DAT

What is a prosthetic group?

A nonprotein molecule covalently bonded to an enzyme as a part of the enzyme's active site.

What is a capsule/glycocalyx?

A polusaccharide structure around some bacteria that allow it to adhere to smooth surfaces

What is the folliclar phase of the ovarian cycle?

A primary follicle matures and secretes estrogen. Maturation of the follicle is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary. This phase lasts about 13 days

What is β-oxidation?

A process of removing two carbons from a fatty acid and converting the carbons to acetyl CoA, generating one NADH and FADH2 in the process. The acetyl CoA can then enter the Krebs cycle.

What is fermentation?

A process that occurs anaerobically to reduce pyruvate to either ethanol or lactate/lactic acid Regenerates NAD+ under anaerobic conditions

What is DNA replication?

A process where DNA is replicated during S phase in interphase. Process: 1. Helicase unwinds the DNA strand at the origin of replication, and later continues to unwind DNA as its being replicated 2. Topoisomerases cut one or both of the strands to unwrap the helix that was wound tighter at the ends due to helicase 3. Single stranded binding proteins protect DNA which has been unpackaged in preparation for replication 4. RNA primers are synthesized at the origin of replication 5. DNA is polimerized by DNA Pol III from 5' -> 3' continuously on the leading strand 6. DNA is polimerized in chunks called Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. Primase puts down primers to start each fragment. The lagging strand is called the lagging strand because it has to wait on the replication fork to widen enough for DNA to be replicated 7. All primers are replaced by DNA Polymerase I with DNA 8. DNA Ligase comes in and joins all the fragments kinda like glue

What is hemoglobin (Hb)?

A protein in red blood cells that allows it to carry oxygen. Is composed of 4 polypeptide subunits. Each subunit contains one molecule of hene, which is a large multi-ring structure that has a single iron atom bound at its center. The role of this heme subunit, with its iron center, is to bing to O2. Therefore with 4 heme subunits, hemoglobin can bind to 4 O2 molecules. Hemoglobin is more saturated with O2 when O2 partial pressures are high and therefore has a higher affinity for oxygen at higher O2 partial pressures/levels. Therefore in tissues where partial pressure/availability is low, hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen and tends to release the oxygen it carries

What is oxidative decarboxylation?

A reaction in which a molecule is oxidized to release CO2 and produce NADH

The word interstitium is used to describe what?

A region that is between structures

What is the nucleolus?

A region within the nucleus that functions as a ribosome factory.

What is the G0 phase of interphase?

A resting phase where cells become suspended and never replicate

What is the ovulatory phase of the ovarian cycle?

A secondary oocyte is released from the ovary. This is triggered by a surge in LH from the anterior pituitary. The surge also causes the remnants of the follicle to become the corpus luteum. Ovulation typically occurs on day 14 of the cycle.

What is a codon?

A sequence of 3 nucleotides that code for an amino acid

What is a nuclear localization sequence?

A sequence of amino acids of larger proteins that causes them to be too big to enter the nucleus of a cell

Monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polyssaccharide

A single carbohydrate molecule is a monosaccaride, or simple sugar. Two monosaccarides make a disaccharide, few make an oligosaccharide and many make a polyssacharide

What is a prokaryotes genome consisted of?

A single circular chromosome

What is an organelle?

A small structure within a cell that carries out specific functions Most have their own lipid bilayer

Why don't alveoli collapse (alveoli are moist with water because O2 and CO2 can only diffuse through the cells when dissolved in water) when we breathe in air?

A soapy substance called surfactant is produced by alveolar cells to reduce the surface tension would cause alveoli to collapse

What is a buffer?

A solution that resists changing pH when small amount of acid or base is added. The buffering capacity comes from the presence of a weak acid and its conjugate base or vice versa in equal concentrations. The buffering effect comes from the acid neutralizing added base or the base neutralizing added acid

What is a polar aprotic solvent?

A solvent that doesnt have an H bonded to an O or N and cant readily donate H+ atoms.

What is a locus

A specific location on a chromosome that pinpoints a gene. If an individual had two different alleles at a given locus, then they would be located on homologous chromosomes

What is the origin of replication

A specific sequence of nucleotides that can be recognized by special enzymes necessary for the formation of a bubble that forms between the DNA strands

What is a state function and what are examples?

A state function is a change that is independent of the pathway of the reaction EX: enthalpy

What is a micelle?

A structure that forms when fatty acids form a circle with the hydrophobic tails on the inside and the hydrophilic heads on the outside

What is an amphoteric substance?

A substance that can act as either an acid or a base The conjugate base of a weak polyprotic acid is alwaus amphoteric because it can either donate or receive a proton Water is amphoteric

What is a catalyst?

A substance that lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction by stabilizing the transition state/making it less thermodynamically unfavorable. It is not consumed in the reaction

What is an Sn1 reaction?

A substitution reaction where a carbocation forms in the first step, and a nucleophile bonds to the carbocation in the second step.

What is an Sn2 reaction?

A substitution reaction where a nucleophile is substitued for a leaving group in one step An inversion of its the original molecules sterochemistry occurs

Le Chatlier's Principle

A system at equilibrium will try to neutralize any imposed change or stress in order to reestablish equilibrium. If you add reactants than the reaction will shift to the right/go in the forward direction because to reach equilibrium again you must use some of the reactants added to form products If you add products than the rxn will shift to the left/go in the reverse direction because to reach equilibrium again the rxn needs to form more reactants

What is the endosymbiotic theory?

A theory that organelles like the mitochondria and chloroplast were once their own cells that were engulfed by other cells to perform specific functions like cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Both of these organelles have their own CIRCULAR DNA.

What is the esophagus?

A thin tube that transports food to the stomach. branches off of the pharynx

What is an orbital?

A three dimensional region that describes the region around the nucleus in which the electron is most likely to be found.

What is a syncytium?

A tissue in which the cytoplasm of different cells can communicate via gap junctions.

What is a Punnet square?

A tool used in mendelian genetics to find pheotypes and genotypes. It starts with the alleles from both parents and shows the probablities of both genotypes and phenotypes.

Na+/K+ ATPase

A trasmembrane protein in the plasma membrane of all body cells that pumps 3Na+ out of the cell and 2K+ into the cell, using 1 ATP in the process.

What are white blood cells?

A type of cell that fights infection and disposes of debris. they contain all normal eukaryotic organelles

What are B-cells?

A type of lymphocyte that produces antibodies

What is a silent mutation?

A type of point mutation where a codon changes into a new codon for the same amino acid so nothing actually happens

What is a nonsense mutation?

A type of point mutation where a stop codon replaces a regular codon because of one nucleotide replacing another.

What are missense mutations?

A type of point mutation where one amino acid is replaced by another amino acid

What is an angstrom? What is it used for?

A unit abbreviated Å. its equal to 10^-10meters Used for atomic radii and bond lengths

What is an indicator?

A weak acid that undergoes a color change when it's converted to its conjugate base.

Whats special about AB+ and O- blood types?

AB+ contains all three antigens and therefore is a universal recipient O- contains none of the 3 antigens and is therefore a universal donor

What is ATP and why does it have so much energy?

ATP is the universal short term energy storage molecule It has its energy stored in the phosphoanhydride bonds

Acidity periodic trend

Acidity increases across a period (the more electronegative an element the more stable its anion Acidity increases down a group (the larger the molecule the more negative charge can be delocalized or stabilized)

What is acidity in other words besides pH?

Acidity is a measure of how well a compound donates protons, accepts electrons, or lowers pH in a chemical system. Strong acids dissociate completely in water. They have a more stable anion

Active transport, primary active transport, and secondary active transport

Active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane against a gradient. Needs an influx of energy Primary transport is coupled with ATP Secondary active transport is not coupled directly with ATP, instead ATP is used to create a gradient that creates potential energy that drives the molecule through the plasma membrane

How do you draw lewis dot structures? Do a practice problem

Add up the valence electrons and pick a central atom, which is usually the least electronegative element Valence electrons can be found by looking at the groups. Ignore the transition metals and count starting with H's group

Afferent vs. Efferent neurons

Afferent neurons carry information towards the central nervous system Efferent neurons carry information away from the central nervous system, towards effectors (think efferent towards effectors) Afferent neurons are sensory neurons Efferent neurons are motor neurons

Gamma Decay

After a nucleus has undergone beta or alpha decay, it can "relax" to its ground state by emitting energy in the form of a gamma photon (ʎ) There is no change in the mass number or atomic number and a ʎ particle is emitted on the products side

What is menstruation of the uterine cycle?

After degeneration of the corpus luteum, a subsequent drop in estrogen and progesterone levels tiggers the shedding of the endometium lining the uterus. Typically lasts 5 days

Describe the process of fertilization starting with ovulation

After ovulation, a secondary oocyte (surrounded by the zona pellucida and corona radiata) enters the uterine tube. After intercourse, sperm get dumped near the cervix and become activated/capacitated. (This happens through dilution of inhibitory substances in the semen) Sperm must penetrate the corona radiata and bind to and penetrate the zona pellucida. This occurs through an acrosomal process, where actin and bindin help the sperm bind and penetrate the zona pellucida. The egg then finishes meiosis II, releases the second polar body, and the two nuclei fuse, and the new diploid cell is called a zygote.

What is the secretory phase of the uterine/menstrual cycle?

After ovulation, estrogen and progesterone produced by the corpus luteum further increase development of the endometrium, including secretion of glycogen, lipids, and other materials. If pregnancy does not occur the uterine cycle restarts. This phase lasts about 14 days

Why do women secrete milk?

After parturition/birth estrogen and progesterone levels fall and milk production begins. When suckling occurs it stimulates the posterior pituitary to release prolactin and oxytocin for milk production.

What is the propagation step of free-radical halogenation/rxns?

After the initiation step, the roaming free radicals collide with an alkane molecule (R-H) causing homolytic cleavage of a C-H bond with the formation of a hydrogen halide (H-X) and an alkyl radical (R*), for example a methyl radical. In the next step of propagation, an alkyl halide is formed. Since there is a large concentration of molecular halogens (X-X), the alkyl radical collides with this molecule causing homolytic cleavage of the molecular halogen. This forms a halogen radical (X*) and an alkyl halide (R-X) *about 10,000 alkyl halide molecules are formed for every halogen radical formed in the initiation step* the net amount of radicals doesnt change tho

White Blood Cells: What are granulocytes vs. agranulocytes What are the 3 types of granulocytes and 2 types of agranulocytes?

Agranulocytes: Monocytes: Macrophages Lymphocytes: B-cells and T-cells Granulocytes: Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

What are chylocystokinin (CCK), secretin, and enterogastrone?

All duodenal hormones CCK- causes the pancrease to secrete digestive enzymes, stimulates gallbladder contraction, stimulates small intestinal peristalsis decreases gastric motility secratin- released in response to acid in the duodenum that causes the pancreas to release HCO3- in water Enterogastrone decreases stomach emptying.

What happens during Interphase before Meiosis?

All genetic information and key players like centrioles are doubled

What are androgens?

All hormones involved in the development and maintenance of male characteristics

What are catalytic receptors?

Also called Enzyme linked receptors A transmembrane protein that has its extracellular portion as a binding site for ligands, and its cytoplasmic side functions as an enzyme

What is a stop codon?

Also called a nonsense codon, it tells the ribosome that the protein is complete and to stop translation

What are uterine tubes?

Also called fallopian tubes, they carry an ova from the ovary to the uterus each month.

What is the first quantum #?

Also called primary quantum # The shell number, n. Its related to the size and energy of an orbital. Its the whole number in 1s2 2s2 3p3 etc

First law of thermodynamics

Also called the law of conservation of energy Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. If a systems energy decreases the energy of its surroundings must increase.

What is a racemic mixture?

Also known as a racemate, it is a mixture of 50% of each enantiomer. It has a specific rotation of 0, meaning it is not optically active

What is a strong acid? A weak acid?

An acid that dissociates completely is a strong acid. An acid that dissociates only partially is a weak acid. The more stable an acids conjugate base, the stronger the acid

What is an acid base-titration, and what is the titrant?

An acid-base titration is an experimental technique use to determine the identity of an unknown weak acid (or weak base), by determining its pKa or pKb. The titrant is the strong acid or base that is added to the unknown weak acid or base.

What is a dominant allele?

An allele that is expressed in the phenotype regardless of what the second allele is

What is a recessive allele?

An allele that is not expressed in the phenotype in a heterozygous state

What is a homeotherm?

An animal with a constant body temperature

What is a diamagnetic atom? paramagnetic atom?

An atom that has all of its electrons spin paired Paramagnetic = atom's electrons are not all spin paired

What is a Bohr atom?

An atom with only one electron

What is an excited electron?

An electron that has absorbed energy/photon and jumped to a different subshell or energy level

What is an E2 reaction?

An elimination reaction that proceed via a 1 step mechanism. A strong base removes the beta hydrogen while the leaving group leaves. The carbon-carbon double bond forms at the same time. (All three changes happen in a concerted fashion).

What is duodenal enterokinase?

An enxyme the activates the pancreatic zymogen trypsinogen to tripsin

What is lysozyme?

An enzyme found in saliva and tears that attacks the cell wall of bacteria

What is the role of amylase?

An enzyme in saliva that hydrolyzes starch, breaking it into fragments

What is DNA Polymerase III?

An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of a daughter strand during DNA replication

Saliva contains lingual lipase, what is that?

An enzyme that helps in the digestion of fats

What is a zymogen?

An enzyme that needs to be activated

What is exergonic vs. endergonic

An exergonic rxn has a negative ∆G and doesnt need an energy input An endergonic rxn needs an influx energy to proceed and has a positive ∆G

What is enterokinase?

An intestinal enzyme formed in the duodenum that converts tripsinogen into tripsin.

What are protozoa? What kingdom do they fall under?

Animal-like, ingestive protists. Kingdom protista

What is sexual selection?

Animals often do not choose mates randomly, but have evolved elaborate rituals and physical displays that play a key role attracting and choosing a mate

If a single polypeptide folds once and forms a beta-pleated sheet with itself, would this be parallel or antiparallel beta-pleated sheet?

Antiparallel b/c one participant in the beta-pleated sheet would have a C-N direction and the other would have an N-C direction

What is a mutagen?

Any comppound that causes a mutation in DNA

What is an oxidation-reduction reaction?

Any reaction in which the oxidation numbers of any of the reactants change OIL RIG Oxidation is loss of electrons (Its oxidation # increases) reduction is gain of electrons

In the kingdom monera (prokaryotes), what are the domains archaea and bacteria?

Archaea = unicellular organisms that mostly live in extreme environments. They are relatively small, have small circular genomes and no membrane bound organelles. No cell wall. Bacteria- most prokaryotes. they are found everywhere, are small, have simple circular genomes, and no membrane bound organelles. Eubacteria have a cell wall made up of peptidoglycan

What is ring strain?

Arises when bond angles between ring atoms deviate from the ideal angle predicted by the hybridization of atoms contributes to instability in a molecule

What are the 3 stages of sex for a man?

Arousal, orgasm, and resolution

What are the 3 definitions of acids and bases?

Arrhenius a + b: Acids ionize in water to produce H+ ions, bases ionize in water to produce OH- ions Lewis a + b: Lewis acids are electron-pair acceptors, while lewis bases are electron pair donors Bronsted-Lowry a +b: Acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors

What are arteries and veins?

Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart Veins carry blood to the heart. veins contain valves

What are arterioles?

As arteries move away from the heart, blood pressure decreases, and they branch into smaller arteries called arterioles

Where do sperm mature?

As they pass through the epididymis

What is binary fission?

Asexual reproduction of bacteria where a cell splits into two identical cells

When do gases behave most idealy?

At low pressures and high temperatures the smaller the molecule/lower mm the more idealy it behaves

Atomic radius periodic table trend and explanation

Atomic radius = snowman (decreases across periods and increases down groups) As you move across a period, protons and electrons are being added so the pull is greater making a smaller atomic radius As you move down a group, shells are being added which adds more shielding of valence electrons and the atomic radius increases

What are atria and ventricles? Which side of the heart deals with oxygenated blood?

Atria are where blood collects from veins before getting pumped into ventricles that pump blood away from the heart The left side deals with oxygenated blood. Remember that the sides of the heart are reversed due to point of view

What are the 7 metalloids?

B, Si, Ge, As Sb, Te, Po

What is transformation?

Bacteria taking up free floating DNA

What are the 3 domains? What are the 3 most recognized kingdoms of eukaryotes?

Bacteria, Archae and Eukarya 3 Eukaryote kingdoms = animalia, plantae, and fungi

What is the F fertility factor?

Bacterial cells that have the F factor are male or F+ and those that do not are F-. During conjugation males transfer the F factor to female cells making them male. Its a single circular DNA molecule

Why is it important to know that the impulse/action potential is spread to the purkinje fibers at the inferior portion of the ventricles?

Becuase that causes the inferior region of the ventricles to contract first, forcing blood toward the superior portion and out the aorta and pulmonary valves

What is bile and what does it do?

Bile is made up of bile acids (salts in ion form), cholesterol, and bilorubin (from RBC breakdown). It emulsifies large fat particles in the duodenum, creating smaller clusters of fat particles called miscelles.

What does the gallbladder do?

Bile released by the liver can be either secreted straight to the duodenum or it can be stored in the gallblader to be secreted later during a fatty meal.

What is blood typing, and what are the ABO blood group alleles?

Blood typing is the classification of a persons blood based on the presence or absence of certain antigens on their red blood cells ABO blood group alleles: I^A, I^B, and i

What is the dermis composed of?

Blood vessels, sensory receptors, sudoriferous (sweat) gland, sebaceous (oil) glands, hair follicles, and connective tissue

What is bone marrow? What is red and yellow bone marrow?

Bone marrow- non-bony material found in the shafts of long bones and in the pores of spongy bone. Red marrow- found in spongy bone within flat bones, is the site of hematopoiesis Yellow marrow- found in the shafts of long bones and is filled with fat and is inactive

What are flat bones?

Bones flat in shape like the bones of the skull, the scapula, and the ribs. These are the sites of hematopoiesis and are important for protection of organs.

What are long bones?

Bones long in shape. Bones of the limbs, which are important for support and movement.

What is stabilizing selection?

Both extremes of a trait are selected against, driving the population closer to the average. EX: birds that are too big or too small are eliminated from a population because they cannot mate

How does the respiratory system function in thermoregulation?

Breathing results in significant heat loss. Dogs depend on panting for dissipation of heat because they cannot sweat

What are bronchioles and do they function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

Bronchioles branch off of bronchi. They are basically very small bronchi that are 1mm wide and do not contain cartilage. Their walls are made of smooth muscle. The smallest branches of the conducting zone are called terminal bronchioles. They are part of the conducting zone.

What are ganglia?

Bunches of somas (neuron cell bodies) that are located outside of the central nervous system (not all neurons are in the brain)

How can vapor pressure be decreased?

By adding solute to a solution because it gives the liquid more interactions to break away from decreasing its ability to evaporate

Heat capacity equation

C= mc C = heat capacity m= mass c = specific heat

Central Nervous System (CNS) vs. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

CNS - brain + spinal chord PNS - all other axons denrites and cell bodies (limbs)

How does the respiratory system regulate the pH of blood?

CO2 is converted to carbonic acid in the blood via the RBC enzyme carbonic anhydrase. When CO2 is exhaled by the lungs, the carbonic acid levels decrease increasing the pH of blood (making it more basic). Hyperventalation increases blood pH. Hypoventilation (too little breathing) decreases blood pH making it more acidic.

What is fibrous cartilage?

Cartilage that is very rigid and is found where strong support is needed such as the pubic symphysis and intervertebral disks of the spinal chord

What is catabolism? What is anabolism?

Catabolism is the breakdown of molecules. Anabolism is the building up of molecules

What does antidiuretic hormone do?

Causes the kidney to retain water during times of thirst

Pinocytosis

Cell drinking. Uptake of small molecules and extracellular fluid. A form of endocytosis

Phagocytosis

Cell eating. Uptake of matter into a phagocytotic vessel which merges with a lysosome and deteriorates the matter via enzymes

What is the plasma membrane?

Cell membrane that connects the inside and outside of the cell

What are the pacemaker cells of the heart?

Cells of the sinoatrial (SA) node. They initiate action potentials from within the heart to stimulate the beginning of the cardiac cycle. Their action potentials are divided into 3 phases: phase 4, 0, and 3

What happens during Telophase I of meiosis?

Cells seperate into two cells that are haploid (n)

Whats more stable, planar cyclohexane, chair conformation of cyclohexane, or boat conformation?

Chair conformation is the most stable because it allows each carbon to have bonding angles of 109.5 degrees. A boat conformation is a transition between the two types of chair conformations and is less stable than a chair conformation

What is ecological succession?

Changes in ecosystems. They typically occur after disturbances to the system, such as fire, flood or other natural disasters. This changes the availability of resources and could allow new species to establish themselves

What are the endings to each functional group and what is the order of priority?

Charlie EaSed AHead, ADvancing Northbound. ALlan Kicked ALCOHOL Toward ANnie. Alkene, Alkyne, Alkane, ether carboxyilic acid = oic acid ester = oate acid halide = oyl (name of halide ex:chloride) amide = amide nitrile = nitrile aldehyde = al ketone = one alcohol = ol thiol = thiol amine = amine alkene = ene alkyne = ine alkane = ane ether = name of the two molecules seperated by the ether and then ether: EX: methyl ethyl ether MISSING HALOGENS

What is a pedigree? What are the conventions regarding how they are drawn?

