CYAF 471: EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE
Female anatomy, physiology, and health
Female anatomy, physiology, and health
Introduction and historical perspective
Introduction and historical perspective
Richard Von Krafft-Ebbing
Investigated deviant sexual behavior. - Anything other than perforated sex—which eliminates sex with a member of your own gender, masturbation, oral or anal sex.
Bartholin's glands
Located in the Introitus of the vestibule. - Secrete fluid shortly before orgasm whose purpose is unknown. - Infection (clogging) can cause swelling/irritation.
Vaginal photoplethysmograph
Measures arousal via changes in vaginal blood volume via reflected light.
Testicular cancer
Most common form of cancer in males 15-44. - Caused by testicles not dropping, - Often few symptoms until it is advanced, Symptoms: lump/painless mass, pain in the lower back, testicals feel heavier/harder, swelling of the breasts, shortness of breasts, and obstruction in the urethra. - Usually appears as painless mass or general hardness of testes. - One of the most curable forms of cancer (it is easier to detect and takes a while to spread but grows fast). - Treatment: radiation therapy, get a testical removed and replaced with a prosthetic one (this can affect your fertility though, but you can freeze your sperm until you and your partner want kids some day). 1.
Questionnaires
Can involve T/F, MC, or free-answer questions. · Advantages— - Generally cheaper/more practical than interviews. - Can get higher response rates due to less embarrassing format. - Less subject to researcher bias. · Disadvantages— - Also subject to self-report bias. - Subjects can skip uncomfortable questions.
Experimental designs
designs involving random assignment to groups and manipulation of the independent variable. - Involves manipulation of one or more variables to investigate causation.
Comstock laws
Named for Anthony Comstock, former postal inspector. · Passed in 1873 to prevent and prosecute distribution of material considered "obscene" through the mail, including medical texts and information on birth control and STIs.
Randomized controlled trials
o Involves randomly assigning subjects to receive one of a number of possible interventions. o State of the art for clinical research. o What you REALLY want is one treatment, compared to another treatment, compared to no treatment. (As opposed to just one treatment compared to no treatment, bc this gives you a better clue as to whether it's just the intervention or whether it's the specific intervention).
Birth control movement/Margaret Sanger
· Margaret Sanger—spoke out against the Comstock Laws, arguing contraception improved quality of life, reduced poverty, and prevented abortions. · By the early 20th century, 74% of the population reported using some type of contraception (e.g., withdrawal, dushing, rubber condoms, etc.). · During the Great Depression, acceptance of birth control increased.
Sexual Intelligence
self-understanding, interpersonal sexual skills, scientific knowledge, and consideration of the cultural context of sexuality.
Descriptive designs
· Examination of a phenomenon or group of phenomena; NO MANIPULATION of variables. (most research is descriptive; most sex research is descriptive).
Experimental groups and control groups
· Experimental group—subjects who receive the intervention. · Control group—subjects who do not receive the intervention; compared to the experimental group to see if the intervention produced a difference.
Gay Liberation Movement
· Gays/lesbians persecuted after WWII. · Stonewall riot—raid on gay bar in NYC resulted in clash with police, increased gay activism. By the mid 1970s, homosexuality was no longer classified as a mental illness and the federal Civil Service ended its ban on unemployment of homosexuals. (p. 639)
Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH)
- Age related enlargement of prostate. - May cause difficulty urinating and/or increased urinary frequency (e.g., at night). - Can help to reduce fluids (especially at night), avoid caffeine and alcohol, increase activity, and don't "hold it" too long (pee). - Treatment: medication or surgery if it causes frequent UTIs or damage to bladder or kidneys.
Effects of douching
- Douching shoots things up higher into your reproductive system--it's bad for ppl on birth control also. Increases risk of: -infections (e.g., HIV) -pelvic inflammatory disease -pregnancy complications (endometriosis and ectopic pregnancy) -cervical cancer
Loving Case
- Prosecuted for violating the VA law. - VA law overturned by the Supreme Court in 1967, rendering unconstitutional all remaining similar laws. - Anti-miscegenation law was eliminated nation-wide.
Retrospective self-report
(asking about past behavior) tends to be unreliable as memories degrade with time. --same thing as "eye-witness testimony" idea.
Seminal vesicles
- 2" long - Add secretions to sperm, making up 60-70% of volume of semen. Secretions... - Include fructose, energizing sperm (also giving the sperm something to live and move in). - Are alkaline, to counteract acidity of vagina. - Contain prostaglandins, causing contractions in female reproductive tract to help move sperm. Seminal vesicles merge with vas deferens to form ejaculatory ducts moving sperm into the prostate gland.
