way that causes you to ignore nonverbal expressions. Nonverbal expression can help us know what the speaker truly thinks is important. Focus on agreement and not disagreement: It is natural to listen for things we disagree with but focusing on finding some common ground will communicate to the speaker that you are paying full attention. This requires patience and genuineness.

What is dialogue

A. Style of communication that involves... i. Respecting others ii. Encouraging others to listen iii. Listening in a way that encourages others to speak B. Four key parts to dialogue i. Civility: treating people with respect with the goal of having a peaceful exchange. a. Politeness: demonstrated through good manners (or polite behaviors) based on context. b. Respect for others: acknowledging another person's inherent dignity, their presence and their ideas. c. Respect for self: respecting our own ideas in interactions with others (being assertive not aggressive). ii. Presentness: commitment to the conversation iii. Unconditional Positive Regard: expecting good in others iv. Mutual Equality: all those in the communication are regarded as of equal value.

The process of listening involves several steps

A. The HURIER model i. Hearing: Taking cues. These are all of the sounds we take in but do not necessarily process beyond the physiological component. ii. Understanding: making sense of the cues. iii. Remembering: storing the information and being able to retrieve it later. iv. Interpreting: making meaning out of the cues by carefully considering all possible interpretations of the cues. v. Evaluating: making a judgement about the truth-value of the message or separating out opinion from fact. Responding: signaling to the sender that you have received the message. Also known as feedback. The feedback should match the message and the context.

We communicate by using a system of symbols that are constructed, delivered, and interpreted. In communication, symbols are the unit of analysis, or what researchers study.

A. The Semantic Triangle (Ogden & Richards) is a visual representation of the making of meaning and includes three parts: i. Referents are actual things or objects. ii. Symbols are words or images that represent the referent iii. Thoughts are mental constructs or ideas about the things that connect the symbol to the referent. iv. We can share meaning with people who use our same symbol system (i.e. speak the same language). B. The communication process involves three models. All three models are made up the same basic components, while two of the models have additional elements: i. Encoding is creating a message with symbols ii. Channel is how the symbols travel to the recipient (example: text message, phone, email). iii. Noise is anything that hinders the recipient's ability to receive and then interpret the message and can be physical noise, such as other people talking or hunger, or psychological noise like unwillingness to listen or an emotional response to a message. iv. Decoding is the process of interpreting the symbols within a message, which gives them meaning. v. Models of communication: 1. The Action Model (also known as the linear model): One-way process that involves the sender encoding and the receiver decoding the message. 2. The Interaction Model: Adds to the action model by showing a two-way process in which the sender encodes and the receiver decodes the message, and the receiver then provides feedback (verbal or nonverbal) to the sender. This model also includes the context, or the environment, where the communication takes place. 3. The Transaction Model: Shows that communication happens simultaneously. Communication flows both ways with each person involved acting as both the sender and receiver.

I. Cognitive diversity refers to the differences in IQ, learning preferences, interests, memory, and experience among people

A. The way people differ cognitively is not always immediately apparent B. Multiple intelligences: Psychologist Howard Gardner proposed that we have different modalities for learning, and they include: i. Verbal-linguistic: learning through spoken and written words ii. Mathematical-logical: learning through reasoning and problem solving iii. Musical: learning through songs, patterns, rhymes iv. Visual-spatial: think in images and pictures v. Bodily-kinesthetic: learning through interaction with one's environment vi. Intrapersonal: learning through feelings, values, and attitudes vii. Interpersonal: learning through interactions with others viii. Naturalist: learning through classification and categories ix. Existential: learning by seeing the big picture C. Multiple intelligence theory: proposes that although individuals can access and learn about the world through each of the seven intelligences, people differ in strength of their aptitude or preference for those various intelligence

I. Guidelines for dialogic language: linguistic choices we make often make the difference between establishing an atmosphere conducive to dialogue or creating a more combative environment.

A. Use inclusive language: avoid setting yourself apart by using "I" and "me," and instead use "we"; use gender neutral language. B. Avoid profanity C. Avoid hate speech D. Use culturally appropriate metaphors: not every metaphor will work on all audiences. i. Idioms: metaphoric meanings that are derived from cultural markers E. Use familiar language F. Be specific and concrete: incorporate vivid examples and details. G. Use descriptive, not evaluative language: laying out facts without judgement.

We often make assumptions about others based on how we perceive them.

A. We attribute another person's behavior to one of two categories: i. Situational: Also known as external; we attribute what someone is doing to an environmental factor (Example: your friend is late because there was traffic). ii. Internal: Also known as interpersonal; we assume someone did something because of their character (Example: your friend is late because they are careless or have poor time management). iii. Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to overestimate the internal characteristics and underestimate the influence of external factors. B. Many things can interrupt, influence, and affect how we perceive. i. Physical influences: 1. Physiological state: the temporary condition of the body such as being tired, sick, or hungry. 2. Physiologic traits: permanent conditions that affect us such as our natural time for optimal productivity. a. Lark: functions best early in the day. b. Owl: functions best at later times of the day. c. Hummingbird: function well throughout the day ii. Cultural influences (Example: collectivist culture emphasizes community over individual achievement so would perceive copying someone's work as normal whereas someone from a Western culture would interpret it as cheating). iii. Occupational influences: specific training and skill sets allow for people to be attuned to specific things in situations. iv. Psychological influences and biases: 1. Stereotyping: generalizations about groups of people that are applied to an individual we believe to be part of the group. Problems arise when we hold tight to the rigid expectations. v. Primacy and recency effects: 1. Primacy effect: People are likely to emphasize their first impression of someone or something over subsequent encounters. 2. Recency effect: People are also prone to using their most recent impressions of someone or something to influence perceptions. vi. Positivity and negativity bias: The tendency to highlight or overemphasize either positive or negative information and characteristics when creating an impression. vii. Egocentrism: Most of us like to talk about ourselves so there is a need to manage this desire. If we don't, we are likely to perceive that people experience things the same way as us and that people act toward us. Egocentric: People who are completely focused on themselves and ignorant to the needs of others.

Diversity and culture impact our communication with others every day

A. We must make sure that we are respectful and sensitive when interacting with others in a myriad of contexts (classroom, professional settings, family, social media)