Charts of families depicting inheritance of a trait 1. Males are represented by squares and females by circles. 2. A cross mating between a male and female is represented by a horizontal line connecting them. 3. Offspring from a cross are connected to their parents via a vertical line, and to eachother by a horizontal line with vertical branches for each sibling 4. Offspring of unknown gender (unborn children) are represented by a diamond shape 5. Individuals afflicted with a trait being studied are shaded in; unaffected or normal individuals are not shaded in

4 types of bacteria based on their nutrition/carbon source preference

Chemoautotrophs Chemoheterotrophs Photoautotrophs Photoheterotrophs

What is a chiral molecule? achiral molecule?

Chiral molecule = a molecule that cannot be superimposed on its mirror image Achiral molecule = a molecule that can be superimposed on its mirror image and has a plane of symmetry

What happens during Prophase I of meiosis?

Chromosomes become shorter and thicker (condense) and homologous chromosomes pair up and go through crossing over/recombination

What is a plasmid? Why are they important?

Circular piece of genetic material Extracellular genetic element Can encode genes but more importantly they are used in conjugation, a process of sharing genomic information in bacteria

Classical vs. Incomplete dominance vs. Codominance

Classical dominance is when the phenotype expressed is a result of the dominant gene. Incomplete dominance is a blended mix of both alleles. (shown by two different letters. For example RW not Rr) Codominance is when two alleles are both expressed but not blended. For example blood groups A and B can both be expressed in the blood group AB.

Name and describe the 3 versions of symbiotic relationships

Commensalism- one species benefits while the other one is unaffected Mutualism- both species are benefited Parasitism- one species benefits while the other is harmed

Concentrated vs. dilute solutions

Concentrated solutions have more solute dissolved in solvent than dilute solutions

What criteria have to be satisfied for a compound to be considered aromatic?

Conjugated : there needs to one "p" orbital from each atom in the ring, so each atom must be either sp2 or sp hybridized. Also satisfied by lone pairs of electrons but this doesn't mean the atom is sp2 or sp (pyrrole like). Satisfied by a + charge if the carbon is bonded to 2 other carbons by a single/sigma bond. You dont charge when counting π electrons. You only count lone pairs if the molecule is not already touching a pi/double bond. Cyclic : must be in a ring Planar : if the ring is planar flat then this means there is good overlap / interaction between the "p" orbitals....not always easy to consider. The Huckel Rule..... 4n+2 π electrons (2,6,10,14,18)

What are intercalated disks?

Connections between cardiac muscle cells (gap junctions). the heart sends action potentials through these gap junctions (this is an example of a electrical synapse)

Tail of sperm (flagellum):

Contains many microtubules enclosed in extension of cell membrane; lashing movement propels the sperm toward the egg

Midpiece of sperm

Contains many mitochondria, which provide ATP for swimming

Where is cortisol produced? What type of hormone is it? What does it do? What is it regulated by?

Cortisol is produced by the adrenal cortex It is a steroid hormone It helps mobilize glycogen and fat stores to provide energy during stress and also increases the consumption of proteins for energy It is regulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreted by the anterior pituitary

Density equation

D = mass/ volume, expressed in kg/m^3

What is the Central Dogma?

DNA -> RNA -> protein

Watson and Cricks model of DNA

DNA is double standed with both strands running antiparallel and bonded with eachother through hydrogen bonds between base. A is always paired with T. G is paired with C. Purine is paired with a pyrimidine. GC has 3 Hbonds, AT has 2. It has a helix structure

What is an atomic number?

Denotes the number of protons of an element. It is located in the upper left hand corner of the periodic table and can be used as a subscript ex: 4Br

What are two characteristics that define a population?

Density - number of individuals per unit area Dispersion- the spacing among individuals within the population

What is determination and differentiation of cells?

Determination is the point where a cells fate becomes fixed. It is determined what the cell will become. Differentiation is when the cell actually becomes the specialized cell that it was fated to be. It differentiates and becomes a specialized cell, often different from the parent cell.

What are the two periods of the cardiac cycle? Explain both.

Diastole- ventricles are relaxed and blood is able to flow into them from the atria. Atria contract to propel blood into the ventricles. Ventricles then contract to initiate systole Systole- av valves close, pressure in ventricles increases, semilunar valves open and blood is pumped to the systemic and pulmonary circuits. Systole begins with the lub and ends with the dup

What are alleles?

Different versions of a gene. For example, two different alleles both code for eye color, but one codes for blue and the other brown.

Facilitated diffusion

Diffusion down a concentration gradient with the help of a protein

What are tripoblastic and dipoblastic animals?

Dipoblastic - two layers form during gastrulation (the endoderm and ectoderm) Tripoblastic- three layers form during gastrulation (remember that the mesoderm forms from the endoderm)

How to find percentage composition by mass?

Divide the mass of each element by the mass of the total compound

What is a follicle?

During oogenisis, the oocyte is surrounded by granulosa cells and the entire structure is called a follicle. As the primordial follicle matures it forms the mature follicle called Graafian follicle that releases the oocyte during ovulation. Each month many primordial follicles begin maturing but only one reaches the Graafian follicle stage and the rest desintegrate. A layer of granulosa cells remain called the corona radiata surrounding the zona pellucida of the egg. The rest of the follicle becomes the corpus luteum.

Energy of a photon equation

E = hf = h(c/ʎ) h = plancks constant (6.02 x 10^-34 J*s) c = speed of light (3 x 10^8 m/s) f = frequency ʎ = wavelength

Rates of SN1, SN2, E1, and E2 reactions

E1 and SN1 are determined by the slow step (eloctrophile), first step of the reaction and are independent of the base and nucleopile. E2 and SN2 reactions are dependent upon botht the electrophile and the nucleophile/base E1 and SN1 rate = k[E+] E2 rate = k [E+][B-] SN2 rate = k[E+][Nu-]

What is nuclear shielding or the shielding effect?

Each filled shell between the nucleus and the valence electrons shields, or protects, the valence electrons from the full effect of the positively charged protons in the nucleus

What is primary succession?

Ecological succession where life begins in a lifeless area (for example after a new lava flow) and begins with the colonization of rocky areas with mosses and lichen (known as pioneer organisms). The community then passes through stages of colonization by shrubbery, conifers, and deciduous trees. this process takes about two centuries to complete, the final stage community is known as the climax community.

What is electronegativity and what is its periodic trend?

Electronegativity is an atoms ability to attract electrons. The periodic trend is generally snow cone. You should remember FONClBrISCH. F > O> N> Cl> Br> I> S> C> H

What are localized and delocalized electrons?

Electrons that are confined to one orbital. either a nonding orbital between two atoms or a lone pair orbital are said to be localized When electrons are allowed to interact with orbitals on adjacent atoms, they are no longer confined to their original "space" and are termed delocalized

What are the two stages of orgasm?

Emission- sperm fills the urethra Ejaculation- semen is propelled out of the urethrla by rhythmic contractions of muscles surrounding the base of the penis controlled by the sympathetic nervous system

What is the bohr atom equation?

En = (-2.178x 10^-18J)/n^2 (n is a subscript after E) n = energy level of the electron

Proteins synthesized in the rough ER go where?

End up... 1. Secreted into extracellular environment 2. Integral plasma proteins 3. in the membrane or interior of the ER, golgi apparatus, or lysosomes

What are the differences between endocrine and exocrine glands?

Endocrine glands secrete hormones that are released straight into the bloodstream. they are picked up by capillaries Exocrine glands are composed of specialized epithelial cells, organized into sacs called acini. Acini cells secrete products that PASS INTO DUCTS.

Endocytosis vs Exocytosis

Endocytosis is the transportation of material into the cell via vescicles and exocytosis is the transportation of material out of the cell

When a reaction is exothermic, what is the change in enthalpy? Do the products have weaker or stronger bonds than the reactants? Are the products in a lower or higher state of energy?

Energy is released, so ∆H is negative, the products are in a lower state, and the bonds are stronger in the products than in the reactants. Opposite goes for endothermic reactions

What is entropy, and what is its relationship with temperature?

Entropy is the degree of disorder or chaos As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of molecules increase and they start colliding more and more frequently increasing entropy

What is secondary succession?

Environmental succession where an area previously supporting life goes through succession due to a natural disaster

What is competitive inhibition?

Enzyme inhibition by molecules that compete with the substrate for binding at the active site. If there is enough substrate however it will overcome the inhibition. When an competitive inhibitor is present, it takes more substrate to reach Vmax

What is enzyme kinetics? What is the reaction rate? What is Vmax?

Enzyme kinetics is the study of the rate of formation of products from substrates in the presence of an enzyme The reaction rate (V, for velocity) is the amount of product formed per unit time (mol/s). It depends upon the concentrations of the substrate and enzyme, but usually the concentration of the enzyme is kept constant Vmax is when adding any more substrate wont affect the reaction rate. The enzymes are saturated and cannot handle any more substrate. At low levels of substrate, increasing the concentration of substrate increases the reaction rate. rate= k[reactants]

What is proteolytic cleavage of enzymes?

Enzymes called zymogens are inactive enzymes that are activated by cleavage of the enzyme by a protease

What is negative feedback or feedback inhibition of enzymes?

Enzymes usually act in pathways and not alone. Feedback inhibition is the inhibition of enzymes early in the pathway that in turn inhibit the other enzymes, conserving energy Substrate -> E1 -> E2 -> E3 -> product feedback inhibition shuts off enzyme 1 or E1

What is covalent modification of enzymes?

Enzymes/proteins that have covalently attached groups to regulate their activity lifespan and or cellular location

Describe birth

Estrogen levels rise, progesterone levels drop, and the hormone oxytocin is secreted by the posterior pituitary. This causes the uterine wall to contract. This occurs through positive feedback. Labor contractions cause increased pressure on the cervix that in turn stimulates the posterior pituitary to release more oxytocin that stimulates further contractions, causing more pressure on the cervix, etc. The cervix dialates, the baby is pushed out through the cervix and birth canal, and the placenta is secreted.

What is the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle?

Estrogen produced by the follicle induced the proliferation of a new endometrium. This phase lasts about 9 days.

Difference in DNA replication in Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes have many origins of replications that form replication bubbles. Prokaryotes have only one circular chromosome and only one origin of replication. Their replication occurs through theta replication because when the DNA is split it makes the chromosome look like a θ.

How do you find the pH if the [H+] concentration isn't equal to a whole number power of 10?

Example: [H+] = y x 10^n (where n is a whole number) then the pH will be between n-1 and n therefore: [H+] = 6.2 x 10^-5, then pH is between 4 and 5

# of protons of an element =

# of electrons of the element

Solubility

'like dissolves like" Based on how polar/nonpolar the solvent and solutes are. For example water: water is polar so it dissolves polar molecules - the more carbon atoms or nonpolar rings the less soluble the molecule - the more polar groups the more soluble the molecule - the larger the electronegativity difference the more polar the molecule

What is the van't Hoff or ionizability factor?

(i) tells us how many ions one unit of a substance will produce in a solution NaCl = i =2 C6H12O6 = i =1

What forms from the mesoderm?

- All muscle, bone, and connective tissue - entire cardiovascular and lymphatic system, including blood - urogenital organs (kidneys, ureters, gonads, reproductive ducts) - dermis of skin

What forms from the Endoderm?

- GI tract epithelium (except mouth and anus) - GI glands (liver, pancreas, etc.) - Repiratory epithelium - Epithelial lining of urogenital organs and ducts - Urinary bladder

What are the strong bases?

- Group 1 hydroxides EX: NaOH - Group 1 oxides EX: Li2O - Ba(OH)2 , Sr(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 - Metals bonded with amides (NH2) EX: NaNH2

Structure of sperm

- Head - Acrosome - nucleus - Midpiece - Tail

Characteristics of the phylum Arthropoda

- Huge phylum (~1mil). segmented, with a hard exoskeleton. open circulatory system.

What are the characteristics of smooth muscle?

- Line the inside of hollow organs like the GI tract and uterus - Involuntary movement and controlled by the autonomic nervous system - Not striated - Not branched - Move by the sliding of actin and myosin, but they do not have sarcomeres, and therefore do not appear striated - Mononucleated with gap junctions that allow the AP to travel from cell to cell - T-tubules and the troponin-tropomyosin complex is NOT present - Poorly developed SR - innervated by AUTONOMIC motor neurons - smooth muscle membrane potentials fluctuate because of their gap junctions, making their graph look like waves

Structure of the testes

- Seminiferous tubules: majority of testes - Highly coiled - contain spermatogenic cells (Sertoli cells) that give rise to sperm cells - Interstitial cells (cells of Leydig): - Lie between seminiferous tubules, secrete testosterone - Smooth muscle: Peristalsis: propels sperm through the seminiferous tubules

Two common forms of secondary structures of proteins

- alpha-helix - beta pleated sheets

What are characteristics of the chordata subphylum vertebrata? What are the 7 classes of this subphylum?

- distinct head (more cephalized), cranium and vertebral column make main axis of the body, and they have adaptations that support their increased demand of energy 7 classes: 1. Agnatha (jawless fish) 2. Chondrichthyes (cartiligenous fish) 3. Osteichthyes (bony fish) 4. Amphibia 5. Reptilia 6. Aves (birds) 7. Mammalia

Important properties of alcohols

- diverse reactivity - hydrogen bonding - acidity

Formal Charge of an atom

- dont forget to draw lone pairs #Periodic Table - #of inside e- If the formal charge is 0 on all atoms, than your lewis dot structure is correct, or if its the minimal magnitude of formal charge thats possible

Characteristics of the phylum Echinodermata

- exhibit radial symmetry. slow moving. Have a water vascular system that plays a role in gas exchange locomotion and feeding. They have skin. Live in a marine enviroment.

3 physiological roles of lipids

- in cellular membranes, phospholipids contitute a barrier between intracellular and extracellular environments - in adipose cells, triglycerides store energy - cholesterol is a special lipid that serves as the building block for the hydrophobic steroid hormones

Secondary sex organs of the male reproductive system

- internal and external reproductive organs - epididymides - ductus/vas deferens - ejaculatory ducts - urethra - seminal vesicles - prostate gland - bulbourethral glands - function to nurture and transport sperm cells

What is the plasma membrane made up of?

- lipid bilayer (phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol) - cell surface receptors: proteins that bind extracellular signaling molecules like hormones and relay these signals into the cell - Channel proteins: selectively allow ions or molecules to pass the membrane - integral membrane proteins: embedded in the membrane - transmembrane proteins: cross the entire membrane - peripheral membrane proteins: not embedded in the membrane at all. On outside of membrane

Characteristics of the phylum Brachiopoda

- marine animals that kinda look like shells and resemble bivalves of the heart

Meso compounds

- molecules that are superimposible on their mirror image. - - Chiral centers but not a chiral molecule - molecule has a plane of symmetry are not optically active/have no specific rotation

What forms from the ectoderm?

- nervous system - pituitary gland - adrenal medulla - cornea and lens - epidermis of skin and derivatives like hair, nails, sweat glands, and sensory receptors - nasal, oral, and anal epithelium

What are the two common types of covalent bonds found between amino acids in proteins?

- peptide bond - disulfide bond/bridge

Characteristics of the phylum Chordata

- possess 4 structures within their lifetime- a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal gill slits, a muscular postnatal tail. In many chordates these structures are only present during the embryo stage. 3 subphylums: Urochordata Cephalochordata Vertebrata

Function of the testes

- produce sperm - produce male reproductive hormones

Where are T cells produced and matured?

- produced in bone marrow and mature in the thymus

Index of Hydrogen Deficiency (IHD) or Degree of unsaturation

- rings have 1 degree of saturation - double bonds have 1 degree of unsaturation - triple bonds have 2 degrees of unsaturation IHD = [(2*(#C)+2) -#H]/ 2 or IHD = [(2*(#C)+2) -#X]/ 2 where x = #H + #halogens + #neg charge -#N - #pos charge

What is the function of Seminal vesicles?

- secrete alkaline fluid with fructose (energy!), enzymes and prostaglandins - alkaline: to neutralize acid in female reproductive tract - prostaglandins: provide motility and viability for sperm

What is the function of the prostate gland?

- secrete citrate: energy source for sperm motility - secretes enzymes to break down semen clot once in female reproductive tract

What is the function of bulbourethral glands?

- secrete viscous fluid that contains mucus (lubricant) in response to sexual stimulation

Characteristics of the phylum Annelida

- segmented worms. Well developed digestive tract and a closed circulatory system.

Characteristics of the phylum Mollusca

- soft bodies protected by hard shells. No segmentation.

What are the Male and Female sex cells?

- sperm (male) - egg/ oocyte(female)

How to determine boiling and melting points

- the more intermolecular forces to overcome the higher the bp and mp - the larger the molecule/greater molecular weight the more london dispersion forces it has - branching of a molecule reduces the surface area and in turn reduces van der waals forces and lowers boiling/mp - in molecules that both have hydrogen bonding look for how many hydrogen bond donors (a hydrogen attached to a nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine) and how many hydrogen bond acceptors it has (each lone pair of electrons on an O,N, or F)

How do you determine major and minor contributors of resonance?

- the more stable the molecule the more it contributes 1 - Octet: structures with a full octet are more stable then structures without a full 2- Atoms Holding Charge: the more electronegative element is more stable holding a negative charge, while a less electronegative element is more stable holding a positive charge. 3- Minimize separation of charge: the less separation of charge the better. A neutral molecule is more stable than a molecule that has a pos and neg charge

Properties of hydrophobic amino acids

- they have either aliphatic (alkyl) or aromatic side chains -generally found on the interior of proteins away from water (the larger the hydrophobic group the more likely it is to be found on the interior of a protein)

B-cells and the humoral response

-B-cells have many antigens of the same type bound to their membrane (10^10 combinations of antigens) -when a virus is floating outside cells, the B-cell with the specific antigen binds to the virus at the epitome and becomes activated (sometimes need the help of T cells) - B-cell then differentiates into memory cells that remember the correct antigens and effector/plasma cells that are antibody factories that create antibodies that bind to the viruses and render them useless until they become eaten by phagocytes

What is an enantiomer?

-Stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable mirror images -Opposite configurations at all chiral centers -Chiral molecules that are mirror images of one another.

What are diastereomers?

-Stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable non mirror images -Opposite configurations at some chiral centers -Chiral molecules/stereoisomer that are not enantiomers or mirror images. Still not superimposable

Vascular spasm

-damage to a blood vessel triggers vascular spasm - it is the rapid contraction of smooth muscle in blood vessel wal -can close off blood vessels completely -lasts up to 30 mins (by then, platelet plug has formed) -platelets also release serotonin, causes vasoconstriction

Antigen presenting cells

-dendritic cells - macrophages - B cells These cells phagocytose, degrade and then present fragments on cell surface (their MHC I complex)

pH =

-log[H+] therefore [H+] = 10^pH

pOH =

-log[OH-] therefore [OH-] = 10^-pH

Lymphatic vessels

-thinner than veins but similar structure -3 layers (same as veins) -semilunar valves prevent backflow lymphatic capillaries lymphatic vessels lymph nodes lymphatic trunks 2 collecting ducts (LARGE THORACIC DUCT): drain into subclavian vein

What are the 3 steps of hemostasis?

-vascular spasm -platelet plug formation -blood coagulation

What are london dispersion forces?

-weakest intermolecular force/ van der waals force -weak attraction caused by a temporary dipole of the atoms due to a temporary uneven distribution of electrons

A mixture of neon and nitrogen contains 0.5 mol Ne(g) and 2mol of N2 (g). If the total pressure is 20 atm, what is the partial pressure of Ne?

0.5 mol/ 2.5 mol = .2 x 20atm = 4 atm 4 atm

What are standard state conditions or standard state?

1 atm of pressure and 25 degrees Celcius/298 degrees kelvin dont confuse with STP!!! (STP is @ 0 degrees celcius)

What is 1 amu

1 atomic mass unit = 1/12 the mass of carbon-12 you can find the atomic mass of each element on the periodic table

What is the density of water?

1 g/cm^3

what is the conversion from mL to cm?

1 mL = 1 cm^3

How is CO2 transported in blood?

1. 73% of CO2 by the conversion of CO2 into carbonic acid which dissociates into bicabonate ion and a proton when dissolved in the water of blood plasma. (catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase) 2. ~20% of CO2 is transported by sticking to hemoglobin 3. ~7% is dissolved in water of blood plasma

Solubility Rules in water

1. All group 1 and ammonium (NH4+) salts are soluble 2. All nitrate (NO3-), perchlorate (ClO4-), and acetate (C2H3O2-) salts are soluble 3. All silver (Ag+), lead (Pb2+,Pb4+), and mercury (Hg2 2+, Hg 2+) are insoluble, except for their nitrates, perchlorates, and acetates

What are the steps of transmitting a signal across a chemical synapse?