Cowper's (or bulbourethral) glands
- Adds mucus and more alkaline secretions to seminal fluid. - Fluid may appear prior to ejaculation and contains some sperm.
Urinary tract infections
- Females are much more likely to get infected by this since there is a much smaller passage. - Usually caused by bacteria from colon, which can be transmitted during sexual activity. Also from having sex when switching between the butt and vagina without any sanitation between. Can be caused by wiping (after using the bathroom) from back to front. - Symptoms: increased urinary frequency and burning during urination. - Prevention: wipe front to back, wash hands before touching genitals, urinate after intercourse, don't hold pee for too long, and drink 2 quarts of water a day. - Treatment depends on the cause, but it can involve antibiotics, eating yogurt and acetaminophen (but antibiotics can set off your chemical balance and lead to a yeast infection).
Random sample
- Group chosen in such a way that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. - Thus likely to be representative of the population, giving you confidence in your finding.
Anabolic steroid use
- Involves consumption of synthetic androgens (sex hormones). - Excess testosterone is converted to estrogen - Can cause liver damage, increased cholesterol, testicular shrinkage, gynecomastia, behavioral changes (e.g., aggression, increased risk of suicide).
Gynecomastia
- Male breast enlargement. - Can be due to marijuana use or hormonal imbalance. - Male breasts serve no apparent function. - Male breast cancer is uncommon and often not detected until advanced (which is why the death rate is very high).
Stonewall Riot
- New York city @ a bar called Stonewall Inn - Triggered activist protests among gays and lesbians - police raided gay bar - people fought back - became symbol of oppression of gays, began the gay pride movement - raid on gay bar in NYC resulted in clash with police, increased gay activism.
Inguinal hernia
- Occurs when intestines protrude into pathway taken by descending testes. - Damages intestines. - Treatment: surgery.
Priapism
- Painful and enduring erection. - Can be caused by drugs (e.g., ED medications, cocaines, marijuana), but can also happen for no apparent reason. - Most common in ages 5 to 10 and 20 to 50. - Treatment: draining the blood with a needle. - Without treatment can cause tissue damage. A painful erection that lasts 4 hours or more but is not accompanied by sexual excitement.
Female genital mutilation—types and complications (female circumcision)
- Performed in US from 1890s-1930s to stop women from masturbating. - Performed currently in parts of Middle East, Africa, and Asia, often to (1) ensure virginity at marriage, and (2) address perception of clitoris as "male." - About 200 million affected worldwide. Types: - Circumcision: removal of clitoral hood. - Clitoridectomy: removal of clitoris. - Genital infibulation: removal of clitoris, labia, minora, and most of labia majora. (prevents woman from having sex completely until midwife cuts it). Complications: - Infections - Bleeding out - HIV - Commonly done without anesthesia/disinfectants, usually done by a midwife with a razor or piece of glass. - Can cause infection, trouble urinating/menstruating, childbirth complications, shock, death. - Condemned by the WHO and United Nations--there is no health benefits found from having this done.
Process of spermatogenesis
- Process by which sperm are formed. - Generally begins around age 10 (before puberty in boys, so he could potentially impregnate a girl). - takes 72 days total. - complete production at about 300 million mature per day (as opposed to girls, who only produce 1 a month) - Spermatogonium: immature sperm; develop in outer lining of seminiferous tubules, then move towards center. - Spermatozoa—mature sperm cells. Parts include: Head (contains chromosomes and enzymes to penetrate egg), Midpiece (generates energy), Flagellum (tail; provides propulsion). In the testes, sperm develop from spermatogonia Throughout childhood, these cells divide mitotically many times to produce additional spermatogonia., which contain a diploid number of chromosomes. Sperm is unlimited in males. Spermatogonium increases in size and becomes a primary spermatocyte, which undergoes the first meiotic division, forming two equal secondary spermatocytes. These cells the divide meiotically and form four equal spermatids, containing haploid number of chromosomes. Each one of these cells is a sperm.
Andropause
- Reduction in testosterone in males over 70. - Can cause decreased sex drive and muscle strength, fatigue, and moodiness (this can be a real concern for the elderly since they can fall more easily). Loss of hair and thinner skin, trouble healing from illness, impaired concentration, and sleep problems also can occur. - Testosterone replacement therapy can be helpful for men with demonstrated testosterone deficits and associated symptoms, but may accelerate growth of prostate cancer.
feminine hygiene sprays
- Vaginal deodorant sprays (unnecessary bc you can't even smell it until the fluids reach the air anyway). - Can cause irritation - Can potentially lead to ovarian cancer.