1. An action potential reaches the end of an axon, the synaptic knob 2. Depolarization of the presynaptic membrane open voltage gated calcium channels 3. Calcium influx into the presynaptic cell causes exocytosis of neurotransmitter stored in secretory vessels 4. Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the Narrows synaptic cleft (small space between cells). 5. Neurotransmitter binds to receptors proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. These receptors are ligand gated ion channels 6. The opening of these ion channels in the postsynaptic cell alters the membrane polarization 7. If the membrane depolarization of the postsynaptic cell reaches the threshold of voltage gated sodium channels, an action potential is initiated 8. Neurotransmitter in the synaptic left is degraded and/or removed to terminate the signal

Rules for assigning oxidation states

1. Any element by itself has an oxidation state of 0 2. the sum of the oxidation states of the atoms in neutral molecule must be 0, and for an ion it must be the ions charge 3. Group 1 metals have a +1 oxidation state, and group 2 metals have a +2 oxidation state 4. The oxidation state of hydrogen in a compound is usually +1. If the hydrogen is part of a binary metal hydride (compound of hydrogen and some metal), then the oxidation state of hydrogen is -1. 5. Oxygen has a -2 oxidation state 6. Fluorine has a -1 oxidation state 7. The rest of the halogens have a -1 oxidation state, and the atoms of the oxygen family have a -2 oxidation state FONClBrISCH

Water has a tendency to leak out of capilaries. What is the cycle that keeps water in capillaries?

1. At the beginning of the capillary the hydrostatic pressure is high. The result is that water squeezes out into the tissues. 2. As water continues to leave the capillary, the relative concentration of plasma proteins increases. 3. At the end of the capillary the hydrostatic pressure is quite low, but since the blood is now very concentrated, the oncotic pressure is very high. As a result, water flows back into the capillary from the tissues

What does it mean to oxidize?

1. Attach oxygen 2. Remove hydrogens 3. Remove electrons

Some tips regarding reading pedigrees (4 tips)

1. Autosomal dominant genes dont skip generations 2. Autosomal recessive commonly skip generations but dont have to 3. X linked genes affect males more than females 4. Y linked genes affect only males and are passed down from affected fathers to their sons

Platelet plug formation

1. Break in vessel wall 2. Blood escapes through break 3. Platelets stick to each other, the ends of the vessels, and to floating collagen 4. Platelet plug helps regulate blood loss

What are 4 strategies humans have that lets them regulate their temperature in cold environments?

1. Contraction of skeletal muscles produces heat; voluntary (running), or involuntary (shivering) 2. The skin is insulated by a layer of fat that helps conserve heat generated by metabolism 3. Heat loss by conduction is minimized by constriction of blood vessels 4. Clothing blankets etc. can help conserve heat

How are key enzymes in metabolic pathways regulated?

1. Covalent modification 2. Proteolytic cleavage 3. Association with other polypeptides 4. Allosteric regulation

2 Important DNA replication rules

1. DNA is synthesized (Polimerization) occurs in the 5' to 3' direction. Dont confuse this by looking at the parent strand. The DAUGHTER strand is synthesized 5' -> 3'. 2. DNA synthesis requires a primer that begins the chain

What are the 6 modes of natural selection?

1. Directional Selection 2. Divergent Selection 3. Stabilizing Selection 4. Artificial Selection 5. Sexual Selection 6. Kin Selection

What are the three basic rules of electron configurations?

1. Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals available 2. Electrons in the same subshell occupy available orbitals singly before pairing up 3. No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers Remember you can use the nearest noble gas to not have to rewrite all of the used up orbitals Also when using the periodic table remember to subtract 1 period from the d orbital EX: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10

How do you determine whether the organic products of a free-radical halogenation reaction?

1. Figure out if each carbon is tertiary, secondary, or primary (3`, 2`, 1`). 2. Find a plane of symmetry if there is one 3. Add a halogen as a substituent on each carbon on one side of the plane of symmetry. If there's a carbon that's right down the center, add the halogen there as well. Each product will have only one carbon bonded with a halogen. 4. Find the major and minor products by comparing carbons. If the carbon is tertiary its major compared to a secondary or primary carbon with a halogen substituent *Bromine is more selective than chlorine, meaning that the products will be less even in concentrations* *iodine does not undergo free radical halogenation* *fluorine is highly reactive, very unselective, and doesn't need an influx of heat or light to undergo reactions with alkanes* same rules for finding products apply tho

Drawing chair conformations from given structures

1. First draw your chair conformation outline. Draw axial lines first, start up on C1, down on C2, up on C3, etc. Then do the same for equatorial lines but opposite of the axial, so if axial was up equatorial would be down. 2. Then start adding the substituents. Number the carbons on the structure and follow the order as you draw them into the chair conformation. If a substituent is dashed draw it down on that carbon. Dashed = down. If its wedged draw it up.

3 facts about equivalence points of different titrations and their corresponding pHs

1. For a weak acid (titrated w/a strong base), the equivalence point will occur at a pH > 7 2. For a weak base (titrated w/a strong acid0, the equivalence point will occur at a pH < 7 3. For a strong acid or base titrated with a strong base or acid the equivalence point will be at pH = 7

How can haloalkanes be created?

1. Free radical halogenation 2. Alcohols reacting with phosphorous halides 3. Alcohols reacting with Thionyl chloride (SOCl2)

What is the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin?

1. In a population, there are heritable differences between individuals 2. Heritable traits (alleles of genes) produce traits (phenotypes) that affect the ability of an organism to survive and have offspring 3. Some individuals have phenotypes that allow them to survive longer, be healthier, and have more offspring. 4. Individuals with phenotypes that allow them to have more offspring will pass on their alleles more frequently than those with phenotypes that have fewer offspring 5. Over time, those alleles that lead to more offspring are passed on more frequently and become more abundant in the gene pool. 6. Changes in allele frequency are the basis of evolution in species and populations

What are the conclusions found by Gregor Mendell in Mendelian genetics (3)?

1. Law of segregation- alleles are separated and passed on individually 2. Law of independent assortment- alleles of one gene will separate into gametes independently of other alleles 3. If a strain is breed and produces the same phenotype over and over it is said to be homozygous. For example: gg bread over and over will produce more gg

What are the three phases of the uterine cycle?

1. Menstruation 2. Proliferative phase 3. Secretory phase

Nerve Impulse generation/ Nerve action potention

1. Neuron membrane maintains resting potential by diffusion of Na+ and K+ down their concentration gradients as the cell pumps them up their gradients. 2. Threshold (-55mV) stimulus received, causing local potential 3. Voltage gated Na+ channels in trigger zone open fully 4. Na+ diffuse into cell, depolarize membrane creating the action potential 5. Voltage gated K+ channels in membrane open 6. K+ diffuse out of cell, repolarize membrane 7. Resulting action potential causes an electric current that stimulates adjacent portions of membrane 8. Local current stimulates adjacent membrane to ITS threshold level, triggers another action potential, stimulates next adjacent region. 9. Wave of action potential travels length of axon as a nerve impulse

Differences between RNA and DNA

1. RNA is single stranded 2. RNA contains uracil instead of thymine 3. The pentose ring in RNA is ribose rather than 2' deoxyribose

What does it mean to reduce?

1. Remove oxygen 2. add hydrogen 3. add electrons

Rules of resonance

1. Resonance structures usually involve electrons that are adjacent to (one atom away from) a pi bond or unhybridized p orbital 2. Resonance structures that are most stable are most important 3. Resonance structures can never be drawn through true sp3 atoms

Conjugate Acid and Base strengths depend on

1. The conjugate base of a strong acid does not act like a base in water 2. The conjugate base of a weak acid is a weak base, but the more weak the acid the stronger its conjugate base 3. The conjugate acid of a strong base has no acidic properties in water 4. The conjugate acid of a weak base is a weak acid, and the more weak the base the stronger the conjugate acid

What are the functions of the circulatory system?

1. To distribute nutrients from the digestive tract, liver, and adipose (fat) tissue 2. Transport oxygen from the lungs to the entire body and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs 3. To transport metabolic waste products from tissues to the excretory system (i.e. the kidneys) 4. To maintain homeostasis of body temperature 5. To transport hormones from endocrine glands to targets and provide feedback 6. Hemostasis (blood clotting)

Why do phosphate anhydride bonds store so much energy? 3 reasons

1. When phosphates are linked together their negative charges repel each other strongly 2. Phosphate has more resonance forms and thus a lower free energy than linked phosphates 3. Phosphate interacts with water better than linked phosphates These are all reasons for why linked phosphates are rearing to be broken apart and drive reactions

How does the respiratory system protect from disease and pathogens?

1. alveolar macrophages phagocytize bacteria and unwanted substances 2. The mucociliary escalator is a system in which mucus traps unwanted pathogens and cilia sweeps them to the pharynx where they are swallowed or coughed up

What are three ways an antibody removes an antigen from the body?

1. binds to the antigen making it immobile/unable to perform harmful actions 2. binding can induce phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils 3. The presence of antibodies on the cell surface can activate the complement system to form holes in the membrane and lyse the cell

What are the 3 intermediate species that organic reactions proceed through?

1. carbocations (carbonium ions) 2. alkyl radicals 3. carboanions

What are the three steps of filtering blood in the kidney?

1. filtration 2. Selective reabsorption 3. Secretion

What are the three phases of the ovarian cycle?

1. follicular phase 2. ovulatory phase 3. luteal phase

What is the role of the mouth in digestion?

1. fragmentation 2. lubrication 3. enzymatic digestion

What are the 3 subdivisions of the brain?

1. hindbrain or rhombencephalon 2. midbrain or mesencephalon 3. hindbrain or prosencephalon

3 things that speed up reaction rate

1. lowering the activation energy 2. increasing concentration of reactants 3. increasing the temperature of the reaction

Functions of Na+/K+ ATPase

1. maintain osmotic balance between cellular interior and exterior 2. to establish a resting membrane potential 3. to provide the sodium concentration gradient that drives secondary active transport

What are the 5 types of sensory receptors?

1. mechanoreceptors 2. chemoreceptors 3. nociceptors 4. thermoreceptors 5. electromagnetic receptors

GI motility serves what two purposes?

1. mixing food 2. moving food down the gut

How to designate E or Z notation for double bonds

1. order the priority of each group attached to the double bond. there should be 4 and its based on atomic number just like normal absolute configuration 2. If the highest priority groups are on the same side their Z. Z zame zide. If their on opposite sides theyre E

What five roles does the vertebrates skeletal system serve?

1. support the body 2. provide the framework for movement 3. protect vital organs 4. store calcium 5. synthesize the formed elements of the blood (RBCs, WBCs, platelets). This occurs in the marrow of flat bones and is called hematopoiesis.

What are the 2 forms of temperature regulation for humans in hot environments?

1. sweating 2. dilation of blood vessels results in heat loss by conduction

What are the 3 ways to calculate heat of reaction (∆Hrxn)?

1. using heats of formation 2. hess's law 3. summation of individual bond enthalpies

1 m^3 is equal to how many liters?

1000

How many liters are = 1m^3?

1000L

What are the conversions between pascals, atm, torr, and mm Hg?

101.3kPa = 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg

pKa + pKb =

14

What is the electron configuration of oxygen?

1s2 2s2 2p4

What is the pH inside the stomach? Why, and what does this do?

2. this is because parietal cells located in the gastric mucosa secrete HCl. This destroys pathogens, causes hydrolysis (breakdown) of dietary proteins, and converts pepsinogen into pepsin.

0 degrees celcius is equal to how many kelvin?

273.15 degrees K (all equations on the DAT use kelvin)

How do you figure out a molecules number of stereoisomers?

2^n where n = the number of chiral centers

How old is life on earth?

3.8-3.5 billion years ago

How many protons are pumped through ATP synthase to form one molecule of ATP?

4 protons

How old is the earth?

4.5 billion years old

For an autosomal gene in a population of 2000 individuals, how many copies of the gene are present in the gene pool?

4000

What are the 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail?

5' cap is made up of methylated guanine nucleotide stuck on the 5' end and the poly A tail is a string of hundreds of adenines stuck to the 3' end. They prevent digestion of the mRNA by exonucleases that are free in the cell.

What is the summarized chemical equation for photosynthesis?

6CO2 + 12H20 + energy -> 6O2 + C6H12O6 +6 H20

What is the pH of blood?

7.4 and is maintained by buffers. the principle buffer in blood is bicorbonate HCO3-

What is the unit joule = to?

= kg*m^2/s^2

Where the fvck is the QRT section?

?

How do you determine whether a carbon is primary secondary or tertiary (1`,2`, or 3`)?

A 1` carbon is bonded to only one other carbon. A 2` is bonded to two other carbons, and a 3` carbon is bonded to 3 other carbons

What is an endocrine gland?

A DUCTLESS gland whose secretory products are picked up by capillaries supplying blood to the region

What is the tundra?

A biome characterized by really cold climates permanent frozen subsoil (permafrost). There is very little precipitation, and very few plants. Most animals are insects although there are a fair number of mammals as well, including caribou, wolves, polar bears, foxes, and reindeer.

What is a chaparral?

A biome found near coastal regions and is characterized by short, shrubby vegetation. This biome is characterized by long, dry summers and mildly rainy winters. Animal life is similar to desert animal life, but includes deer, birds and coyote.

What are savannas?

A biome of grasslands with scattered trees. Soil is nutrient poor but supports enough grass and shrubs for some of the largest herbivores in the world.

What are tropical forests?

A biome that is found near the equator, where the average sunlight and average temperature vary very little. They can be divided into tropical dry forests (little rainfall), tropical deciduous forests (moderate rainfall), and tropical rain forests (heavy rainfall), which has the most diverse animal and plant life in the world

What are temperate deciduous forests?

A biome that recieves a fairly large amount of precipitation and thus supports a dense environment of deciduous trees. Wide diversity of plant and animal life.

What are Temperate grasslands?

A biome the has some of the most fertile soils in the world and is therefore used primarily for farming and grazing. Few trees/shrubs.

What are deserts?

A biome where its extremely dry with little rainfall. It can be very hot or very cold, and vegetation is drought resistant.

What is an ionic bond?

A bond formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one ion to another. EX: Na+ and CL- form NaCl. Usually between a metal and a nonmetal. Between elements of large electronegativity differences

What is melanin/

A brown pigment, produced by melanocytes in the epidermis, that helps absorb uv light

What is a chiral center?

A carbon with 4 different groups bonded to it. Can be sometimes referred to as asymmetric center, stereocenter, stereogenic center

What is a receptor?

A class of integral membrane proteins that transmit signals from the extracellular space to the cytoplasm. A receptor binds to a specific molecule to transmit the signal

What is an ionic solid?

A compound held together by ionic bonds/electrostatic attractions between cations and anions in a lattice structure

What is an order of magnitude?

A factor of ten

What is elastin?

A fibrous extracellular protein that gives tissue the ability to stretch and regain its shape

What is an ideal gas?

A gas that meets all the requirements of kinetic molecular theory

What is a species?

A group of organisms capable of reproducing with eachother to form offspring that are capable of further reproduction

What is gastrin?

A hormone secreted by G cells in the stomach wall. It stimulates acid and pepsin secretion and gastric motility

What does oxytocin do?

A hormone that causes milk let-down for nursing as well as uterine contractions during labor

What makes a group/molecule more hydrophobic or hydrophillic?

A hydrophillic group is polar, so the larger the unequal distribution of electrons the more hydrophillic the molecule. A hydrophobic group is nonpolar, so it has no charge or uneven distribution of electrons. The larger the carbon chain the more the more hydrophobic. The more aromatic rings/benzene rings the more hydrophobic the molecule. Alcohol groups, carboxylic acid groups are hydrophillic due to the ease at which hydrogen bonding occurs

What are steroids and what their structure? Examples?

A hydrophobic organic compound composed of a tetracyclic ring system, based on the structure of cholesterol Two examples include steroid hormones testosterone and estradiol that are made from cholesterol

What is a synapse?

A junction between axon terminus of a neuron and the dendrites, soma, or axon of a second neuron or an organ.

What is flagellum?

A large tail that aids cell locomotion. Found in prokaryotes and sperm made of microtubules Anchored to the plasma membrane via a basal body

What is a gene?

A length of DNA that codes for a particular gene product (proteins, tRNA, and rRNA)

What is an electrophile?

A lewis acid. They are electron deficient species that have a full or partial positive charge

What is a nucleophile?

A lewis base. It is a species with unshared pair of electrons that have a full or partial negative charge

What is the cytoplasm of a bacterial cell bounded by?

A lipid bilayer. And outside the lipid bilayer is a cell wall made up of peptidoglycan

What are T-cells?

A lymphocyte that kill virus-infected cells, tumor cells, and reject tissue grafts; they also control the immune response

What is the lysosome?

A membrane bound organelle that is responsible for the degredation of biological macromolecules by hydrolysis.

What is the kinetic molecular theory?

A model for describing the behavior of gases, based on the following assumptions: 1. The molecules of a gas are so small compared to the average spacing between them that the molecules themselves take up essentially no volume 2. The molecules of a gas are in constant motion, moving in straight lines at constant speeds and in random directions between collisions. The collisions of the molecules with the walls of the container define the pressure of the gas (the average force exerted per unit area) and all collisions are ELASTIC (the total kinetic energy is the same after the collision as it is before). since each molecule moves at a constant speed between collisions and the collisions are elastic, the molecules of gas experience no intermolecular forces. 3. The molecules of a gas span a distribution of speeds, and the average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature in kelvin of the sample.

What is a dipole moment? What makes a molecule polar?

A molecule is polar when there is an uneven distribution of charge. A dipole moment is formed when the more electronegative element "hogs" electrons making its side partially negative. Sometimes drawn with an arrow pointing to the side thats more negative and has a plus at the start of the arrow

What are the tonsils and appendix?

tonsils are sites that help catch pathogens that enter the body through respiration or ingestion and have WBCs The appendix is similar and is located at the beginning of the large intestine

What are polygenic traits?

traits controlled by multiple genes at different loci

What is transduction

transfer of genomic material from one bacteria to another by a lysogenic phage

Carrier proteins

transport molecules across a membrane via facilitated diffusion. Can be uniport (carry one molecule), symports (two molecules), or antiports (carry two molecules in opposite directions)

The large hepatic portal vein does what?

transports blood containing amino acid and carbs from the gut to the liver

What is electrolytic cell?

unlike a galvanic cell, an electrolytic cell USES an external voltage source (such as a battery) to create an electric currecnt that forces NONSPONTANEOUS REDOX RXN TO OCCUR. creating the electric current that forces this to occur is called electrolysis E˚ will be negative

What is cancer?

unregulated cell division

ventilation vs. respiration

ventilation- the simple movement of air into and out of the lungs respiration- the exchange of gases between the lungs, the blood, and the tissues of the body sometimes they are used interchangebly

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)

volume of air that remains in the lungs following exhalation of resting tidal volume FRC = ERV + RV

work equation

w = -Pext∆V -Pext: external pressure ∆V: change in volume

What are intermolecular forces?

weak interactions that take place between neutral molecules

The more negative the reduction potential the ___________ the reactant is as an oxidizing agent and the ___________ the product is as a reducing agent. The more positive the reduction potential the ____________ the reactant is as an oxidizing agent and the ____________ the product is as a reducing agent.

weaker, stronger stronger, weaker reduction potential = E˚

What are the three types of cells in the islets of Langerhans? what do they do?

β-cells that secrete insulin in response to elevated blood sugar α-cells that secrete glucagon in response to low blood sugar δ-cells that secrete somatostatin that inhibits many digestive processes

What is the mathematical representation of Gibbs free energy?

∆G = ∆H - T∆S G = gibbs free energy H = enthalpy T = temperature in kelvin S = entropy *S is usually given in Joules and H in kJ, so make sure they have the same unit when calculating answers*

What is a change in gibbs free energy?

∆G, the energy that's available (free) to do useful work from a chemical reaction

The ∆G˚, for a redox reaction whose cell voltage is E˚ is given by the equation

∆G˚ = -nFE˚ ∆G˚ = gibbs free energy change n = number of electrons transferred (# on one side of the redox reaction not both added together) F= faradays constant (the magnitude of the charge of one mole of electrons, 96,500 coulombs). E = cell voltage

What is the heat of reaction?

∆H

∆H for an endothermic and exothermic reaction

∆H is pos+ for endothermic reactions and neg- for exothermic reactions

What does exothermic vs. endothermic mean?

Exothermic reactions release heat Endothermic reactions require an input of heat

What are density dependent factors of a population?

Factors that increase in intensity as the population grows. EX: food availability and territory

What is linkage?

Failure of genes to display independent assortment (independent assortment is the idea that alleles are passed down independent of other alleles). This occurs for genes located in close proximity on the same chromosome. Sometimes meiotic recombination can cause these genes to be assorted independently. The closer in proximity they are to each other, the less likely recombination will occur to separate the genes.

Fat soluble vs. water soluble vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins require bile acids for solubilization and absorption. Excess fat soluble vitamins are stored in adipose tissue Water soluble vitamins dont require bile acids for absorption and excess water soluble vitamins are excreted via the urinary system

How are fats transported through blood?

Fats are absorbed by intestines and packaged into chylomicrons, which are a type of lipoprotein. The chylomicrons enter tiny lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall called lacteals that empty into larger lymphatics which eventually drain into the subclavian vein

What are the functions of the kidney?

Filters blood to excrete hydrophillic wastes Maintains constant solute concentration, pH, and fluid volume

What happens during selective reabsorption in the nephron?

Filtrate in the renal tubule consists of water and small hydrophillic molecules like sugars, salts, amino acids, and urea. A lot of these substances are reabsorbed by epithelial cells of the tubule (lined with microvilli) and picked up by peritubular capilaries which drain into venules that lead to the renal vein. Most (~70%) of reabsorption occurs in the PCT, and a lot of water is reabsorbed here.

Uterine tubes end in what on the ovary side?

Fimbriae, which are fingerlike projections that help transport the egg to from the ovary to the tube

What are fixed action patterns and imprinting?

Fixed action patterns (FAPs) are innate behaviors that are triggered by specific stimuli. Examples include the feeding of baby birds by their parents or sexual and mating behaviors. Imprinting is an innate behavior where recognition of some object as 'mother' during the critical time period after birth. This is why sometimes little geese think humans are their mom

What are the two types of bone shapes?

Flat and long

What is synovial fluid?

Fluid that lubricates joints. Its kept within the joint in the synovial capsule

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

Fluid that the entire CNS floats in. It is a clear liquid that serves various functions such as shock absorption and exchange of nutrients and waste with the CNS

Where does transcription, replication, splicing, and translation occur in a prokaryote? Eukaryote?

For a prokaryote they all occur in the cytoplasm For a eukaryote repllication, transcription, and splicing occur in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm, specifically at ribosomes.

Process of prokaryotic translation.

For prokaryotes, translation and transcription occur at the same time. The 70S initiation complex is starts to form when the smaller subunit, 30S, first binds to the mRNA on the 5' end, and is completed when the 50S larger subunit attaches. Three steps occur during translation: Initiation, Elongation, and termination. Initiation: The 70S initiation complex forms, the initiator tRNA with the first amino acid sits in the 70S complex H-bonded with the start codon. Elongation: 3 step process. Step 1: the second tRNA enters the A site and H-bonds with the second codon. A peptide bond forms between the amino acids in the second step and is catalyzed by peptidyl transferase. In the third step, translocation, where a new tRNA moves into the A site pushin the other tRNA molecules into the P, and E sites. This continues over and over until termination. Termination: occurs when a stop codon appears in the A site of the ribosome complex.

What is neurulation?

Formation of the nervous system in a developing embryo. A layer of the ectoderm is pinched off to form the dorsal neural groove -> neural tube -> brain and spinal chord.

Pores

Formed by polypeptides called porins. Allows molecules to pass through some membranes

What is the product of photosynthesis? What are the two steps of photosynthesis?

G-3-P or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Light independent, and light dependent reactions

What is gastrulation?

Gastrulation is when the three primary germ layer (the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) become distinct in an embryo. They give rise to all the body parts of the developing embryo. The blastula becomes the embryonic disk/bilaminar disk that then forms the three layers

What does it mean when a channel protein is "gated"? "voltage gated"? "ligand gated"?

Gated means that the channel becomes open due to an environmental stimuli Voltage gated opens in response to a change in electrical potential across the membrane Ligand gated is a channel that opens in response to the binding of specific molecules like neurotransmitters

What is anti and gauche conformation? Which ones more stable? Whats the exception/

Gauche has the largest groups closest together and anti has the largest groups furthest apart. Anti is more stable, but gauche can be more stable if its conformation leads to intermolecular bonds

What is innate immunity?

General, nonspecific protection the body provides against various invaders such as skin. 1. skin 2. tears, saliva, and blood contain lysozymes that kill some bacteria by targeting their cell wall 3. stomach acid 4. macrophages + neutrophils + NK cells are not discriminatory 5. complement system is a group of 20 blood proteins that can nonspecifically bind to the surface of foreign cells leading to their destruction

What is anaerobic respiration?

Glucose metabolism with electron transport and oxidative phosphoralization relying on an external electron acceptor other than O2

What cells produce mucus in the respiratory system? Where is mucus found in the respiratory tract and where is it not found?

Goblet cells produce mucus. Mucus is found in the conducting zone and not in the respiratory zone.

What is gram staining? What makes a bacterial cell gram positive or negative?

Gram staining is a technique used to see whether a bacteria is gram positive or negative by treating it with many stains and counterstains. A gram + bacterium will stain deep purple while a gram neg bacteria will stain light pink. A gram neg bacteria has a thin peptidoglycan layer in the periplasmic region between two lipid bilayers, while the gram pos bacteria has a thicker peptidoglycan layer outside its lipid bilayer

Naming the groups on the periodic table of elements Group I Group II Group VII d block f block Group VIII

Group I = alkali metals Group II = alkaline earth metals Group VII = Halogens d block = transition metals f block = rare earth metals Group VIII = noble gases

What are the two types of seed plants?

Gymnosperms (no fruits or flowers) Angiosperms (flowering plants with seeds enclosed in an ovary, usually a fruit)

What is habituation and conditioning?

Habituation is a leaned behavior where a repetitive stimuli is progressively ignored. Example if a person keeps scaring you in the same spot you will learn to not be startled. Conditioning is a form of learning where a particular reaction is associated with a particular stimulus . Also known as associative learning. Example: classical conditioning where a stimulus (bell) is associated with an action (dog going on a walk). Operant conditioning is when a particular behavior is learned to be either repeated or avoided due to a consequence. Example a rat presses a lever because it dispenses food.

Where do proteins formed in free cytoplasm ribosomes go?

Head towards peroxisomes, mitchondria and the nucleus, or remain in the cytoplasm

What is an HFr bacteria?

High frequency of recombination. Its when the F factor is recombines into a bacterias chromosomal genome

What happens during Anaphase I of meiosis?

Homologous chromosomes seperate towards the ends of cells, and sister chromatids remain together. Homologous chromosomes seperate randomly, so its not all mother chromosomes in one cell and father chromosomes in another

What are tropic hormones?

Hormones that regulate other hormones.

What is endochondral ossification?

How most bone growth occurs. Hyaline cartilage is produced and then replaced by bone

What is artificial selection?

Humans intervene in the mating of many animals and plants, using artificial selection to achieve desired traits through controlled mating. EX: Pets and crop plants we have are the result of many years of artificial selection

What are peptide hormones?

Hydrophillic hormones that are synthesized in the rough ER. they are stored in vescicles until needed. They cant cross biological membranes so they bind to outside cell receptors and communicate via second messenger cascade. They dissolve freely in blood plasma.

What are steroid hormones?

Hydrophobic hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol in the smooth ER. They are not stored, they are synthesized and used when needed. They are slow and long lasting. They bind to proteins in the blood for transport.

What does spontaneous or nonspontaneous mean in thermodynamics?

If a reaction is favorable it is called spontaneous or thermodynamicaly favorable. ∆G <0, and the reaction will proceed to form products. A nonspontaneous reaction is unfavorable, ∆G > 0 and the reaction will not proceed to form products These terms have nothing to do with the rate of rxn

What is Charles' law?

If pressure is held constant volume is proportional to temperature. If temperature increases so does the volume.

What is Boyle's Law?

If temperature is held constant, pressure is inversely proportional to volume. As volume increases, pressure decreases

How can you tell if an atom is sp, sp2, or sp3 hybridized?

If the atom is bonded to other atoms via single bonds, it is sp3 hybridized, its bond angles are 109.5 degrees, and its tetrahedral If the atom is bonded to another atom via double bonds, it is sp2 hybridized, has 120 degree bond angles, and is trigonal planar If the atom is triple bonded to another atom it is sp hybridized, has 180 degree bond angles, and is linear If an atom has a lone pair that can be delocalized through a conjugated system it is sp2 hybridized carbocations are sp2 hybridized

What is a denatured protein?

Improperly folded

What is Faraday's Law of electrolysis?

In an electrolytic cell, the amount of chemical change is proportional to the amount of electricity that flows through the cell

Where do all formed elements (contents of blood) of blood form?

In bone marrow stem cells

How is DNA coiled in prokaryotes? eukaryotes?

In prokaryotes it is super coiled by DNA gyrase in a circular fashion In eukaryotes, our DNA is coiled around proteins called histones

What is the pulmonary and systemic circuits of the circulatory system?

In the pulmonary circuit, the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs which are brought back to the left atrium in the systemic circuit, the left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body and is brought back to the right atrium

What is ischemia?

Inadequate blood flow. Results in tissue damage due to shortages of O2 and nutrients, as well as the buildup of wastes

How do you increase stability of a carbocation or carbon alkyl radicals?

Increase the number substituents bonded to the radical/carbocation

What happens to equilibrium if you increase volume, thus decreasing pressure? If you decrease volume, thus increasing pressure?

Increase volume, thus decrease pressure: The reaction shifts to the side with more moles of gas because it wants to increase the pressure If we decrease volume, thus increasing pressure, the reaction shifts to the side with less moles of gas because it wants to decrease the pressure.

High estrogen and progesterone levels do what near ovulation?

Inhibit LH secretion. The corpus leuteum secretes large amounts of estrogen and progesterone. If pregnancy does not occur, the high levels of estrogen and progesterone inhibit LH. This drop in LH causes a the degredation of the corpus luteum which stimulates menstruation.

What is inspiration and expiration?

Inspiration is the drawing of air into the lungs and expiration is the movement of air out of the lungs

In thermodynamics what is the relationship between energy and temperature?

Internal energy is proportional to temperature. When temperature increases energy increases.

Ionization energy periodic trend

Ionization energy = snow cone (decreases down a group and increases across a period) This is because there are more protons and electrons as you move across a period making electrons more tightly bound With more shells and more shielding as you go down a group, it becomes easier to remove an electron

Isotonic vs. hypotonic vs. hypertonic solutions

Isotonic solution: solute concentration is the same inside and outside the cell Hypotonic solution: solute concentration is lower outside the cell Hypertonic solution: solute concentration is greater outside the cell

What is the role of yolk in cleavage?

It can inhibit cleavage. In humans this is not a major factor as they undergo holoblastic (complete) cleavage. in reptiles, birds, insects, and fish, the yolk is very plentiful and they undergo meroblastic (incomplete) cleavage

What is blood pressure?

It denotes arterial blood pressure and is read systolic pressure over diastolic pressure. the first number is systolic pressure and its the pressure of your blood pushing against the arteries during ventricular contraction and during relaxation is when diastolic pressure is measured. Pressure is measured in mm Hg

What is the Rh blood group?

It denotes whether the rhesus protein is present or absent. RR and Rr genotypes lead to the expression of the protein and are denoted by a +. rr leads to the absence of the protein (Rh negative) and is denoted by a -.

What happens if an inert gas (non-reactive gas) is added to a reaction at equilibrium?

It doesn't participate in the reaction, therefore doesn't change the partial pressures or concentrations of products or reactants, and doesn't shift equilibrium in either direction

What is the nasal cavity and does it function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

It functions in the conducting zone and it is an open space within the nose

What does the nose do, and does it function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

It functions in the conducting zone, and it warms, humidifies and filters inhaled air. hairs and mucus in the nose filters the air.

What is the excretory system?

It generally refers to the kidneys, but involves the liver, colon, and skin as well

What does it mean when an acid is polyprotic?

It has more than one proton to donate

What happens when you add a catalyst to a reaction at equilibrium?

It increases the rate of BOTH forward and reverse reactions and therefore DOES NOT EFFECT EQUILIBRIUM

What is the rate of a reaction and what is it determined by?

It indicates how fast reactants are used up to form products. Its determined by: 1. how frequently molecules collide 2. the orientation of the colliding molecules 3. and their energy

Describe the process of placenta formation

It involves the formation of placental villi. these are chorionic projections extending into the endometrium, into which the fetal capillaries grow. Surrounding the villi are sinuses (open spaces) filled with maternal blood. Nutrients, wastes, gases, etc are transferred between these pools of blood and the placental villi. No mixing of blood ever occurs!

What is the Golgi Apparatus and what are its 3 functions?

It is a group of membranous sacs stacked together like collapsed basketballs Functions: 1) Modification of proteins made in the Rough ER 2) Sorting and sending proteins to their correct destination 3) synthesizes certain macromolecules, such as polysaccharides to be secreted.

What is a fatty acid?

It is composed of long unsubsituted alkanes (single carbon chains) that end in a carboxylic acid

What is the composition and mechanism of a bacterial flagellum?

It is composed of the filament, the hook, and the basal structure. The basal structure contrains a number of rings that anchor the flagellum to the inner and outer membrane and serve to rotate the tod and the rest of the flagellum in either a clockwise or counterclockwise manner. MOST IMPORTANTLY the structure is different from a eukaryotic flagellum that is composed of microtubules in a 9 + 2 arrangement

How is a peptide bond formed?

It is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and an amino group of another amino acid. Water is formed as a biproduct

How is a disulfide bond/bridge formed?

It is formed between two cisteine R-groups, creating a sulfur-sulfur bond.

Where is the thyroid hormone produced? What type of hormone is it? What does it do? What is it regulated by?

It is produced in the thyroid gland It is an amino acid derivative hormone that acts like a steroid because its derived from a hydrophobic amino acid It binds to a receptor inside the cytoplasm of cells that then regulates transcription in the nucleus which causes an increase in metabolism and body temperature and stimulates growth in children It is regulated by thyroid stimulating hormone that is produced in the hypothalamus as a part of the CNS

What happens to the signal sequence/signal peptide once translation is complete in the ER?

It is removed by a signal peptidase into the ER lumen.

What is maternal inheritance? Example of this?

It is the inheritance of something only from the mother. Example includes mitochondria because they are only inherited from the mother

What is vapor pressure?

It is the pressure exerted by the gaseous phase of a liquid that is evaporated from the exposed surface of the liquid. The weaker the intermolecular forces of a liquid, the higher its vapor pressure and the easier it evaporates

What is an electron's fourth quantum number?

It is the spin number, ms (subscript s) Describes an electron's spin/magnetism. Can be either +1/2 and -1/2

What is chemical kinetics?

It is the study of how reactions take place and how fast they occur

What is the binomical classification system?

It originated by Carolus Linnaeus. It names each organism by giving them two names genus and species, both italisized, with the first, genus, being capitalized and the other not.

What is solubility?

It refers to the amount solute needed to saturate a particular solvent. Its specific fort the type of solute and solvent.

What is a quantized number or quantization?

It refers to the unique "addresses" for each electron, consisting of 4 quantum #s designating the shell, subshell, orbital, and spin

What is the function of bile?

It serves as a vehicle for the disposal of wastes by the liver and is essential in the digestion of fats

What is the concentration of a solution?

It tells you how much solute is dissolved in the solvent. Depicted by brackets []

What is the definition of the boiling point of a liquid?

It the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to atmospheric pressure. If atmospheric pressure is 760 torr than vapor pressure must also be 760 torr. Adding more solute decreases vapor pressure therefore more heat needs to be added for it to reach atmospheric pressure

What is a covalent bond?

Its a bond formed between two atoms that share the electrons

In evolution, what does the term fitness mean?

Its an animals ability to pass on its alleles to future generations

What is the adrenal gland? What are its two parts and what are their functions?

Its an endocrine gland located on the top of each kidney The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. The adrenal medulla is located inside the adrenal cortex in the center of an adrenal gland. It produces several "stress hormones," including epinephrine, also known as adrenaline.

What does Helicase do?

Its an enzyme that unwinds DNA in preparation for DNA synthesis

What happens during Meiosis II?

Its exactly like mitosis but the cells start out haploid in meiosis and diploid in mitosis

What is elastic cartilage?

Its found in areas that need flexibility such as the outer ear and epiglottis

How is the endocrine system regulated?

Its regulated through feedback regulation, where the amount of hormone secreted is controlled by changes in the variable the hormone is responsible for controlling. EX: if Ca+ levels drop below the physiological endpoint (amount of a substance needed to be maintained) then calcitonin is released. Most of the feedback in the endocrine system is negative feedback

What is an empirical formula?

Its the formula of a compounds lowest total of each element. Ex: The MOLECULAR formula of glucose is C6H12O6 but its EMPIRICAL formula is CH2O

What is the cytoskeleton of a cell?

Its the microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that connect all the structures of a cells. It allows movement of the cell and its appendages and transport of substances within the cell

What is countercurrent multiplier of the loop of henle?

Its the notion that the ascending and descending limbs are go in opposite directions and have different permiabilities. The descending loop is permeable to water. Water exits the descending limb and is absorbed by the medullary interstitium. The ascending loop of henle is not permeable to water, but loses ions into the medullary interstitium, making the interstitium very salty. This is important because it will further draw out water when the distal nephron is permeable to water (when ADH is present)

What is chemical thermogenesis/non-shivering thermogenesis?

Its the process where some homeotherms like bears can increase their temperature by burning special fat called brown adipose tissue

What is the process of oogenesis?

Its the production of eggs. This process occurs prenatally. In a female fetus, germ cells divide mitotically to produce large numbers of oogonia. They undergo mitosis and enter the first phase of meiosis and are arrested in prophase I as primary oocytes. Beginning at puberty until menopause, hormonal changes stimulate completion of the first meiotic division and ovulation. This yields a large secondary oocyte and a mall polar body which will eventually disintegrate. The second meiotic division occurs only if the egg becomes fertilized by the sperm. The nuclei of the sperm and egg dont fuse until the second meiotic division completes and the second polar body is released.

What is a side chain of an amino acid?

Its varying R-group

What is nondisjunction?

Its when either homologous chromosomes dont seperate in Meiosis I or sister chromatids dont seperate in Meiosis II

What is the role of cholesterol?

Keeps phospholipid layer membrane at an optimal fluidity. At high temps it reduces fluidity and at low temps it increases it.

What helps the skin be waterproof?

Keratin, as the stratified epithelial cells of the epidermis die they become keratinized, or filled with keratin.

Relationship between kinetics and thermodynamics?

Kinetics studies the rate of rxns while thermodynamics shows whether a rxn is favorable/spontaneous but never tells you the rate of the rxn.

For any conjugate base pair Ka x Kb is equal to

Kw = 1.0 x 10-14 (Water ionization constant)

What is a lewis base and a lewis acid?

LB: A compound that donates a pair of electrons LA: A compound that accepts a pair of electrons from the donor/LB

What are the 3 types of signal transducing cell-surface receptors/

Ligand-gated ion channels Catalytic receptors G-protein linked receptors

how does the liver function to help in lipid metabolism?

Lipids exit the intestine and enter the lymphatic system in molecules alled chylomicrons. Chylomicrons are degraded by lipases into triglycerides, glycerol, and cholesterol rich chilomicron remnants. These remnants are taken up by hepatocytes (liver cells) and combined with proteins to make lipoproteins. these lipoproteins enter the blood and are the source of cholesterol and triglycerides for the other tissues of the body

What is the pancreatic duct?

Located in the duodenum, it delivers exocrine secretions of the pancreas (digestive enzymes and bicarbonate)

What is a chromosome?

Long condensed strands of DNA. Humans have 46 chromosomes.

What are the 2 types of connective tissue?

Loose and Dense connective tissue: Loose- material located between cells throughout the body, fat cells (adipose), and the basement membrane Dense- tissues that contain large amounts of collagen such as bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments

What is Molarity = to?

M = moles of solute/ liter of solution

What is Molarity?

M = moles of solute/ liters of solution

What is the M phase of the cell cycle? Interphase?

M phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis interphase includes phases Gap 1 and Gap 2 and the S (synthesis) phase

What are the units of the rate of a reaction?

M/s Some rates have different reaction orders so you can use the rate units to figure out missing units of the rate constant

Where and how are RBCs broken down?

Macrophages in the spleen and liver phagocytize and break down old RBCs

Ribosome composition

Made up of long peptide and rRNA chains held together in a massive quaternary structure. They have a small and large subunit

What is transcription?

Making RNA from DNA

What is translation?

Making proteins from RNA

Are males or females more affected by X-linked recessive genes?

Males, because if a male receives the recessive gene he will express it because he only has one X. Females need to receive another X from their with the same recessive allele to express the gene, so the chances are much lower.

What is the word describing many flagellum? One flagellum? Flagellum at both sides?

Many = peritrichous One = monotrichous both sides = amphitrichous

How do you find the number of neutrons from the periodic table?

Mass # - #protons

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Maximum volume of air that can be exhaled in addition to resting tidal volume

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Maximum volume of air that can be inhaled added to resting tidal volume

What is a medium? petri dish? plating? colony? minimal medium? lawn? plaque?

Medium - environment in which bacteria grow Petri dish- plastic container in a lab for bacteria colony- lots of bacteria that came from one minimal medium- medium that contains nothing but glucose and agar lawn- dense growth of bacteria plaque- clear area in lawn of bacteria due to death

What is a physical change?

Melting, freezing, or boiling for example A physical change only affects intermolecular forces not intramolecular forces. The compounds chemical formula stays the same

What is Km of enzyme kinetics?

Michaelis constant. It is the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate/velocity is half of its maximum or Vmax/2

What is the mitochondria? What is the matrix? What is its cristae?

Mitochondria are organelles that are the site of oxidative phosphoralization The matric is the interior of the mitochondria bounded by inner and outer membranes Cristae are folds in the mitchondria that increase the surface area, which allows for a greater number of synthesized ATP

How does GI motility mix food?

Mixing is accomplished by disordered contractions of GI smooth muscles, resulting in churning motions

Molecular solids

Molecules held together by intermolecular interactions like hydrogen bonds, london dispersion forces, and dipole-dipole interactions

What are the 6 phylums important in the kingdom animalia?

Mollusca- soft bodies protected by hard shells. No segmentation. Brachiopoda- marine animals that kinda look like shells and resemble bivalves of the heart Annelida- segmented worms. Well developed digestive tract and a closed circulatory system. Arthropoda- Huge phylum (~1mil). segmented, with a hard exoskeleton. open circulatory system. Echinodermata- exhibit radial symmetry. slow moving. Have a water vascular system that plays a role in gas exchange locomotion and feeding. They have skin. Live in a marine enviroment. Chordata- possess 4 structures within their lifetime- a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal gill slits, a muscular postnatal tail. In many chordates these structures are only present during the embryo stage.