Roots of the sexual revolution
-Female employment increased during WWII but dropped after war. -Simone de Beauvoir and Betty Friedan encouraged questioning of traditional gender roles. -Development of penicillin enabled treatment of STIs. -The birth control pill —very effective, placing reproduction under individual woman's control. -Legalization of abortion (1973).
Behaviors common in non-human animals
-Masturbation -sexual interactions with same gender -sexual signaling (flirting)
Testicular torsion
-Twisting of testes on spermatic cord. - Twisting can occur during exercise or sex and is most common during puberty to age 25. - Treatment: medical attention/surgery. If they don't untwist, it can cause atrophy. It has to be untwisted within 24hrs or you lose the testicle. - Symptoms: Severe pain and swelling, for some it's just an aching feeling
Social desirability (bias)
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself (that will reflect them well).
Normal penis size
3-4" flaccid; 5-6" errect. - Heterosexual porn - Condom manufacturers need to know the size of the penis. - Larger not associated with greater sexual satisfaction. - Size can be changed only by surgery, but results tend to be dissatisfactory (e.g., erections point down, lumps).
Self-selection bias
A bias that occurs because people who feel strongly about a subject are more likely to respond to survey questions than people who feel indifferent about it. - people who volunteer for sex research are more likely to be sexually experienced and sexually liberal than the general population.
Smegma
A cheesy substance of glandular secretions and skin cells that sometimes accumulates under the foreskin of the penis or hood of the clitoris. - Can cause infection. - Another reason to get circumsized.
Penile strain gauge
A device for measuring sexual arousal through changes in penile circumference. (Measures whether a man is attracted to something or not based on whether his penis becomes erect).
Prostate gland
A gland in males that contributes to the seminal fluid. Adds alkaline secretions as fluid passes through to the urethra.
Demographic bias
A kind of sampling bias in which certain segments of society (such as White, middle-class, white-collar workers) are disproportionately represented in a study population. - Much sex research is conducted in middle-class college communities.
National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior
A national survey of sexual behavior / experiences and condom-use in the United States, based at Indiana University and published in 2010.
Benefits of Kegel exercises
A series of exercises that strengthen the muscles underlying the external female or male genitals. - Involve practicing tightening and relaxing pelvic floor muscles. - Identified by stopping stream of urine. - Can improve ejaculatory control, strength of organsms, overall genital sensation.
Grafenberg spot (G-spot) (pg. 57-58)
A small region on the front wall of the vagina, emptying into the urethra, and responsible for female ejaculation. - Size of a dime in the lower third of vagina, towards the front, just beyond pubic bone. - Stimulation causes pleasure, sometimes orgasm with up to 4 oz of ejaculation. - The fluid is chemically similar to that of urine (it is basically pee)--female porn stars may drink water before a scene in order to squirt more easily.
Case study
A specific type of qualitative study; examines either a single participant or a small group of participants with rare conditions. A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Religious refusal/religious freedom restoration legislation
Aims to create exemptions from anti-discrimination laws based on religious grounds. - (States have passed laws trying to remove penalties from people who deny services to people based on their sexual or gender orientation).
Independent vs. dependent variables
An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.
Biopsychosocial approach
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Inguinal canal
An opening that leads directly into the abdominal cavity.
Eugenics Movement
Argued population could be improved by sterilizing/forbidding marriages of people with undesired characteristics (e.g., mental illnesses, genetic disorders). - U.S. was the first country to take action—over 30 states passed laws restricting marriages and permitting sterilization, often forced. Nazi Germany— · 1933 law permitted forced sterilization for people with "genetic" illness (intellectual disability, various mental illnesses, hereditary blindness, or deafness). · Resisters sent to concentration camps. · 400,000 sterilized by the end of Nazi era. · Sterilization of mixed-race people illegal, but covertly pursued by government (found a way to do it anyway). · Could not be prosecuted as a crime against humanity due to eugenics laws in allied countries. The Jewish were the only one's allowed to have an abortion. o [BW1] ~2,000 women died from the sterilization operation. o Doctors were supposed to register anyone with a suspected mental illness.
Circumcision—pros and cons
Arguments for: - Custom. - Health benefits include cleanliness, reduced rates of gonorrhea, syphilis, UTIs, and STIs (mostly for heterosexuals) including HIV, urinary tract infections, and penile cancer for men who have sex with women. Arguments against— - Any surgery carries risk of infection/hemorrhage. - American Academy of Pediatrics and CDC now assert benefits outweigh risks.
Spermatic chord
Attaches to testes, which are suspended on it. - Parts include: Cremasteric muscle fibers (moves testes up or down as needed), and Vas deferens (Tubes that carry sperm from testes to seminal vesicles; about 18" long; when the sperm enters the Vas deferens, they don't have liquid to move in yet so they get moved by celia).
Penile injuries (penile fractures)
Can be caused by sexual devices (e.g., "cock rings"), vacuum cleaners, or excess weight placed on penis during intercourse
Yin and Yang energy
CHINA: Yin: feminine, passive Yang: masculine, assertive o We combine yin and yang energies through sex. o The more contact the yang had with the yin, the more energy you had. o "Having sex with the same gender was seen as a western import and was not allowed."
Kama Sutra
Detailed manual for sexual activity, also including information on improving relationships and family functioning. - Used in India sex culture A "love guide"
Difference between regulation of dietary supplements and medications
Dietary supplements—generally provide inferior nutrition compared to food. - Protein: can contribute to dehydration. - Whey protein: only supplement that seems to add muscle mass, but same benefit can be derived from drinking milk (but it takes a TON of milk). Dietary supplements do not need to be approved by or registered with the FDA, thus regulation is much weaker than for medications. - Unlike dietary supplements, medications are closely regulated.
Vulva
External sex organs/genitals. (All the outside stuff). - Mons veneris: fatty cushion resting over pubic bone. Function is largely protective. - Labia majora: two parallel folds of skin extending from the mons veneris to the perineum (tissue between vagina and anus). Inner surface contains sebaceous (oil) glands. During sexual excitement it engorges with blood.
Uterus
Grows the babies. - Usually about 3" long, 2" wide, and 1" thick, and pear-shaped. - Cervix - Fundus: dome-shaped top of uterus. - Perimetrium: outer layer of uterus that helps it hold its shape. Made from same material as covering of other internal organs. - Myometrium: muscular layer. Responsible for contractions that expel components of uterus (menstrual fluid or babies). - Endometrium
Prostaglandins (pg. 67)
Hormones that induce uterine contractions. A group of bioactive, hormone-like chemicals derived from fatty acids that have a wide variety of biological effects including roles in inflammation, platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle dilation and constriction, cell growth, protection of from acid in the stomach, and many more.
Slut shaming
Humiliating, intimidating, or degrading a person (typically a woman) because of their sexual behavior.
Challenges of sex research (refer to ppt)
Nature of the content: - Privacy of sexual behavior. - Links to emotional/moral issues. Discomfort with the topic of sexual behavior produces high nonresponse rates (Getting someone to agree to have sex in front of a researcher for $50 is highly unlikely.) - Random Sampling is low - Self-selection bias - Demographic bias. - Self-report bias - Retrospective self-report
Direct observation
Observing behavior as it occurs. · Advantages—much more accurate/less subject to bias than self-report data. · Disadvantages— - Subject to reactivity (process by which behavior changes because it is being measured), and thus may not generalize to population. - Not practical to use random sampling. Can be very expensive.
Advantages/disadvantages of internet research
PAGE 38 - 39 in text book
Prostate cancer
PG 103 - 104 - The second leading cause of death due to cancer (after lung cancer). - The second most frequently diagnosed cancer among U.S. males. - 60% of cases in men over 65. - Twice as common in African Americans--recommended to consider screening at age 45 (55 for other ethnicities with no family history). - There is evidence that it can be related vitamin D levels. (The darker pigment of your skin protects you from the sun). Treatments: "watchful waiting" (doing nothing), surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. - May cause ED and urinary retention difficulties.
Reactivity
Process by which behavior changes because it is being measured.
Penis (root, glans, foreskin)
Penis: A male sexual organ consisting of the internal root and the external shaft and glans. Root: Base of penis, attaching it to pelvic bones. Glans: The smooth, acorn-shaped head filled with nerve endings. Shaft: The length of the penis between the glans and the body. Foreskin: loose hood of skin over glans Urethral orifice: opening through which urine and semen are voided.
Process of penile erection
Process of erection (engorgement with blood, causing increase in size) -Arteries triggered to expand by autonomic (involuntary component of) nervous system, increasing blood flow in cavernous and spongy bodies. -Outflow is reduced, causing excess blood to be retained. -Ends when arteries constrict, causing excess blood to drain.
Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions. Descriptive design that involves questioning a sample of people about behaviors or attitudes.
Vaginitis (pg. 72)
Refers to inflammation of vagina. (-itis = inflammation) - Causes: antibiotics (messes with general ph/chemistry in body), birth control pills, irritation/allergic and chemical reactions (including hygiene products you might be using), lack of sleep (fatigue), and poor diet. - Symptoms: abnormal discharge, burning, itching, urinary urgency (really really feeling like you have to go pee). - Prevention: wear cotton underwear, wash with soap, reduce carb intake (messes with the acidity of the vagina), and have sex with well washed partners. - Treatment: antibiotics (but this can cause problems too, so it's better to stick with the preventions mentioned above).
Research
Research
Magnus Hirschfeld
Sex researcher: German founder of first sex research institute, first large-scale sex survey, 10,000 people, 130 questions, interested in homosexuality · Created first scientific journal focused on sexuality. · Developed clinic to treat STIs, infertility, and sexual problems.
Randomization of subjects
Subjects assigned in such a way that each has an equal chance of ending up in either the experimental or the control group. (You can't randomly assign someone their sexual orientation).
Muscle dysmorphia—including successful treatments
Subtype of body dysmorphic disorder (very similar to OCD). - Unrealistic concern that one's body is undersized/lacks muscle. - Preoccupation causes distress and/or dysfunction (e.g., excessive amount of time/money spent on exercising). - Associated with increased risk of steroid use and suicide. - Rates are increasing. - Treated with SSRIs and cognitive-behavioral therapy. - Plastic surgery is not recommended for muscle dysmorphia as concerns are not reality-based anyway.
National Health and Social Life Survey (pg. 31-32)
The 1994 study that revealed that Americans are usually exclusive with partner (median six total for men and two for women), have sex about once a week, that 75% of men and 85% of women report remaining faithful to their spouses, most have traditional sexual behaviors, are rarely homosexual, that men have orgasms much more frequently than women (except married women), 22% of women and 3% of men report being forced to have sex, and 3% of people report never having had sex. First large-scale population-based survey on sexual attitudes/practices conducted in the U.S. Representative sample, unlike Kinsey Report. Conducted in 1992 with approx. 3,500 respondents.
Vagina
Tube of tissue extending from external genitalia to cervix (opening of uterus). Penis and sperm travel up during sexual intercourse; menstrual fluid and babies travel down. - At usual state is about 4" in length - Expands during intercourse and childbirth. - Walls create secretions to (1) maintain chemical balance, and (2) provide lubrication during sexual arousal. - Only the outer third of the vagina has nerve endings (hence why you can't feel a tampon if inserted properly). They can do minor surgery on the inner parts of the vagina without anesthesia (since you can't feel anything!)
Labia minora (part of vulva)
Two parallel, smaller, thinner, red folds of skin between the labia majora and the vestibule. - Forward parts form prepuce (clitoral hood). - Contain some erectile tissue.
Genital retraction syndrome (GRS) pg. 98
Unusual, culture-bound phenomenon in which a male believes his penis is shrinking and retracting into his body. - Aka "koro"
Hymen
a fold of tissue coving the introitus at birth. - Generally perforated at center to permit flow of menstrual fluid. (but some have hymens that are completely closed off, so they need surgery to open it). - Has been used as "proof" of virginity, although some women are born without it/do not experience tearing at first intercourse.
Pederasty
a same-sex sexual behavior between adult men and boys
Peer-reviewed source
articles written by experts and reviewed by other experts to ensure accuracy Standard is whether information comes from a peer-reviewed source—written and evaluated by experts in the field (e.g., research scientists).
Interviews
can be structured or unstructured. · Advantages— - Allows for more flexibility than questionnaires. (Open ended questions. You can ask follow-up questions). - With good rapport[BW1] , can get better information. · Disadvantages— - Subject to self-report bias and interviewer biases. - Interpersonal format may be too uncomfortable for respondents. Tend to be costly/time-consuming.
Epididymis
comma-shaped structures lying over testes; stores sperm and screens out wacky sperm. - If it gets infected you can get epididymitis. - It's a good thing to do testicular self-exams; look for lumps.
Testes
male gonad; produce sperm and hormones. Process of descent: - Occurs during fetal development; move through inguinal canal from back of abdominal wall to scrotum. - Cryptorchidism: condition in which testes fail to descend. (If they do not descend, this can be a sign/risk of testicular cancer.) - 2" wide, 1" long; egg shaped. - Parts include: Seminiferous tubules (coils responsible for sperm production), Interstitial (Leydig's) cells (produce testosterone; between seminiferous tubules), and Epididymis (comma-shaped structures lying over testes; store sperm).