Eukaryotic mRNA is monocistronic, what does this mean? Prokaryotic mRNA is polycistronic, what does this mean?

Monocistronic means that the mRNA only codes for one protein Polycistronic means that the mRNA can code for more that one protein

What are macrophages?

Monocytes/WBCs that phagocytose debris and microorganisms. Move via amoeboid motility (crawling). Experience chemotaxis

What are two types of effectors (organs that act upon information from the nervous system)?

Muscles and glands

What are oncogenes?

Mutated genes that induce cancer

What are frameshift mutations?

Mutations that change the reading shift of a strand of DNA. For example if a nucleotide is inserted the whole strand is read differently. Therefore insertion and deletion mutations are both frameshift mutations.

What is myelin? What are the nodes of Ranvier? What is saltatory conduction?

Myelin is an insulating sheath, where no ions can enter or exit the neuron, that speeds up action potentials by forcing it to jump from node to node. They are made by Schwann cells. Periodic gaps in the myelin sheath are called nodes of Ranvier. Here voltage gated sodium and potassium pumps are concentrated. The rapid jumping conduction in myelinated axons is termed saltatory conduction.

What are intermediary filaments

Named for their thickness, they are rods formed from a wide range of polypeptides

What are mesophiles, thermophiles, and psychrophiles?

Names of bacteria based on their temperature preferences mesophiles- live in moderate temperatures ~ 30 degrees thermophiles- live in hot temperatures up to 100 degrees psychrophiles- live in cold temperatures near 0 degrees

What is kin selection?

Natural selection does not always act on individuals. Animals that live socially and often share with other individuals will sacrifice themselves for the sake of the alleles they share with another individual. EX: a female lion sacrifices herself to save her sister's children

The pressure inside the pleural space is positive or negative? Why is this important?

Negative. This causes the two pleural membranes to be drawn tightly together by a vacuum. It also keeps the lungs drawn up against the chest cavity wall.

Do thermodynamic factors affect kinetic factors?

No, for example delta G of a reaction does not affect the reaction rate

Was oxygen available at 3.5 billion years ago?

No, the early atmosphere was a reducing environment, where electron donors were prevalent. Oxygen is an electron acceptor and as such tends to break organic bonds

Do cartilage cells have blood vessels?

No, they get their nutrition and immune protection from the surrounding fluid

What are stem cells?

Non-specific blank precursor cells

What is a nucleotide and what is its composition?

Nucleotides are building blocks of nucleic acids linke RNA and DNA. They are made up of - ribose/deoxyribose sugar -purine/pyrimidine base - 1,2, or 3 phosphate groups

Head of sperm

Nucleus contains 23 chromosomes Acrosome- cap over the nucleus, which contains enzymes that aid in penetrating layers around oocyte during fertilization contains a protein called bindin that attaches to receptors of the zona pellucida

How do substances pass capillary walls, and what are the 3 substances needed to pass through capillary walls?

Nutrients (amino acids, lipids, and glucose), wastes, and WBCs pass through capillary walls by moving through spaces, called intercellular clefts, between the single layer of endothelial cells that make up capillary walls.

Obligate aerobes? Facultative anaerobes? Tolerant anaerobes? Obligate anaerobes?

Obligate aerobes- need oxygen Facultative anaerobes- will use oxygen if its around but dont need it (Make 16x the amount of ATP when oxygen is present) Tolerant anaerobes- can grow in the presence of oxygen but dont use it Obligate anaerobes- oxygen is poisonous

What is electroplating?

Occurs in electrolytic cells where a thin layer of metal is plated on another material that acts as the cathode

What is gluconeogenesis?

Occurs when dietary sources of glucose are unavailable. converts non-carbohydrate precursor molecules such as lactate, pyruvate, etc. into oxaloacetate and then glucose.

What is the pyloric sphincter?

Opens and closes to stop or let food go from the stomach to the duodenum

What are peroxisomes?

Organelles that break down lipids and assist in the detoxification of drugs/alcohol in the liver. Enzymes produce peroxide as a biproduct (H2O2). They also have enzymes called catalase that converts it to H20 and O2

What are GI accessory organs?

Organs that are not part of the GI tract but essential in digestion liver, pancreas, gall bladder, and salivary glands

What are microvilli?

Outward folds of a plasma membrane designed to increase surface area

What is oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain?

Oxidative phosphorylation is the oxidation of the high-energy electron carriers NADH and FADH2 coupled to the phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP. The energy released through oxidation of NADH and FADH2 by the ETC is used to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix. This proton gradient is coupled with ATP production. When protons are pumped back into the inner membrane by ATP Synthase, ATP synthase synthesized ATP from ADP. To form this proton gradient a chain of 5 electron carriers passes electrons that eventually becomes reduced to H20 (this is why we breathe), pumping out protons during this process. The chain of proteins and cofactors is shown below: NADH dehydrogenase -> coenzyme Q -> cytochrome C reductase -> cytochrome C -> cytochrome C oxidase

Ideal gas laws with constant n

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2, this is the combined gas law at constant P: V1/T1 = V2/T2 at constant V: P1/T1 = P2/T2 at constant T: P1V1 = P2V2

What are the 4 phases of mitosis? describe each

PMAT prophase: genome condenses into 46 chromosomes with 23 homologous pairs known as sister chromatids. Spindle fibers appear and centrioles begin to move towards opposite ends of the cell metaphase: the chromosomes line up at the center forming the metaphase plate. moved by the mitotic spindle anaphase: Spindle fibers shorten, and the centromeres of each sister chromatid pair are pulled apart. Cell elongates and a cleavage furrow begins telophase: cytokinesis completes and a membrane forms around the bunch of chromosomes which decondese. nucleolus forms

What is the ideal gas law?

PV = nRT P = pressure V = volume R = gas constant (.0821 L*atm/K*mol) T = temp in kelvin (absolute temp) n = moles of gas

Why are triglicerides better storage molecules than carbs?

Packing and Energy content Fats are packed much more tightly together and it has more energy per carbon than a carb

What is pepsin and what does it do?

Pepsin is secreted as pepsinogen by cheif cells in the stomach wall. it catalyzes preteolysis (protein breakdown)

What is the difference between peptide and steroid hormones?

Peptide hormones bind to receptors on the surface of a cell to exert their effects while steroid hormones diffuse through the membrane

What is a horizontal row called and a vertical column called on a periodic table?

Period = horizontal row Group = vertical column

What are phases 0-4 of cardiac muscle cell action potentials?

Phase 0 (depolarization) the SA node stimulates action potentials in the cardiac muscle cells that reach a threshold causing Na+ channels to open depolarizing the membrane Phase 1: (initial repolarization) Na+ channels close and K + channels open. Phase 2: the plateau phase. Ca+ channels open and the influx of calcum balances the outflow of potassium K+ Phase 3: Ca+ channels close and repolarization continues Phase 4: resting membrane potential is maintained by sodium potassium ATPase

What are phase 4, 0 and 3 of the SA node's action potential?

Phase 4: automatic slow selg depolarization: sodium leak channels cause the cell potential to slowly reach the threshold voltage initiating the action potential (The SA node has the most leaky sodium channels making it the pacemaker of the heart) Phase 0: voltage gated calcium channels open causing depolarization of the membrane Phase 3: repolarization: calcium channels close and pottasium channels open causing potassium to leave the cell repolarizing the membrane

What is phosphorylation?

Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphoryl group (PO3)− to a molecule. Oftentimes refers to ADP becoming ATP

What are algae? What kindom do they fall under?

Plant like, photosynthetic protists. Kingom protista

What are the 4 kingdoms of Eukaryotes?

Plantae Fungi Protista and Animalia

What is directional selection?

Polygenic traits (traits controlled by multiple genes at different loci) usually follow a bell shaped curve, with two extremes and most of the population in the middle of those two extremes. If one of the extremes is removed by natural selection, the bell curve will move towards the other extreme over time. EX: giraffes get taller as the shorter giraffes die for lack of food

What are portal systems and what are the 2 portal systems that you need to know?

Portal systems pass through two sets of capillary beds in sequence The two you need to know are the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system and the hepatic portal system Portal systems evolved as direct transport systems, to transport nutrients directly from the intestine to the liver or hormones from the hypothalamus to the pituitary, without passing through the whole body

What is Daltons law of partial pressures?

Pressure is due to the collisions of all the gasses in a container therefore: the total pressure is the sum of all the partial pressures of all the contituent gases: For example if we have3 gases it would be: P = Pa + Pb + Pc You just have to find the mole fraction of each gas. If the total moles of gas is equal to 16 and gas a has 8 moles, its mole fraction is 1/2. If the total pressure is 2 atm, the Pa is 1 atm.

What are primary, secondary and teritiary consumers?

Primary consumers eat producers (herbivores), secondary eat both producers and primary consumers (omnivores), while tertiary consumers eat primary and secondary consumers (carnivores)

How is sperm produced?

Produced in seminiferous tubules and secreted into lumen of seminiferous tubules

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is produced where and does what?

Produced in the hypothalmus and stimulates the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland

What are producers and what are consumers?

Producers are organisms that can produce their own food while consumers rely on the food made by the producers, either directly or indirectly, for their nutrition.

What does the liver do?

Produces bile processes blood to make changes in the body's physiology based on what is and isn't present. All blood from the stomach and the intestines travels through the hepatic portal vein. Hepatocytes (liver cells) extract nutrients and monitor the blood to make physiological changes such as releasing glucose into the bloodstream. converts ammonia NH3 (byproduct of protein catabolism) into urea to be absorbed by the blood and excreted via the urinary system helps in lipid metabolism make important plasma proteins for blood clotting center for drug and toxin detoxification

What is the rate at which prokaryotes ribosomes sediment? Eukaryote ribosomes?

Prokaryote ribosomes: 70S (Large subunit: 50S, small subunit 30S) Eukaryote ribosomes: 80S (Large subunit: 60S, small subunit 40S)

What is the difference in transcription between Eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

Prokaryotes have their DNA transcribed in the nucleus, and transcription and translation occur simultaneously. No modification of the mRNA is necessary. Eukaryotes have their DNA transcribed in the nucleus and transcription and translation do not occur simultaneously. Eukaryotic DNA also undergoes splicing and has a 5' cap and 3' poly A tail added to it before translation.

What is the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

Prokaryotes lack membrane bound organelles like the nucleus Ribosomes are not membrane bound and are still found in some prokaryotes

What are colligative properties?

Properties that depend on the NUMBER of solute particles in a solution rather than the TYPE of solute particle. Look at the vant Hoff factor. 1mol of C6H12O6 has an i = 1, and 1mol has the same NUMBER of particles as .5 mol of NaCl which has an i = 2. The four colligative properties for the DAT are vapor-pressure depression, freezing-point depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure

What are the steps of Meiosis II?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase I and Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase II

What determines whether a protein is translated in the cytoplasm or ER?

Proteins start translation in the cytoplasm, but some proteins have an amino acid sequence called a signal sequence that is recognized by a signal recognition particle (SRP) that binds to the ribosome. The ribosome SRP complex docks on ER receptors.

What happens in the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex?

Pyruvate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation where it becomes oxidized producing CO2 and NADH and a two carbon molecule known as an acetyl molecule. It is ten attached to a carrier coenzyme A forming a unit called acetyl-CoA Total Products of PDC: 2 NADH

Whats the equation for finding the amount of electricity or current in coulombs?

Q = It Q = charge I = current t = time

What enzyme coverts CO2 in the blood to carbonic acid?

RBC enzyme carbonic anhydrase

Recombination Frequency equation

RF = # of recombinants or recombinant phenotypes / total # of offspring

What is mRNA?

RNA that carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm/ribosomes where it can be translated into protein.

What is divergent selection?

Rather than removing the extreme members in the distribution of traits in a population, natural selection removes the members near the average. Over time divergent selection will split the population into two and perhaps lead to a new species. For example: Small deer are selected because they can hide, large deer because they can fight, but mid-sized deer are too big to hide and too small to fight

Which way is protein synthesized? 5' - 3' or 3' - 5'? Which is the free end of the mRNA 3' or 5'?

Read from 3 -5, SYNTHESIZED 5-3. Free end = 5' because its synthesized 5-3

What are mechanoreceptors?

Receptors that respond to mechanical changes Examples: the Pacinan corpuscules, pressure sensors in deep in the skin the auditory hair cell responds to sound waves in the ear baroreceptors are a type of mechanoreceptor

Which part of the nephron is in the renal cortex and which part is in the renal medulla?

Renal cortex: Glomerular Capsule, PCT, DCT, and upper portion of the loop of henle Renal Medulla: lower portion of the loop of henle

What is reproductive isolation and what are the two types?

Reproductive isolation keeps existing species seperate. There is postzygotic and prezygotic reproductive isolation.

What is a carrying capacity of a population?

Resources of an area dictate the maximum amount of individuals an area can hold

What does the vasa recta do?

Returns water that was reabsorbed from the filtrate back to the bloodstream

What are microfilaments?

Rods formed in the cytoplasm that are made up of the protein actin

What is rough ER

Rough endoplasmic reticulum is a system of folded membranes studded with ribosomes. It is the site of protein synthesis

Predicting acidity of molecules

Rules of acidity: 1. The more stable a conjugate base the stronger the acid 2. Molecules with a more positive charge are more likely to give up an H+ 3. If H is bonded to only one other type of element, than acidity increases as you go across and period and down a group. 4. Resonance can distribute charge and stabilize a conjugate base 5. Inductive Effects. Electronegative atoms can draw negative charge toward themselves, which can lead to considerable stabilization of conjugate bases. 6. sp is more acidic and electronegative than sp2 which in turn is more acidic and electronegative than sp3

What are the stages of the female sexual act?

Same as in males, arousal, orgasm, and resolution. The differences are that the clitoris and labia minora become engorged, females dont ejaculate, and their resolution is longer (~20-30min)

Difference between unsaturated and saturated fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids (solid at room temp) have no carbon-carbon double bonds while unsaturated fatty acids have a carbon-carbon cis double bond that causes the unsaturated fatty acid to have a bent shape and be liquid at room temperature

What happens during secretion in the nephron?

Secretion is the movement of substances from peritubular capilaries into the filtrate, via active transport, that is to be excreted. Its the last ditch effort to remove all of what needs to get eliminated. Bases, urea, toxins, and drugs are examples of substances removed from the blood via secretion. Secretion occurs all along the renal tubule, but most happens at the DCT

What are the two types of vascular plants?

Seedless and seed plants

What is the sensory function, integrative function, and motor function of the nervous system?

Sensory function: How your nervous system receives information Integrative function: How your nervous system processes the information it receives Motor function: Your motor neurons carry information from the nervous system to organs which can act upon that information, known as effectors.

What does a phase diagram do?

Shows how much pressure and temperature it takes for a phase change to occur At 1 atm it shows a substances normal melting point and normal boiling point

Labioscrotal swellings are what that become what?

Skin folds that form in an embryo. When testosterone is produced by the testes in a male, the skin fuses to form the scrotum. When testosterone isnt present, the labioscrotal swellings form the labia majora

What is cilia?

Small hairs on the cell surface that move fluids past the cell surface Made of microtubules Anchored to the plasma membrane via a basal body

What are venules?

Small veins where blood collects after passing through capilaries

What are capillaries?

Small vessels that are connected to arterioles which are connected to arteries. They have extremely thin walls made up of a single layer of cells and are designed to allow the exchange of material between the blood and tissues

What is the smooth ER

Smooth ER is a system of folded membranes that are involved in steroid hormone biosynthesis (gonads) and the degradation of environmental toxins (liver). Makes hormones and lipids

Phase solubility rules

Solubility of solids in liquids tends to increase with increasing T Solubility of gases in liquids tends to decrease with increasing temperature Solubility of gases in liquids tends to increase with increasing pressure

What are the two main divisions of the peripheral nervous system? Describe them

Somatic division: This portion is concerned with the conscious sensation and deliberate movement of skeletal muscle Autonomic division: concerned with digestion, metabolism, circulation, perspiration, and other INVOLUNTARY processes ->> can be further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic subdivisions

What is the Krebs cycle?

Sometimes called the citric acid cycle, or the tricarboxilic acid cycle. A part of cellular respiration, its a group of reactions which take the 2 carbon acetyl unit from acetyl-CoA, combine it with oxaloacetate (forming a citrate intermediate), and release two CO2 molecules, and produce NADH and FADH2 molecules in the process. Total Products of the Krebs cycle: 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2GTP per glucose molecule

What is compact vs. spongy bone?

Spongy bone- porous and is always surrounded by a layer of compact bone Compact bone- hard and dense

Whats more stable staggered conformation or eclipsed conformation?

Staggared because of electron repulsion and steric hinderance. You want the largest groups furthest away from eachother.

Find the empirical formula of a compound composed of 70% Iron and 30% Oxygen

Start by converting percentage to grams by making it 100g of the compound 70g of Fe/56(g/mol) = 1.25/1.25 = 1 x 2 = 2 30gO / 16g/mol = 1.875/1.25 = 1.5 x2 = 3

What are totipotent cells?

Stem cells in an early embryo that have the potential to become any cell type

in males what does leuteinizing hormone (LH) do?

Stimulates leydig/interstitial cells to secrete testosterone

What is hyaline cartilage?

Strong and somewhat flexible cartilage that supports the larynx and trachea and lines joints

What are ligaments and tendons?

Strong dense connective tissues. Ligaments connect other bones to bones and tendons connect muscles to bones.

What are endospores?

Structures formed by some gram positive bacteria that have a thich external shell of peptidoglycan and carry genomic information ribosomes and RNA for the spore to become metabolically active when conditions become favorable. Can resist very high temperatures. 'dormant form' of bacteria

What are resonance structures?

Structures that depict the nature of a molecule and its electron delocalization. Each resonance structure contributes to the nature of the molecule

What is an intermediate?

Substances that do not appear in either the starting or finishing reaction

How does association with other polypeptides regulate enzyme acitivity?

Subunits of enzymes interact or are associated with other polypeptides creating

What is the formula weight?

Sum of atomic weights of all the atoms in the molecule. Molar mass of a compound. Molecular Weight

What is edema?

Swelling/accumulation of fluid in tissues

What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system?

Sympathetic system: prepares the body for a fight or flight response. Results from the release of epinephrin from the kidneys into your bloodstream Parasympathetic: prepares the body for rest and digestion

What are synarthroses, amphiarthroses, and diarthrosis joints

Synarthrosis- immovable, basically where two bones fuse (skull bones) Amphiarthrosis- slightly movable (vertebral joints) diarthrosis- freely movable joints (elbow)

T cytotoxic cells and the cell mediated response

T cytotoxic (CD8) cells bind to the MHC I complex (which is on every cell of the human body) that is basically saying theres something wrong with me. The Tc cells become activated and create memory and effector cells. The effector cells multiply and kill the infected cells.

T Helper Cells and Cell-Mediated response

T helper cells bind to MHC II complex of a cell (dendritic usually) and becomes activated. Produces memory and effector cells. Effector cells begin producing cytokines that are alarm systems for the immune system making everything speed production for that specific virus. - T helper cells also bind to MHC II complex of B-cells that activate them. this works as a type of fail safe mechanism

What is taxonomy? What are the 8 priniciple taxonomic categories?

Taxonomy = the science of biological classification Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Did King Phillip come over for good spaghetti?

What happens during Metaphase I of meiosis?

Tetrads (paired homologous chromosomes) line up at the metaphase plate

What about stereochemistry of halogen radical reactions do you need to know?

That halogenation always produces a racemic mixture of products

What does it mean when a compound is written below the arrow in a chemical equation?

That there was a catalyst added to the equation

What are autosomes?

The 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes in humans

What are sex chromosomes?

The 23rd pair termed X and Y. Males has X and Y pairs, while women have XX pairs. Males determine the gender of the child.

What is a genotype?

The DNA sequence of alleles that a person carries

What is the inside of the gut called?

The GI lumen, which is continuous with the space outside the body.

What is cytokinesis?

The actual dividing of the cell into 2 cells

What is the alveolar duct and does it function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

The alveolar duct branches off of respiratory bronchioles. Its walls are made up of alveoli. It functions in the respiratory zone.

A polyprotic acid will have how many equivalence points?

The amount of H+ that it can donate. For example H2SO4 can donate 2 H+ ions and will have 2 equivalence points

What is vital capacity (VC)?

The amount of air that can be forced out of the lungs after maximum inhalation

What is residual volume (RV)?

The amount of air that remains in the lungs after maximum expiration

What is total lung capacity (TLC)? What is its equation?

The amount of air that the lungs can hold VC + RV = TLC

What is stroke volume?

The amount of blood pumped with each systole

Whats the difference between deuterosomes and protosomes?

The anus forms first in the deuterosome and in the protosome the mouth forms before the anus.

What is the E site of the ribosome?

The area where a now empty tRNA sits prior to its release from the ribosome

Describe the specific organization of compact bone

The basic unit is called the osteon. In the center of the osteon is a hole called the central canal, which contains blood, lymph vessels and nerves. Surrounding the canal are concentric rings of bone termed lamellae. Tiny channels or canaliculi, branch out from the central canal to spaces called lacunae. In each lacuna is an osteocyte or mature bone cell.

What is annealing/hybridization?

The binding of 2 complementary strands of DNA into a double stranded structure

What is signal transduction?

The binding of a ligand to its receptor on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane triggers a response within the cell. This process is called signal transduction

What is allosteric regulation of enzymes?

The binding of small molecules at sites seperate from the active site called allosteric sites that increase or decrease catalytic activity

Describe the process of implantation

The blastocyst reaches the uterus and burrows into the endometrium, or implants, about a week after fertilization. The trophoblast secretes proteases that lyse the endometrial cells. The blastocyst absorbs nutrients from the endometrium through the trophoblast as it continues to sink into the endometrium. For the first three months it takes for the placenta to develop (first trimester), hCG is present to maintain the endometrium.

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system?

The blood supply that carries hormones secreted by the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland

Glycosidic linkage

The bond between two sugar/carb molecules

What is glycogenolysis?

The breakdown of glycogen, a polymer of glucose, releasing glucose into the blood when blood sugar is low.

What is step 2/light independent reactions/the calvin cycle of photosynthesis?

The calvin cycle takes place in the stroma. Three carbon molecules are added to three molecules of ribulose biphosphate (RuBP), catalyzed by an enzyme called rubisco, forming a very unstable 6 carbon intermediates that immediately split into two (6 total) 3 carbon sugars called (3 phosphoglycerate). These sugars are then reduced with energy from ATP forming 1,3 biphosphoglycerate. NADPH is oxidized to NADP+ and the 1,3 biphosphoglycerate is reduced to G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate). 6 G3P are made total. 5 are rearranged to regenerate RuBP, and 1 is used to make carbs such as glucose and starch.

What is the GI tract derived from during emryogenisis?

The cavity produced by gastrulation. the anus is derived from the blastopore.

What is the fluid mosaic model?

The current understanding of plasma membrane dynamics. Lipids and proteins interact with eachother in a way that they are allowed to diffuse laterally but are not allowed to flip-flop.

What is the stratum basale?

The deepest part of the epidermis that replenishes lost epithelial cells through mitosis

What is amino acid catabolism?

The degradation of proteins/amino acids that can be broken down into water and CO2 or converted into glucose and acetyl CoA to enter cellular respiration

What is a deletion mutation?

The deletion of a nucleotide in a sequence of DNA

Inspiration occurs through what mechanism?

The diaphragm contracts expanding the chest wall. The lungs expand with the chest wall because of the negative pressure of the pleural space. This increase in volume causes the pressure inside the lungs to decrease to a level below atmospheric pressure causing air to be drawn into the lungs. External intercostal muscles also contract to bring the ribs upward further expanding the chest cavity. This is an active process.

What is the GI tract?

The digestive tract, gastrointestinal tract, alimentary canal, or simply the gut. its where digestion is accomplished. From the mouth to the assh0le

Second law of thermodynamics

The disorder or entropy (S) of the universe tends to increase

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary control axis or hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)?

The endocrine system control center. The hypothalamus exerts its control of the pituitary by secreting its hormones into the bloodstream that cause a cascade of hormone release in the anterior pituitary that stimulates the adrenal glands.

What is the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things. It regulates physiology (especially metabolism)

If fertilization takes place, how is the endometrium maintained?

The endometrium only sheds when the corpus luteum degenerates. After fertilization, the embryo becomes implanted in the endometrium and the placenta forms. The placenta, specifically the chorion, releases human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which takes the place of LH and maintains the corpus luteum, which in turn maintains the endometrium by maintaining high estrogen and progesterone levels.

What is an atom's electron affinity? What are some trends?

The energy associated with the addition of an electron to an isolated atom. If energy is released, electron affinity is negative, and if energy is required to obtain an electron, electron affinity is positive.

What is ionization energy?

The energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom. (first) ionization energy < (second) ionization energy because the second electron is harder to remove from the cation

What is nuclear binding energy?

The energy released when nucleons are bound together to form the nucleus

What is activation energy? E[sub]a

The energy required for a reaction to proceed. All reactions proceed through a transient intermediate and the energy required to produce that intermediate is called the activation energy. The intermediate is also called the transition state (or activated complex) and is denoted by [...]≠

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

The entropy or disorder of the universe increases in a spontaneous process.

What are the layers of skin?

The epidermis and the dermis. The dermis lies on subcutaneous tissue or the hypodermis, a protective, insulating layer of fat cells.

How do long bones form?

The epiphyseal plate between the diphysis and epiphysis of long bone is a disk of hyaline cartilage that is being produced by chondrocytes. As the chondrocytes divide, the diphysis and epiphysis are pushed futher apart and the hyaline cartilage is replaced by bone

What is effusion?

The escape of a gas molecules through a very tiny hole into an evacuated region the lower the molar mass of a molecule the quicker it effuses out a container

What is conjugation?

The exchange of genetic information between bacteria via pili. When the pili makes contact with the female bacteria its called a conjugation bridge

What is the F1 generation in Mendelian genetics?

The first generation formed from breeding the two parent strains

What is glycolysis

The first step of cellular respiration where a glucose molecule is oxidized and split into two pyruvate molecules, producing a NET surplus of 2 ATP and 2NADH. It needs an influx 2 ATP for the the reaction to proceed. Phosphorylation of glucose -> glucose-6-phosphate, that is isomerized -> fructose-6-phosphate, which then undergoes phosphorylation -> fructose-1,6-biphosphate, which is then split into two -> pyruvate You need to know that every time a phosphate is added to a substrate its because a phosphate group comes off ATP making ADP, and ADP is made into ATP every time a phosphate comes off a substrate

What is perfusion?

The flow of blood through a tissue

What is tertiary structure of proteins?

The folding of a protein caused by distant interactions including: - van der waals forces - disulfide bridges (occurs in the extracellular space due to lack of antioxidants) - hydrophobic interactions - hydrogen bonding NOT on the backbone most important part is hydrophobic interactions that cause the protein to fold in a way that the hydrophobic parts are on the inside away from water

What is the strong nuclear force?

The force that holds together protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Its the strongest force of the four fundamental forces of nature

What is organogenesis?

The formation of organ systems

What is the nephron?

The functional unit of the kidney that is responsible for the filtration of blood

What provides lubrication in the female?

The greater vestibular glands secrete mucus

What are coronary arteries? coronary veins? coronary sinus?

The heart requires its own blood supply. The first branches off the aorta are coronary arteries which branch to supply blood to the wall of the heart. Deoxygenated blood of the heart collects in coronary veins, which merge to form the coronary sinus located on the outer wall of the heart. Deoxygented blood of the coronary sinus does not end up in the inferior or superior vena cava like all other deoxygenated blood, but drains directly into the right atrium

What is a calorie? How many calories in a joule?

The heat required to raise 1g of water 1 degree celcius 1 cal ~ 4.2 J

How do you assign absolute sterocenter configuration?

The highest atomic number element attached to the chiral center is given highest priority 1. The lowest atomic number element is given lowest priority 4. You then rotate the molecule so that the lowest priority is dashed and going away into the page. *A double bond acts as a the chiral center bonded to that element/ group twice* EX: C double bonded to O has a higher priority than C bonded to just one O Then you draw a circle from 1 to four and if its clockwise its R and if its counterclockwise its S. Its flipped if your lowest priority is a wedged out of the page.

What valve seperates the ileum from the cecum?

The ileocecal valve

What is the secondary structure of proteins?

The initial folding of a polypeptide chain into shaped stabilized by hydrogen bonds between NH and CO groups. Hydrogen bonding between the backbone of polypeptides

What is the endometrium?

The innermost lining of the uterus. It nourishes a developing embryo. In the absence of pregnancy it is shed each month.

What are insertion mutations?

The insertion of a nucleotide into a sequence along a DNA strand

How is the resting membrane potential of a neuron established?

The interior of the cell is much more negative than the outside of the cell, establishing a membrane potential of -70mV. This is caused by large negatively charged proteins on the inside of the cell as well as more sodium ions on the exterior of the cell. The Na+/K+ ATPase pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell. Leak channels also allow K+ to flow down their gradient and out of the cell.

What is the anus and anal sphincter?

The internal anal sphincter consists of smooth muscle under autonomic control, and the external anal sphincter consists of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control. These sphincters control defecation out the anus

What two sphincters control the release of urine from the urinary bladder?

The internal sphincter which is made up of smooth muscle (involuntary) and the external sphincter which is made up of skeletal muscle (voluntary)

What is the colon? its function?

The large intesting, a 3-4ft long tube that is several inches wide. Its role is to absorb water and minerals and form and store feces until defecation.

What is a taiga?

The largest biome, consisting of coniferous forest. Most precipitation fall as snow and long cold winters characterize this area. Animals include birds squirrels, deer, moose, rabbits, bears, wolves, lynx, etc. Most common tree = conifer

What is the larynx and does it function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

The larynx is made entirely of cartilege and keeps the airway open. it connects the pharynx and the trachea. It contains the epiglottis which seals the trachea during swallowing to prevent the entry of food. It also contains the vocal chords, which produce sound by blocking the flow of air and vibrating. They function in the conducting zone.

What is the primary structure (or sequence) of proteins?

The linear ordering of amino acids being bonded to each other. Characterized by peptide bonds

What is plasma of blood.

The liquid portion of blood that contains electrolytes (Na+,K+,Cl-,Ca2+,Mg2+), buffers, sugar, clood proteins, lipopreteins, CO2, O2, and metabolic waste products all dissolved in water, and accounts for 55% of blood.

What is specific rotation?

The magnitude of rotation of plane polarized light for any compound. If positive it is said to be dextrorotatory. If negative it is said to be levorotatory

What is the common ion effect?

The molar solubility of a slightly soluble salt decreases by the presence of another solute that supplies a common ion. EX: MgOH and NaOH

What is a ligand

The molecule that serves as the key for a given receptor - generally a hormone or neurotransmitter

What is the nucleus, its nuclear envelope, and nuclear pores?

The nucleus is an organelle that carries the genomic information of animal cells. It distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes The nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus and is made up of 2 lipid bilayers Nuclear pores are small holes in the nuclear envelope that allow the passage of molecules smaller than 60 kilodaltons

What is the sphincter of Oddi?

The orifice in the duodenum that the pancreatic duct and common bile duct empty into

How does the autonomic nervous system influence heart rate?

The parasympathetic nervous system continually inhibits depolarization of the SA node. The VAGUS NERVE causes the release of acetylcholine that inhibits depolarization by binding to receptors on the cells of the SA node. This constant inhibition is known as the VAGAL TONE. It controlles the rate of the heart by inhibiting rapid automaticity. the sympathetic system influences the heart by releasing norepinephrine initiating the fight of flight response. Second, adrenal glands release epinephrine that binds to receptors on cardiac cells and increases heart rate

What is the conduction zone of the respiratory system?

The part of the respiratory system that is designed only to allow gases to enter and exit the system. It contains the parts of the respiratory system that participate only in ventilation and not gas exchange. Consists of: nose -> nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> primary bronchi -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> terminal bronchioles

What is the cervix?

The part of the uterus that opens into the vagina

What is mitosis?

The partitioning of cellular components into two halves

What is the refractory period of neurons?

The period of time before a neuron can fire another action potential. Two types: absolute refractory period, when a neuron won't fire another action potential no matter how strong a membrane depolarization is induced, and relative refractory period, where a neuron can be induced to transmit an action potential but the depolarization required is greater than normal because the membrane is hyperpolarized.

What is the pharynx and does it function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

The pharynx is the throat (a common pathway for food and air) at the bottom of which is the larynx. It functions in the conducting zone

What is a phenotype?

The physical expression of the phenotype. EX: the phenotype of a gene involved in hair color may be blonde

What is the placenta?

The placenta is an organ that facilitates the exchange of nutrients, gases, and even antibodies between the maternal and embryonic bloodstreams.

What is a joint?

The point where a bone meets another bone

What are the primary bronchi and do they function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

The primary bronchi branch off of the trachea and supply each lung with airflow. These primary bronchi continue to branch forming many branches called bronchi. They contain rings of cartilage to prevent collapse. They function in the conducting zone

What is urea?

The principle metabolic waste product formed by the breakdown of amino acids

What is isomerization?

The process by which one molecule is transformed another molecule with the exact same atoms

What is photosynthesis?

The process by which plants store energy from the sun in the bond energy of carbohydrates plants utilize light energy to synthesize carboydrates

What is spermatogenesis?

The process in between sertoli cells where germ cells go through meotic division to produce sperm that are released into the lumen of the of the seminiferous tubule

What is chemotaxis?

The process of bacterial movement away from toxins/acid through the use of chemoreceptors and flagellum or WBC towards a certain chemical/toxin. Chemotaxis movement directed by chemical stimuli

What is dissolution?

The process of dissolving

What is solvation? hydration?

The process of solvent molecules surrounding the solute molecules is called solvation, and when the solvent is water its called hydration.

What is bone remodelling?

The process where bone is continually degraded and remade. Osteoblasts produce bone by laying down collagen until it is surrounded by bone. The space it is left in is now called lacuna, and the osteoblast is now called an osteocyte. Osteoclasts destroy bone by dissolving the hydroxyapatite crystals

What is gametogenesis?

The process whereby doploid germ cells undergo meiotic division to produce haploid gametes

What is the termination step of free-radical halogenation/rxns?

The propagation chain continues until one of the free radicals of the propagation steps combines with another radical. This stops the propagation chain reaction

What does it mean for a reaction to be at equilibrium?

The rate of the forward and reverse reactions are the same, such that we dont see a change in the concentration of reactants or products even though they are continuously being made

Limiting reactant/reagent

The reactant that limits the amount of product forme

What is the ion product?

The reaction quotient of a solubility reaction Qsp. It helps us predict what the reaction will do? Qsp > Ksp -> excess salt will precipitate Qsp = Ksp -> solution is saturated Qsp< Ksp -> more salt can be dissolved

What is the reducing agent/reductant and the oxidizing agent/oxidant?

The reducing agent is the atom being oxidized/the one losing electrons The oxidizing agent is the atom being reduced/the one gaining electrons

What is the respiratory zone of the respiratory system?

The region of the respiratory system where gas exchange occurs. Consists of: respiratory bronchioles -> alveolar ducts -> alveoli

What is ovulation?

The release of a primary oocyte from the ovary

How does blood circulate through the kidney (what vessels)?

The renal artery brings blood to the kidney where it is filtered and the purified blood is brought back via the renal vein that dumps into the vena cava

Breathing is normally an involuntary process controlled by what?

The respiratory control system in the medulla of the brain stem

The nuclear envelope is continuous at points with what organelle?

The rough ER

What is genetics?

The science that describes the inheritance of traits from one generation to another

What is the buffering domain/region of a titration curve?

The section of the titration curve that changes very gradually

How do we determine strength of bonds?

The shorter the bond the stronger it is. Triple bonds are the strongest and shortest and single bonds are the longest and weakest. A hydrogen single bonded to an sp carbon has a stronger bond than a hydrogen single bonded to an sp3 carbon

relationship between half life and decay constant

The shorter the half life the greater the decay constant (k)

What is a fibroblast?

The single progenitor from which all connective tissue is formed, including adipocytes (fat cells), chondrocytes (cartilage cells), and osteocytes (bone cells). Produces collagen and other fibers.

What is the A site of the ribosome?

The site where each new tRNA delivers its amino acid.

What bones are part of the axial and appendicular components of the endoskeleton?

The skull, vertebral column, sternum and the rib cage are part of the axial skeleton Everything else is part of the appendicular skeleton (hip bones, scapula, arms, legs, clavicle, etc)

What is the rate determining step?

The slowest step in a process determines the overall reaction rate

What is an epitope?

The small region that an antibody binds to recognizing the larger molecule

What is the inductive effect?

The stabilization of reaction intermediates by the sharing of electrons through sigma bonds Electron withdrawing groups tend to stabilize carboanions and electron donating groups tend to stabilize carbocations When a molecule experiences the inductive effect, its conjugate base will be more stable because of the more even distribution of charge which is why the acid would be stronger

What is a triacylglycerol/trigliceride?

The storage form of a fatty acid, also known as fat. - composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule

What is the template/non-coding/transcribed/antisense strand?

The strand of DNA that is actually transcribed

What is the coding/sense strand?

The strand of DNA that is not transcribed, and therefore identical to the transcribed RNA strand (U's would be T's)

What is the relationship between intermolecular forces and boiling point?

The stronger the intermolecular forces of a substance the higher its boiling point

What is a hydrogen bond?

The strongest intermolecular force formed when the partially positive hydrogen of one molecule attracts the lone pair on a partially negative N, O, or F of another molecule

What is ecology?

The study of organisms and their interactions with their environment

Solute vs. solvent

The substance of the solution in relatively greater proportion is the solvent and the one in the relatively smaller proportion is the solute.

What is a gene pool?

The sum total of all genetic information in a population

In thermodynamics, whats the system, the surroundings and the universe?

The system is what you're studying (EX: ice), the surroundings is the entire environment around what your studying (EX: the desk the ice sits on and the rest of the world). The universe is the system + its surroundings For chemistry and physics we define everything in terms of whats happening to the SYSTEM

What is parturation?

The technical name for birth

What is the triple point of a phase diagram? the critical point? supercritical fluid?

The temperature and pressure that all three phases exist simultaneously in equilibrium The critical point marks the end of the liquid-gas boundary Supercritical fluid is when no amount of increased pressure can force a gas back into its liquid phase

What is cardiac output?

The total amount of blood pumped per minute defined by the equation CO = stroke volume (L/beat) x heart rate (beats/min)

What is the trachea and does it function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

The trachea is a passageway that must remain open to permit air flow. Rings of cartilage prevent its collapse. It starts after the larynx and continues to the primary bronchi. it functions in the conducting zone

What is thermodynamics?

The transformation of energy from one form to another. The study of the energetics of chemical reactions. Mainly the study of heat and potential energy of reactions.

What is the lub-dup of the heartbeat?

The valve of the heart slaming shut suring systole. AV valves shut (lub) and then Semilunar valves shut (dub)

What is the hematocrit?

The volume of blood that red blood cells occupy which is 40-45 percent in males and 35-40 percent in females

What is a transfusion reaction?

The when a blood transfusion of the wrong blood type causes clumping and destruction of red blood cells bearing the incorrect antigen

What is the amnion, yolk sac, and sllantois.

They all derive from the same inner cell mass that forms the embryo within a blastocyst. The amnion forms a cavity/membrane that surrounds the embryo. The yolk sac contains yolk that neuroshes the embryo in reptiles etc. but in humans since they dont have yolk, its the first site of RBC synthesis in the embryo. Lastly, the allontaois forms the blood vessels of the umbilical chord that transfers blood between

How do new alleles arise?

They are a result of mutations in the genome

What are point mutations? What are the 3 types of point mutations?

They are a single base pair substitution (A in the place of G for example). 3 types: missense mutations nonsense mutations silent mutations

What are biomes?

They are ecosystems and communities that are typical of major geographical regions. They are characterized by different vegetation and animal types, depending on differences in climate and other factors including water availability, sunlight soil type, wind, and temperature

The entire respiratory tract is lined by what type of cells?

They are lined by epithelial cells. From the nose to the bronchioles, the respiratory tract is lined with thick columnar epithelial cells. In the respiratory zone, so that gas exchange is possible, the walls of gas exchanging surfaces are lined with simple squamus epithelial cells.

What is the structure of antibodies?

They are made of 4 proteins chains, 2 light chains, and 2 heavy chains joined by disulfide bonds. It has two regions, the constant region and the variable (antigen binding) region

Where are ribosomes assembled?

They are partially assembled in the nucleoulus and after that they are exported from the nucleus and remain inactive until assembly is completed in the cytoplasm

How are integral membrane proteins synthesized?

They are synthesized on the rough ER and have sections of amino acid residues that pass through lipid bilayer membranes and are not removed after translation

What are the respiratory bronchioles and do they function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

They are tubes made up of smooth muscle that branch off of terminal bronchioles and lead to alveoli. It functions in the respiratory zone because it has a few alveoli scattered in its walls.

How are fats and steroids carried in the blood?

They bind with proteins to form lipoproteins

What are valves?

They ensure one way blood flow through the circulatory system

What is important about phospholipids?

They form lipid bilayers in cell membranes. The hydrophobic tails go on the inside and are stabilized by van der waals forces while the hydrophillic heads go on the outside Phospholipids have two alkane/fatty acid tails bonded to carboxylic acid backbones, with a phosphate group replacing the last alkane chain

What are gap junctions?

They forms pore-like connections between adjacent cells, allowing the two cell's cytoplasm to mix Allow action potentials to pass from one cell to another

What are the 6 strong acids?

They have a Ka > 1 HCl, hydrochloric acid HBr, hydrobromic acid HI, hydroiodic acid HClO4, perchloric acid H2SO4, sulfuric acid HNO3, nitric acid

What is step-1 or light dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

They occur within the thylakoid membrane. When a photon of light is absorbed in photosystem II by chlorophyl, an electron absorbs the energy and becomes excited. It becomes captured by a primary electron acceptor and then moves along the electron transport chain from photosystem II -> plastoquinine -> cytochrome complex -> photosystem I. When the electron leaves photosystem II, chlorophyll filles the vacancies by the splitting of a water molecule into two H+ ions and an oxygen that then combines with a second oxygen forming O2 and is released from the cell. The H+ ions and H+ that gets tronsported in from the stroma create a proton gradient that move through ATP synthase as it phosphoralizes ADP into ATP. Lastly at the end of the electron transport chain, NADP+ Reductase reduces NADP+ into NADPH.