Clitoris (part of vulva)
physically similar to penis. - During sexual excitement engorges with blood. - Shaft: length of clitoris. - Glans: head of clit. Filled with nerve endings. - Only function is sexual pleasure.
Masters and Johnson
psychologists; studied human sexual behavior, described four stages of sexual response. motivation; human sexual response—studied how both men and women respond to and in relation to sexual behavior · Used direct observation to study physiological arousal during sexual activity. · Produced major discoveries in the mechanisms of sexual response (e.g., possibility of multiple orgasms for women; effects of performance anxiety).
Representative sample
randomly selected sample of subjects (from a larger population of subjects) that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.
Alfred Kinsey
regarded by some as the father of the scientific study of human sexuality. Published a series of reports which described common sexual behaviors in the US. · Conducted first large-scale surveys of sexual behavior. · Many sexual behaviors thought to be deviant (e.g., masturbation, sex with same gender) actually revealed to be common.
Correlational designs
studies that measure two or more variables and their relationship to one another; not designed to show causation Measuring two (or more) variables to determine whether they are statistically related (vary together). Variables can be positively correlated (one increases, the other increases) or negatively correlated (one increases, the other decreases). · Advantages—enables you to determine if there is a relationship between variables. (As one variable moves in one direction, the other variable moves in the same or opposite direction.) · Disadvantages— - Does not explain the nature of the relationship between variables, and thus may be misleading. - Does not prove causation.
Seminal fluid
substance in which sperm are suspended that is produced by three glands in the abdominal cavity. - SEMEN/SPERM
Scrotum
the pouch of skin that contains the testes. - Lies outside of body because sperm production requires temperatures lower than inside body cavity. - May hang loosely from body or move closer depending on temperature and sexual stimulation. - Tunica dartos: inner layer of scrotum which, along with muscles of spermatic chord, moves scrotum up and down.
Sexology
the scientific study of sexuality
Ethical principles in research
the set of values, standards, and principles used to determine appropriate and acceptable conduct at all stages of the research process. - DO NO HARM. (e.g., Stanford prison experiment, Milgram Shocking) - Informed consent—research subjects must be aware of... o What will take place during the study. o Any risks involved. o Freedom to withdraw at any time. · Tuskegee syphilis study (1929-1972)— o Focused on low-income African-American men who were told they had syphilis and were repeatedly prevented from receiving treatment. o To this day, has created mistrust of public health interventions.
Evelyn Hooker
· Conducted first research determining having a non-heterosexual orientation is not inherently pathological. o She got a group of men who were gay and a group of men who were not gay, but were similar in age, social economic status, and education level. Had them take many psychological tests, then she gave to profiles to some mental health professionals and asked them which were gay and which were not gay (and they couldn't figure it out). · 1973—APA (American Psychiatric Association) drops homosexuality from list of mental illnesses.
Clelia Duel Mosher
· Conducted first survey of sexual behavior. · Focused on female sexual issues. · Wanted to improve the sexual satisfaction of married women · She found in her study that women did enjoy sex, commonly have orgasms, did not see sex as only for perforation (although they still felt guilty about it), and noticed that many of the menstrual cramps they were having was probably due to the corset.
Sigmund Freud
· Saw adult personality as determined by individual's success/lack thereof in negotiating stages of sexual development in childhood. · Described sex drive as normal; argued repression of sex lead to psychopathology. - He did not see one being attracted to the same gender as being normal sexuality, stunted form of sexuality—believe sexual orientation could not be changed.
Self-report bias
· Self-report data is often influenced by tendencies towards social desirability (need to respond in socially appropriate ways).
Henry Havelock Ellis
· Suggested both genders could enjoy Sex. · Saw sexual orientation as innate (something you're born with). · First used term "erogenous zones." · Saw masturbation as a relaxation technique.
Graham and Kellogg
· encouraged consumption of bland food to reduce masturbation (which he believed could cause blindness). · Same-gender sexual behavior criminalized. · Prostitution spiked. · Arguably, elements remain—e.g., women should not be interested in sex
Internal structures of the penis (cavernous bodies, spongy body)
• Cavernous bodies— two, top side of penis; engorge with blood during erection. • Spongy body—underside of penis; also side of penis; also engorges with blood during erection. • Penile urethra—hollow tube that conducts urine and semen outside of body.