What is the myometrium?

Thick layer of smooth muscle that surrounds the endometrium in the uterus. Its the second layer that contracts during birth

What is population genetics?

This describes the inheritance of traits in populations (a population consists of members of a species that mate and reproduce with eachother) over time

What is an E1 reaction?

This is an elimination reaction that is determined by only one of the molecules and not the weak base. It occurs when two sigma bonds are converted into a pi bond in the product. It occurs when a tertiary carbon has a good leaving group leave and becomes a carbocation. The positive molecule wants to then get rid of a hydrogen that is picked up by a weak base. The lone electron of the neighboring carbon forms a double bond with the carbocation carbon. In summary you need a good leaving group, a tertiary carbon, and a weak base. This can also occur with a strong acid as shown in dehydration reactions. This is because the conjugate base of strong acids is a weak base. If there is a strong acid it will protonate a bad leaving group making it a good leaving group. This will form the weak base so the elimination reaction can proceed. The hydrogen that is picked up by the weak base must be adjacent to the carbocation. If there is more than one hydrogen, pick the one with bonded to a carbon of the highest degree.

How does the urinary system regulate concentration and dilution of urine?

Through ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and Aldosterone: 1. ADH: When our body is dehydrated, ADH is released to make the distal nephron (DCT + collecting duct) permeable to water, allowing more water to be reabsorbed. When we have had a lot of water, ADH is not released and all of the water in our filtrate is excreted. Alcohol inhibits ADH, leading to dehydration. 2. When blood pressure is low, aldosterone is released, increasing the Na+ concentration. The result is increased plasma osmolarity, which leads to increased thirst and water retention, raising blood pressure

How does the GI tract move food down the gut?

Through peristalsis, which occurs when the smooth muscle contracts bringing the walls close together and pushes food kinda like toothpaste

What are tight junctions

Tight junctions seal adjacent epithelial cells in a narrow band just beneath their apical surface, preventing material from passing through cells

What is the alveolus (plural = alveoli) and does it function in the conducting zone or respiratory zone?

Tiny sacs in the lungs which function in gas exchange. They function in the respiratory zone.

What is the role of enzyme inhibitors and what are the 2 types of mechanisms?

To reduce enzyme activity. The two mechanisms are competitive inhbition and noncompetitive inhibition.

What are sex linked traits?

Traits passed down on sex chromosomes X and Y. Called Y-linked and X-linked traits

What does autosomal recessive mean?

Traits that are passed down via autosomes (the 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes in humans), and require both alleles to be passed down for the expressed phenotype to occur

What does autosomal dominant mean?

Traits that are passed down via autosomes (the 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes in humans), and require only one allele to be passed down for the expressed phenotype to occur

What is the process of transcription?

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from DNA. RNA polymerase uses DNA as a tempelate. It binds to the promoter, a sequence of nucleotides on the chromosome and synthesizes RNA from 5' -> 3'.

What are the 3 ways bacteria can acquire genetic information?

Transduction Transformation Conjugation

What is tRNA?

Transfer RNA carry amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome to be added to a growing protein

What is the process of translation?

Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides according to the amino acid sequence dictated by the sequence of codons in mRNA. During translation, an mRNA molecule attaches to a ribosome at a sprecific codon, and the appropriate amino acid is delivered by a tRNA. This continues until the polypeptide is complete, at which point the ribosome drops the mRNA and the new polypeptide departs.

What is trisomy 21? What is monosomy?

Trisomy 21 is Down syndrome. Its when nondisjunction occured (improper seperation of chromosomes during Meiosis) leaving some gametes with two copies of chromosome 21, leading to three total after fertilization. Monosomy is when there is only 1 chromosome in a diploid cell.

What are the 8 major biomes?

Tropical forests Deserts Savanna Temperate deciduous forests Temperate grasslands Chaparral Taiga Tundra

What is the ureter?

Tube that transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

What the stomachs role?

Turning food into chyme (food mixed with gastric secretions) partial digestion destruction of microorganisms moving food into the small intestine

What is a resonance structure and what are the rules for major and minor contributors?

Two different correct lewis structures of the same molecule Rules: - the more stable the molecule the more it contributes 1 - Octet: structures with a full octet are more stable then structures without a full 2- Atoms Holding Charge: the more electronegative element is more stable holding a negative charge, while a less electronegative element is more stable holding a positive charge. 3- Minimize separation of charge: the less separation of charge the better. A neutral molecule is more stable than a molecule that has a pos and neg charge

Lungs are not directly connected with the chest wall. They instead surrounded by what?

Two membranes and the pleural space. The parietal pleura, which lines the inside of the chest cavity, and the visceral pleura, which lines the surface of the lungs. Between the two membranes is a very narrow space called the pleural space. There is small amounts of fluid in the pleural space.

What is the upper and lower essophageal sphincters?

Two muscular rings located on the top (upper) and bottom (lower) of the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter prevents reflux of food from the stomach to the esophagus

What is pyrophosphate? Why is it important?

Two phosphates (also known as orthophosphates) linked via anhydride linkage Its important because its bonds store a lot of energy and drive biological processes

What are radioactive nuclei? What is radioactive decay?

Unstable nuclei are radioactive and they undergo a transformation to make them more stable, altering the ratio of protons to neutrons or just lowering their energy. This is called radioactive decay.

Which nucleotide is substituted in DNA to RNA?

Uracil is substituted for thymine

What is the VSEPR theory?

Valence Shell Electron Repulsion Theory states that since electrons repel eachother, electron pairs, whether bonding or nonbonding, attempt to move as far apart as possible

What are semilunar valves?

Valves between arteries and ventricles. They include the pulmonary valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery and the aortic semilunar valve between the left ventricle and aorta.

What are atrioventricular valves, and what are the two examples?

Valves between the atria and ventricles. The bicuspid or mitral valve is located between the left atria and ventricle. The tricuspid valve is located between the right atria and ventricle.

What are the two types of plants?

Vascular and Nonvasular

What are varicose veins?

Veins that swell as a result of a backflow of blood due to valves that fail (oftentimes due to pressure)

Whats the difference between microvilli and villi?

Villi are macroscopic (MULTICELLULAR) projections in the wall of the small intestine. Microvilli are microscopic foldings of the cell membranes of INDIVIDUAL intestinal epithelial cells.

What is melting/denaturation? What is the temperature at which 50% of DNA is melted or denatured?

When DNA is split into two seperate strands. Temperature at which 50% of DNA is melted or denatured is Tm.

What is avagadros law and standard molar volume?

When V, n, P, and T are held constant, V = 22.4L (use this when dealing with STP)

What is a protoplast?

When a bacterial cell wall has its peptidoglycan destroyed and it becomes osmotically fragile

What is autocrine activity?

When a cell secretes a hormone or signal molecule that makes the same cell modify its activity

What is the initiation step of free-radical halogenation/rxns?

When a free radical reaction is started by the influx of heat or light. It causes homolytic cleavage of a bond between two halogens causing two free radical halogens

What is noncompetitive inhibition of enzymes?

When a noncompetitive inhibitor binds to an allosteric site and not the active site. No amount of substrate can prevent this process. This therefore changes the value of Vmax and Vmax/2 but not Km

What is a momentary dipole-induced dipole force

When a permanent dipole in one molecule may induce a dipole in a neighboring non[polar molecule, producing a momentary dipole induced dipole force

What is an important fact about temperature and phase changes?

When a substance absorbs or releases heat, one of two things can happen: either its temperature changes or it will undergo a phase change BUT NOT BOTH AT THE SAME TIME

When does an embryo become a zygote?

When all major organ systems are present, by the 8th week of gestation

How can free radical halogenation be inhibited?

When an alkyl radical reacts with molecular oxygen and forms a less reactive alkyl peroxy radical R-O-O*

What is a coordinate covalent bond?

When an atom donates both of its electrons to be shared in a covalent bond

How does the kidney regulate blood pH?

When blood pH is too high, HCO3- is excreted into urine for excretion, when blood pH is too low, H+ is excreted. Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the conversion of CO2 into H2CO3 (carbonic acid) which dissociates into HCO3- (bicarbonate) and H+. once the reaction has taken place, the kidney can secrete bicarbonate of H+(proton) as needed

What is RNA splicing

When introns (intervening sections) of mRNA are removed and exons (expressed genes) are joined together.

What does it mean to dissociate? What are electrolytes? What are strong vs weak electrolytes?

When ionic substances dissolve they are said to dissociate. They form ions called electrolytes. Strong electrolytes dissociate completely while weak ones only partially dissociate. Strong electrolytes are better conductors of electricity than weak electrolytes.

What does it mean for a liquid to be volatile?

When liquids evaporate easily, have a high vapor pressure, they are termed volatile

What is carbocation rearrangement?

When molecule rearranges the positive charge from one carbon to a more stable carbon along its chain

What is reaction coupling?

When one sponstaneous or thermodynamically favored reaction is used to drive an unspontaneous reaction. *In the cell reactions couple often, and oftentimes ATP hydrolysis (∆G=-12kcal/mol) is coupled with unfavorable reactions*

What is a solution?

When one substance dissolves into another, forming a homogeneous mixture Solutions can involve any of the three phases of matter When a solution has water as the solvent its termed aqueous

What is crossing over/ recombination?

When paired homologous chromosomes are aligned properly and can be cut and then re-ligated with genes swapped between each homologous chromosome Occurs during Prophase I

What is the S (synthesis) phase?

When the cell actively replicates its genome

What is the small intestine?

When the food leaves the stomach it enters the small intestine. Its divided into three segments: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. It is about an inch wide and 10 feet long.

What is cis and trans when referring to rings and double bonds

When the higher priority groups/larger groups are on the same side their cis, and if theyre on opposite sides theyre trans

What is hypoxia?

When there is adequate circulation of blood but the supply of oxygen is reduced

What does isoelectronic mean?

When two elements have the same electron configuration. Ex: F- and Ne both are 1s2 2s2 2p6

What is convergent evolution? divergent evolution?

When two species come to possess many analogous structures as a result of similar selective pressures Divergent evolution is the opposite

What is the P site of the ribosome?

Where the growing polypeptide still atached to tRNA is located during translation.

Do all neutralization reaction go to completion?

Yes! Regardless of the strength of the acids and bases all neutralization reactions go to completion

Are reaction diagrams reversable?

Yes! When writing a reverse reaction, you can draw its reaction/energy diagram by drawing the mirror image of its reverse reaction diagram. ∆G, ∆H, ∆S are also all reversable for a rxn.

How do you write the electron configuration of an ion? What about transition metals is unique?

You add the amount of electrons gained or lost to the correct orbital. transition metals lose their valence s shell before their d shell electrons EX: Ti+ = 4s1 3d2

What are cuspids?

Your canines! (teeth dumbo)

What are the three phylums of fungi?

Zygomycota Ascopmycota Basidiomycota

What is the menstrual cycle?

a 28 day cycle that includes events occuring in the ovary as well as events occuring in the uterus (the shedding of the old endometrium and preparation of a new endometrium for potential pregnancy). can be called the uterine cycle

What is a pi bond?

a bond formed from the alignment of unhybridized p orbitals of two adjacent atoms double bonds have one pi bond and triple bonds have two pi bonds

What is a sigma bond?

a bond that consists of two electrons being shared due to the direct overlap of hybridized orbitals single double and triple bonds all have one sigma bond

What is a neuromuscular junction?

a chemical synapse between neurons and skeletal muscle. Acetylcholine is released at the synapse and binds to the acetylcholine receptor at the surface of the postsynaptic cell membrane, causing sodium channels to open and an action potential to be produced.

What is a network solid?

a compound with atoms that are connected in a lattice of covalent bonds, meaning that all interactions between atoms are covalent bonds

What is a karyotype?

a display of an organism's genome. a cell is frozen during metaphase, its chromosomes are stained and a photograph is taken

What is enthalpy?

a measure of heat energy that is released or absorbed when bonds are broken and formed during a reaction that's run at constant pressure. symbol = H when a bond is formed, energy is released: ∆H < 0 energy must be put into a bond to break it, ∆H > 0

What are hormones?

a molecule SECRETED INTO THE BLOODSTREAM by an endocrine gland, which has its effects upon distant target cells possessing the appropriate receptor

What is a heterozygote?

a person carrying two different alleles on a given locus. (Tt)

What is a homozygote?

a person carrying two identical alleles on a given locus (TT or tt)

What is a polynucleotide?

a polymer of many nucleotides written from 5' to 3'. Nucleotides in the DNA chain are covalently linked between the hydroxyl group of one deoxyribose base and the 5' phosphate of the next nucleic acid.

What is free-radical halogenation?

a reaction that proceeds by a multi-step mechanism that includes initiation, propagation, and termination (and is often subject to inhibition by molecular oxygen)

What does it mean to be spontaneous?

a reaction that proceeds without being driven by an outside force.

What are telomeres?

a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes

What is an anticodon?

a sequence of tree ribonucleotides which is complentary to the codon the tRNA translates. located on the opposite side that the amino acid is attached to the tRNA

What are some examples of neurotransmitters?

acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine

What are three types of markovnikov addition reactions?

acid catalyzed hydration reaction H-X (H-Br, H-Cl, and H-I) Addition across a bond oxymercuration-demurcuration

What are the enzymes responsible for degradation of macromolecules in the lysosome?

acid hydrolases (only work in acidic environments. this is a fail safe mechanism. If the lysosome ruptures the enzymes will become inactive in the 7.4 pH of the cytoplasm)

Active vs passive transport

active requires energy, passive does not

What are the 4 aromatic bases of DNA? Which are purines and which are pyrimidines?

adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine. A and G are purines. T and C are pyramidines

What is the anterior pituitary called? How does it differ from the posterior pituitary gland?

adenohypophysis. it is a normal endocrine gland, and it is controlled by the hormones released by the hypothalamus

What are the proteins in the plasma of blood and why are they important?

albumin: responsible for keeping oncotic pressure (osmotic pressure in capilaries due to plasma proteins) immunoglobulins: key in the immune system Fibrinogen: essential for blood clotting Lipoproteins: consist of fats, collesterol, and carrier proteins. They transport lipids in the blood.

What are alkyl radicals?

an alkyl group includes methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, etc. A alkyl radical is a reaction intermediate that contains one unpaired electron alkyl radicals on the DAT are sp2 hybridized with the lone electron in an unhybridized p orbital

What is pnacreatic lipase?

an enzyme released by the exocrine part of the pancreas that hydrolyzes triglycerides

What is natural selection?

an interaction between organisms and their environment that causes differential reproduction of different phenotypes and thereby alter the gene pool of a population

What are dipole-dipole interactions

an intermolecular force between two polar molecules where the partially positive side is attracted to the partially negative side

In the GI tract, the surface of the epithelial cell which faces into the lumen is called the _________. It is seperated from the remainder of the cell surface by __________. The sides and bottom of the epithelial cell form the surface opposite the lumen called the __________

apical surface tight juctions, which are bands running all the way around the sides of epithelial cells, creating a barrier that seperates body fluids from the extracellular environment basolateral surface

What are Photoheterotrophs?

are bacteria that get their energy from the sun but require an organic molecule made by another organism as their carbon source

What type of cartilage lines bone ends at joints?

articular cartilage making the bone perfectly smooth

What are Chemoautotrophs?

bacteria that build organic macromolecules from CO2 using the energy of chemicals. They obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic molecules like H2S

What are Chemoheterotrophs?

bacteria that require organic macromolecules such as glucose made by other organisms as their carbon source and for energy

What are photoautotrophs?

bacteria that use only CO2 as a carbon source and obtain their energy from the sun

Why is it essential to understand the stabilities of reaction intermediates?

because generally the major product of a reaction is derived from the most stable intermediate

What is the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle?

begins with the formation of the corpus luteum in the ovary. This structure secretes both estrogen and progesterone, and has a life span of about two weeks. The average length of the luteal phase is about 14 days. (From day 14-28)

What occurs during filtration in the nephron?

blood from the renal artery flows into an afferent arteriole, which branches into a ball of capillaries known as the glomerulus. From there the blood flows into an efferent arteriole. Constriction of the efferent arteriole results in high pressure in the glomerulus, which causes fluid to leak out of the glomerular capilaries, through a filter called the glomerular basement membrane and into the Bowman's capsule (glomerular capsule). Substances too large to pass through the glomerular basement membrane stay in the blood and drain into the efferent arteriole. Examples include RBCs and plasma proteins like albumin.

The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) depends on what?

blood pressure!! Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells in the afferent arteriole release renin (a plasma protein) when blood pressure decreases which causes the blood pressure to rise

Ball of food moving through the GI tract is called the

bolus

polypeptides are broken down into what during digestion? via what enzyme?

broken down into dipeptides and tripeptides via pepsin

What is the first part of the colon called? The last part?

caecum, rectum

What is the role of calcitonin and where is it made?

calcitonin is secreted when [Ca2+] is too high. It causes Ca2+ to be removed from the blood by 1) deposition in bone 2) reduced absorption by the gut 3) excretion in urine It is made by C cells in the thyroid gland

Starch composition and importance

carbohydrate energy storage for plants made up of many glucose molecules linked together

What is the role of erythropoeitin (EPO) and where is it made?

causes increased synthesis of red blood cells in the bone marrow. It is released when blood oxygen falls. It is produced in the kidney.

What are platelets?

cells that have no nuclei and a limited lifespan. They arise from fragmented megakaryocytes that arise from red bone marrow. they aggregate at the site of a damaged blood vessel forming a platelet plug that helps stop bleeding

What are carbohydrates?

chains of hydrated carbon atoms with the molecular formula C(n)H(2n)O(n)

What is mastication?

chewing

What are the 3 layers/stacks of the Golgi apparatus and what direction do plasma membrane proteins travel?

cis --> medial ---> trans

What are the 3 shapes of bacteria?

coccus, bacillus, and spirillum

What are the two principal ingredients that bones consist of?

collagen and hydroxyapatite (solid material consisting of calcium phosphate crystals)

Glycogen composition and importance

composed of thousands of glucose molecules serves as energy storage carbohydrate in animals

What is a conformational isomer?

compounds that have the same molecular formula and the same atomic connectivity, but which differ from one another by rotation about a single sigma bond

What is a constitutional isomer?

compounds that have the same molecular formula but atoms that are connected differently

What is the endocrine pancreas?

consists of small regions within the pancreas known as islets of Langerhans. There are three types of cells in the islets, and each secretes its own particular hormone into the bloodstream

What is resolution (male sex)?

controlled by the sympathetic nervous system return to normal resting state

Expanding gases ___________. Compressed gases ___________.

cool, warm.

What are cyanobacteria and what kingdom do they fall under?

cyanobacteria are plant like prokaryotes (kingdom monera) that have chlorophyll and perform photosynthesis

Elevated levels of testosterone at puberty result in male secondary sex characteristics which include:

deepening of the voice, maturation of genitalia, facial and body hair, and increased muscle mass

What is hemophilia?

defects in the proteins needed to clot blood causing extreme bleeding when blood vessel walls are damaged

What are desmosomes?

demosomes hold cells together. They composed of fibers that span the plasma membrane of both cells

What is the structure of DNA?

deoxyribose base, triphosphate, and an aromatic base (A,G,C,T). The ribose + phosphate portion is considered the backbone. The deoxyribose + aromatic base is a deoxynucleoside.

Resting expiration occurs through what process?

diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax drawing the lungs inward and increasing the pressure making air rush out. This is a passive process. Forced expiration is an active process because abdominal muscles contract to more air out.

What is the diaphysis and epiphysis of long bones?

diaphysis- main shaft of the long bone epiphysis- flared ends on the bone

What is an epimeric compound?

diastereomers that differ in configuration at a single chiral center. they contain multiple chiral centers and are non-superimposable non-mirror images

What are geometric isomers?

diastereomers that differ in orientation of substituents around a ring or double bond

Which is longer diastole or systole?

diastole

What is humoral immunity?

directed against extra-cellular microbes mediated by antibodies (Ab)/ immunoglobulins (Ig), which are produced by B lymphocytes - protection against pathogens and toxins in body fluids

polysaccharides are broken down into what via digestion? What enzyme catalyzes the reaction?

disaccharides via ptyalin and pancreatic amylase

electrical vs. chemical synapses

electrical synapses occur when the cytoplasms of two cells are joined by gap junctions. If two cells are joined by an electrical synapse, an action potential will spread directly from one cell to another. Not common in the nervous system, common in smooth and cardiac muscle chemical synapses are found at the ends of axons where they meet their target cell; here an action potential is converted to a chemical signal. Common in the nervous system and neuron-> skeletal muscle transmission

What are brush border enzymes?

enzymes that do their work on the surfase of the brush border epithelial cell and are not truly secreted

The innermost lining of the GI tract is composed of what cells?

epithelial cells

Whats more stable. A chair conformation with the large groups on the equatorial position or the axial position?

equatorial

excitatory vs. inhibitory neurotransmitters

excititory neurotransmitters cause a depolarization of the cell membrane creating an action potential inhibitory neurotransmitters cause a hyperpolarization of a cell membrane making it harder for an action potential to form It is the receptor that determines the effect of the neurotransmitter. the same neurotransmitter can be both excitatory in some cases in inhibitory in others Each presynaptic neuron can release only one type of neurotransmitter but a postsynaptic neuron can respond to many types of neurotransmitters.

What are density-independent factors of population?

factors that are not related to population size. EX: climate and weather

What are Bohr factors?

factors that decrease hemoglobins affinity of O2 and make it more likely to give its oxygen up 1. decreased pH 2. increased partial pressure/levels of CO2 3. increased temperature

triglycerides are broken down into what via digestion? What enzyme catalyzes the reaction?

fatty acids and monoglycerides via pancreatic lipase

Primary immune response

first encounter with a particular antigen -IgM then IgG (5-10 days after exposure) -memory cells produced (B and T)

What are the prefixes for halogens in IUPAC naming?

fluoro bromo chloro iodo

Blood Coagulation

formation of a blood clot -soluble fibrinogen is converted into fibrin, by a protein called thrombin, that stick to edges of damaged blood vessels mesh traps blood cells and platelets, forming clot (thrombus) -fibroblasts invade clot, secrete collagenous fibers -strengthen and seal breaks

What is the function of the small intestine?

further digestion and ABSORPTION

What is syngamy?

fusion of the sperm and the ova

Lactose composition

galactose + glucose

What is a genetic mutation? What are the 3 types of genetic mutations?

genetic mutation refers to any alteration of the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. It can be caused by mistakes in replication of the genome, environmental agents like chemicals and uv light, and chance chemical malformations. 3 types; 1. point mutations 2. insertion mutations 3. deletion mutations

What is Markinov's Rule?

given a choice, the most stable carbocation intermediate is always formed

What three hormones can raise blood sugar and what type of hormones are they?

glucagon (polypeptide hormone) epinephrine (amino acid derivative hormone) cortisol (a steroid)

Sucrose composition

glucose + fructose

What are the steps of cellular respiration?

glycolysis -> pyruvate dehydrogenase complex -> Krebs cycle -> oxidative phosphoralation/electron transport

Which type of gram bacteria are more resistant to antibiotics?

gram negative because they have enzymes that degrade antibiotics in their periplasmic space and because they have an extra lipid bilayer that protects from the degradation of its peptidoglycan layer

What are eosinophils?

granulocytes/leukocytes that destroy parasites and help mediate allergic reactions

What are neutrophils?

granulocytes/leukocytes that phagocytose bacteria resulting in pus; experience amoeboid mobility and chemotaxis

What are basophils?

granulocytes/leukocytes that store and release histamine and help mediate allergic reactions

What are G-protein linked receptors?

have 7 transmembrane alpha helices (span the membrane 7 times) Has a ligand receptor on the extracellular surface Has an alpha, beta, and gamma subunit attached on the cytoplasm side Forms GTP from GDP when the ligand binds to the receptor

What is heat of transition, heat of vaporization, and heat of fusion?

heat of transition- energy required for a substance to undergo a phase change heat of vaporization- energy absorbed when a liquid becomes a gas heat of fusion- heat absorbed for a solid to become a liquid

What does the symbol ∆ over the arrow in a chemical equation stand for?

heating the reaction

Microtubules

hollow rods composed of 2 globular proteins. alpha tubulin and beta tubulin Radiating from centrioles, they attach to replicated chromosomes and pull them apart so that one copy of each chromosome moves to each end of the cell during mitosis

What are estrogens?

hormones involved in the development and maintenance of female characteristics

What are amino acid derivative hormones?

hormones that can act like peptides (hydrophillic) and steroids (hydrophobic) depending on the amino acid they are derived from

What are the 3 types of cartilage?

hyaline, elastic, and fibrous

What are the two classes of hormones?

hydrophobic hormones- bind to receptors in the cellular interior (EX: steroid hormones) hydrophillic hormones- bind to receptors on the cell surface (EX: peptide hormones)

What is another name for the pituitary gland?

hypophysis

Which portion of the brain controlls most of the endocrine system?

hypothalamus. It controls the endocrine system by releasing tropic hormones that regulate other tropic hormones called releasing and inhibiting factors/hormones

Things to remember about entropy:

in order of increasing entropy: solids < liquids < gases particles in a solution have more entropy than undissolved solids Two moles of something has more entropy than one mole entropy values of reverse reactions have the same magnitude but opposite signs

Where is aldosterone made?

in the adrenal cortex

What are Wolffian and Mulerian ducts?

in the early stages of embronic development when gender is indistiguishable, embryos have both ducts Wolffian - turns into male internal genitalia MIF (mulerian inhibiting factor) is released by the testes to inhibit the mulerian duct into forming female reproductive organs Mulerian- turns into female internal genitalia

What is the hepatic portal system?

in the hepatic portal system, blood passes through capilaries in the intestine, then collects in veins to travel to the liver, where the vessels branch and the blood passes again through capillaries

Most of semen is composed where?

in the seminal vescicle ~60%

Ventilation rate is affected by mechanical and chemical stimuli. what are the chemical stimuli?

increased PCO2 (CO2 concentration) decreased pH decreased PO2 (O2 concentrations) increased PCO2 and decreased pH are primary stimuli while decreased PO2 is secondary

Solubility of gas in liquid

increases with increasing pressure and decreasing temperature

When energy flows into a system from the surroundings, the energy of the system __________ and the energy of the surroundings _____________?

increases, decreases

What is an atom's oxidation state/#?

indicates how the atom's "ownership" valence electrons change when it forms a compound

inhibin secreted by sertoli cells does what?

inhibits FSH release

What are innate behaviors and learned behavior?

innate behavior is present at birth or somehow preprogramed to occur. They dont have to be learned. Learned behaviors require interaction with organisms and their environment to occur or be learned

How many protons are pumped through ATP synthase per NADH produced in the inner membrane? in glucolysis? FADH2?

inner membrane: 10 produced in glycolysis: 6 FADH2: 6

What is quaternary structure of proteins?

interactions between subunits of a protein. Subunits are a single polypeptide chain. These polypeptide chains interact to form a fully functioning protein. The forces in play include - hydrogen bonding - disulfide bonds - hydrophobic interactions - van der waals forces - NEVER peptide bonds (b/c they define primary structure)

What is GI motility?

involuntary contraction of GI smooth muscle. This occurs due to spontaneous depolarization of the membrane. GI smooth muscle is a functional syncytium, meaning action potentials spread to neighboring cells. The GI tract contains its own nervous system called the enteric nervous system. The PNS stimulates passage of food, while the SNS inhibits the passage of food.

What is a metallic solid and what are some of its properties?

it can be thought of as a metallicaly bonded lattice of nuclei and their inner shell electrons They are excellent conductors of heat and electricity and are malleable and ductile

What is parallel evolution?

it describes the situation in which 2 species go through similar evolutionary changes due to similar selective pressures. Example is during the ice age many species evolved to tolerate the cold

What is a hormone receptor?

it is a polypeptide that posseses a ligand -specific binding site. The ligand (hormone) binds to the site and causes the cell to modify its activity

What is the Hardy Weinberg Law?

it states that the frequencies of alleles in a gene pool of a population will not change over time, provided that a number of assumptions are true: 1. There is no mutation 2. There is no migration 3. There is no natural selection 4. There is no random mating 5. The population is sufficiently large to prevent random drift in allele frequencies After the parent population mates, the population reaches Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant

how does glucagon raise blood sugar?

it stimulates the liver to hydrolyze glycogen and release glucose into the bloodstream

how does insulin lower blood sugar?

it stimulates the removal of glucose from the bloodstrea, for storage as glycogen and fat

What is the role of parathomone (PTH) and where is it made?

its made in parathyroid glands of thyroid glands. Its function is for the blood to absorb Ca2+ when concentration is low

Catalysts can only affect kinetics or thermodynamics?

kinetics, they wont affect enthalpy delta G or entropy

What does the villus contain?

lacteals that absorb dietary fats capilaries that absorb monosaccharides and amino acids

What are and decribe each phase of the bacterial life cycle Also what is the carrying capacity of a population?

lag phase- bacteria are making components needed for cell division such as dNTPs (no growth) log phase- exponenetial growth of bacteria stationary phase- growth =death death/decline phase- cell death carrying capacity = the maximum population of bacteria for the environment

The stronger an acid the _________ its Ka value

larger

Peripheral chemoreceptors are located where and monitor what?

located in the aorta and carotid arteries. they monitor PCO2, pH, and PO2 levels of the blood

What is the common bile duct?

located in the duodenum, it releases bile, a green fluid containing bile acids

The higher the [H+] the ________ the pH

lower

What is molality?

m = moles of solute/ kg of solvent

What are two types of white blood cells that move via amoeboid mobility (crawling)

macrophages and neutrophils which move through capillary intercellular junctions that allows them to hunt for foreign particles among tissues

What is mass defect and what is its equation? What is einsteins mass energy equivalence equation?

mass defect is the mass converted to energy when forming a nucleus mass defect = ∆m ∆m = (total mass of seperate nucleons) - (mass of nucleus) Einstein's mass energy equivalence equation = E = [∆m (in amu)] x 93.5MeV Also states that 1kg = 9 x 10^16 J

Mole equation and avagadros #

mass in grams/molecular weight= number of moles Avogardro's # = 6.02x10^23

Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

maximum volume of air that can be inhaled after exhalation of resting tidal volume IC = TV + IRV

SI units. What does m, kg, s, mol, K, and A stand for? What do they measure?

meter, kilogram, second, mole, Kelvin, and Ampere length, weight, time, amount of substance, temp, and electric current

What are the 10 prefixes for carbon chains? What is the prefix for a ring? What would be the name for a 6 carbon alkane ring?

meth eth prop but pent hex hept oct non dec ring = cyclo 6 carbon alkane ring = cyclohexane

How thick/thin are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments?

microtubules 25nm intermediate filaments 10nm microfilaments 7nm

Ampipathic

molecule containing both hydrophillic and hydrophobic groups

What is a steroisomer?

molecules that have the same molecular formula and connectivity, but differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms. For example the carbon hydrogen bond is dashed on one stereoisomer and wedged on the other

What is a mole fraction of a given substance?

moles of substance/ moles in the solution

dissacharides are broken down into what via digestion? What enzyme catalyzes the reaction?

monosaccharides via brush border disaccharidases

How is sperm moved out of the body?

move from the seminiferous tubules to -> rete testes -> efferent ductules -> epididymis -> vas deferens Non-motile, immature sperm move via peristalsis! Sperm mature as pass through epididymis (do not 'swim' until ejaculation!) -> vas deferens connects with seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory duct -> passes through prostate gland -> joins urethra, which also receives fluid from the bulbourethral glands

SI unit prefixes. What is n, µ, m, c, k, M? What is the multiple?

nano, micro, mili, centi, kilo, mega 10^-9, 10^-6, 10^-3, 10^-2, 10^3, 10^6

Energy is __________ to break a bond, and energy is _________ when making a bond?

needed, released

What are carboanions?

negatively charged species with a full negative charge localized on carbon

What is the posterior pituitary gland called and how does it differ from the anterior pituitary gland?

neurohypophysis. It is composed of axons which descend from the hypothalamus. These axons secrete hormones into the bloodstream. They are called neuroendocrine cells (neurons that secrete hormones)

What are the two sources of genetic variation on which natural selection acts?

new alleles and new combinations of existing alleles

What does it mean when a solution is saturated?

no more solute will dissolve

What are homologous chromosomes?

non-identical chromosome pairs. We have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (46 total), 23 from mom and 23 from dad

What is nucleophilicity and what are its trends?

nucleophilicity is a measure of how strong a nucleophile is (how much it wants bond with a positive molecule). It increases going down the periodic table. Increases going left across the periodic table. Increases as negative charge increases.

What happens at lymph nodes

numerous afferent lymphatic vessels bring lymph into lymph node contain B and T lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells that help filter pathogens and unwanted substances

What is embryogenesis?

occurs witin hours of fertilization. Its the process of making an embryo from a zygote. zygote undergoes cleavage ---> 4 cell stage -> morula -> blastocyst (composed of outer cell mass called the trophoblast, which gives rise to the chorion (zygote contribution to the placenta), and the inner cell mass that gives rise to the embryo.) -> embryo

What is the electrons third quantum number?

orbital number, m. It describes the three dimensional orientation of an orbital. If l = 0 (s), m = 0 (1 orbital) If l = 1 (p), m = -1,0,or 1 (3 orbitals) If l = 2 (d), m = -2,-1, 0, 1, or 2 (5 orbitals) If l = 3 (f), m = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, or 3 (7 orbitals)

What are the Hardy-Weinberg equations?

p + q = 1 (p + q)^2 = 1 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 p = dominant allele q = recessive allele p^2 = frequency of the GG genotype 2pq = frequency of the Gg genotype q^2 = frequency of the gg genotype

What are the equations for pKa and pKb?

pKa = -logKa pKb = -logKb

Diffusion/ simple diffusion

passive transport from areas of low concentration to high concentration

Osmosis

passive transport of the solvent from areas of high concentration to low concentration. Oftentimes water is the solvent

What are homologous structures?

physical features shared by two species as a result of a common ancestor

What are analagous structures

physical features shared by two species that are not a result of a common ancestor

What does superimposed mean?

place or lay (one thing) over another. Used to check if molecules have the same atomic spacial arrangement

Cellulose

polymer of glucose (made up of many glucose) - bonding allows it to stay long straight and fibrous

What are carbocations?

positively charged species with a full positive charge on carbon. Always sp2 hybridized with an empty p orbital on the DAT

Where is ADH (antidiuretic hormone) made?

posterior pituitary

What is hemostasis?

process of stopping of flow of blood -limits blood loss from damaged blood vessels

What are pilli?

projections of bacteria that attach to different surfaces. The sex pili is used in conjugation between F + (male) and F- bacterium for the exchange of plasmids. fimbrae are pilli used for adhesion

We all evolved from

prokaryotes

What is a polar protic solvent?

protic solvent is a solvent that has a hydrogen atom bound to an oxygen (as in a hydroxyl group) or a nitrogen (as in an amine group). The molecules of such solvents readily donate protons (H+) to reagents.

q = mc∆T

q = heat added to (or released) by a sample m = mass c = specific heat T = temperature in degrees kelvin the larger the specific heat the harder it is to change its temperature Specific heat also depends on phase

How can you calculate the strength of an ionic bond/compound?

q1q2/ r q = charge r= radius

What are substrates?

reactants in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

What are erythrocytes?

red blood cells. they do not contain a nucleus or any organelles and rely on glycolysis for ATP synthesis. They have a bioconcave shape with a large surface area that allows gaas exchange. It transports oxygen from the lungs to tissue. A protein called hemoglobin allows it to transport oxygen

What is the active site of enzymes?

region of a enzymes structure responsible for catalysis/ speeding up chemical reactions

What is rRNA?

ribosomal RNA serve as compartments of the ribosome that provide the catalytic function of the ribosome

What are the maximum number of electrons that go into each subshell?

s = 2 p = 6 d = 10 f = 14

In what order do orbitals of the central atom get "used"?

s p p p d d d d d EX: central atom surrounded by 4 pairs of electrons is sp3

What is an isotope?

same element with a different number of neutrons

What are nociceptors?

sensory receptors that are pain receptors. they are stimulated by tissue injury. generally consist of free nerve endings that respond to chemical signs of tissue damage.

What are thermoreceptors?

sensory receptors that are stimulated by changes in temperature

What are electromagnetic receptors?

sensory receptors that are stimulated by electromagnetic waves. In humans these are photoreceptors (cones and rods)

What are chemoreceptors?

sensory receptors that respond to particular chemicals EX: - olfactory receptors detect airborne chemicals and allow us to smell - gustatory receptors (taste buds) respond to chemicals in the mouth

What is the cardiac condunction system?

sets the basic rhythm of the beating heart. It consists of autorhythmic cardiac cells that initiate and distribute impulses (action potentials) throughout the heart. The system that transmits action potentials between the atrial and ventrical syncytiums of the heart SA node -> AV node -> AV bundle -> purkinje finbers

Stoichiometric coefficients

show the ratio between amounts of reactants needed to form products

The GI tract outer layer is comprised of what?

smooth muscle. Two layers the outer longitudinal muscularis and inside that layer the circular muscularis

Each hybridization corresponds with what geometric family?

sp = linear sp2 = trigonal planar sp3 = tetrahedral sp3d = trigonal bipyramidal sp3d2 = octahedral

Conjugated systems

special stability provided by three or more adjacent, parallel, overlapping p orbitals (can be adjacent double or triple bonds)

What is speciation and what are the 3 types?

speciation is the formation of a new species. There are 3 types. Cladogenisis, where one species branches off into two new species. Anagenisis, when one biological species simply becomes another by changing so much that if an individual were to go back in time, it would be unable to reproduce with its ancestors. Lastly, sympatric speciation occurs when a species gives rise to a new species in the same geographical area such as through divergent selection.

What are spicules or trabeculae?

spikes in spongy bones

If cell voltage is positive, is the reaction spontaneous or nonsponstaneous?

spontaneous

∆G is negative, the reaction is ____________ ∆G is positive, the reaction is __________ ∆H is pos and ∆S is neg, the reaction is ___________ ∆H is neg and ∆S is pos, the rxn is ___________

spontaneous nonspontaneous nonspontaneous spontaneous

What is the role of follicle stimulating homone (FSH) in males?

stimulate sertoli cells to produce sperm

What does testosterone do?

stimulates the division of spermatogonia

When you see the word gastric, what should you think?

stomach

What is the epidermis made up of?

stratified (many layers) of squamus epithelial cells

Ventilation rate is affected by mechanical and chemical stimuli. what are the mechanical stimuli?

stretching of the lungs or irritants. Stretching causes stretch receptors to inhibit respiration decreasing respiration rate. irritants cause bronchoconstriction decreasing the amount of air going into the lungs

Calculating pH for strong acids?

strong acids dissociate completely therefore the molar concentration of the original acid is the same as the [H+] concentration. EX: .01M solution of HCl will have [H+] = 0.01M and a pH of 2

What is cartilage?

strong but flexible extracellular connective tissue secreted by cells called chondrocytes

The larger the Ka the _______ the acid? The larger the pKa the _________ the acid?

stronger, weaker same logic applies to bases and Kb

Secondary immune response

subsequent contact with an antigen -memory B and T cells rapidly differentiate -IgG and IgM (1-2 days after re-exposure)

What is the second quantum subshell?

subshell number, l. It describes the shape and energy of an electron's orbital these are the letters s, p, d, and f

What does aqueous mean?

substance dissolved in water

What is peptidoglycan made out of?

sugars and amino acids

What is another name for sertoli cells?

sustenacular cells

-w is defined as work is done by the _________ and on the _________. +w is defined as work done on the __________ and by the ____________.

system, surroundings system, surroundings

What is a half life?

t1/2 = the time it takes for one half of a radioactive sample to decay

What is tidal volume (TV)?

the amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during normal breathing

Law of conservation of mass/matter

the amount of matter (and thereby mass) does not change in a chemical reaction

What is evolution?

the changing of species and the rise of new species over the span of earth's history

What is denaturation?

the disruption of a protein's shape without breaking peptide bonds

What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron?

the electric potential across the plasma membrane which is approximately -70mV

What is work?

the energy required to move an object against a force

What is an antigen (Ag)

the fingerprint of a foreign particle that an antibody binds to

What is osmosis?

the net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of hifh solute concentration

What is a salt's molar solubility?

the number of moles of that salt that will saturate a liter of water

What is the heart rate (HR) or pulse

the number of times the lub-dup cardiac cycle is repeated per minute

What are the two stages of arousal and what part of the nervous system controls it?

the parasympathetic nervous system. Erection and lubrication

What is the exocrin pancreas?

the part of the pancreas that releases many enzymes essential for digestion

What is osmotic pressure?

the pressure it would take to stop osmosis from occuring

What are centromeres?

the region of a chromosome to which the microtubules of the spindle attach, via the kinetochore, during cell division ensure that newly replicated chromosomes are sorted properly during cell division

How is strength of an acid related to the stability of its conjugate base? How does resonance play a part?

the stronger the acid the more stable its conjugate base The more resonance structures with equalivalent energies the more acidic the acid and stable its conj base

What is intramembranous ossification?

the synthesis of bone from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme. Found in layers, thus it results in flat bones

Osmotic pressure

the tendency of water to move down its concentration gradient

How do male genitalia form in embryos?

the testes form that produce testosterone which stimulates dihydrotestosterone to develop male genitalia

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

the total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred but it cannot be created or destroyed

dipeptides and tripeptides are broken down into what via digestion? What enzyme catalyzes the reaction?

they are broken down into amino acid via brush border peptidases

Central chemoreceptors are located where and monitor what?

they are found in the respiratory control center found in the medulla of the brain stem and monitor PCO2 and pH levels of cerebrospinal fluid

What is the importance of colonic bacteria and what causes farts?

they keep bad bacteria from proliferating by keeping the space taken up supply us with vitamin K, which is essential for blood clotting metabolize digested materials which often results in gas given off as the waste product of bacterial metabolism

What is prezygotic reproductive isolation and what are the 5 types?

they're barriers that prevent the formation of a hybrid zygote. they include: 1. temporal (individuals mate at different times of the year) 2. mechanical (Grate danes and chihuahuas cant mate) 3. ecological (individuals who can mate are seperated by a river) 4. behavioral (some species require mating rituals before mating can occur) 5. gametic (the sperm of a cat cannot fertilize the egg of a dog)

What is the function of the digestive system?

to digest and absorb foodstuffs through anabolic breakdown of food. A secondary function is protection from disease