Decolonisation of Africa
Actual MacMillan's Speech
"The wind of change is blowing through this [African] continent, and whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact. We must all accept it as a fact, and our national policies must take account of it."
Strengthening of nationalism in many African states
- 1945 at 5th Pan African congress there were a number of delegates who would later bring countries to independence - Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Obafemi Awolowo (Premier of SW Region Nigeria), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya - however no one could have predicted that majority of the African countries would be independent - in the early 1950s Julius Nyerere estimated that complete independence would not happen until the 1980s
Pan-Africanism
- African nationalist movement that attracted African intellectuals and anti-imperalists - Drew support from European socialists and American liberals who condemned the policies of colonial powers Provided an important platform for ambitious young African nationalists
The nationalist party, Dr Malan and the system of Apartheid
- British arrived to SA after the Dutch but still pushed them out of coastal regions - Both treated African inhabitants badly 1948 General Election - victory of the nationalist party (lead by Dr Malan) over the United party led to many of the racist ideas which existed in South Africa to become formalised into the system of 'apartheid' - This idea of total segregation was set out in the "Sauer Report"
Social Achievements of Mobutu
- Congo renamed ZAIRE under Mobutu's control - Inheriting a land of more than 450 ethnic groups that had French as an official language but no commonly spoken tongue, Mobutu managed to forge a sense of nationhood in Africa's third-largest country as strong as exists anywhere on this continent. This was accomplished, in part, by successfully promoting the use of three major African languages: Lingala, Swahili and Tshiluba, to draw citizens together across ethnic lines. - At the same time, Zaire experienced a period of extraordinary cultural creativity, in song, in dress and in art. This came about partly as a result of deliberate efforts to favour local influences over foreign ones, and partly because of the need of Zairians to survive by their own means in the absence of a functioning government.
A non-white colony
- Ghana enjoyed many advantages in the colonial world. - No white settlers whose racial privileges needed special protection. Much of the economy was British-owned, but a black middle-class had won responsibility in city politics and gained some influence in governmental affairs
Effect of International Sanctions
- International value of rand dropped by 35% - SA stock exchange closes so foreign investors were more open to the idea of sanctions against SA as they were no longer benefitting from their economy - Major international companies; Barclays, Esso, IBM, Peugot, Cola left economy - Gold was found in USA and Australia which meant West was less reliant on rare materials in SA
Rapid industrialisation
- Nkrumah attempted to rapidly industrialize Ghana's economy. - He reasoned that if Ghana escaped the trade system by reducing dependence on foreign capital, technology, and material goods, it could become truly independent. - However, overspending on capital projects caused the country to be driven into debt—estimated as much as $1 billion USD by the time he was ousted in 1966
Election and Riots
- Nkrumah formed the Convention People's Party (CPP) on June 12 1949 - Appeals for independence in the "shortest possible time" were drowned out by CPP demands for Independence "now" Dominated elections and prompted the British to change course - in 1951 they formed a legislative partnership with the British governor
Social
- One of the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa - Schools, railways, hospitals, social security and an advanced economy. - Under Nkrumah's leadership, Ghana adopted some socialist policies and practices. - He created a welfare system, started various community programs, and established schools. - Nkrumah's time in office was initially successful, with forestry, fishing, and cattle-breeding expanded, production of cocoa (Ghana's main export) doubled
Charismatic Leader - Kwame Nkrumah
- Refused to accept anything less than immediate independence for Ghana - He established himself as the most charismatic and resourceful nationalist leaders - His imprisonment added to his stature among the Ghanians (matyr) - won an election even when he was in prison - He eventually won the respect of the British Governor and worked in partnership with the Colonial government - sole focus remained achieving independence - Believed in positive action, non-alignment, strike
Impact of WW2
- War weakened the colonial powers economically and the British could no longer afford empire o War time inflation had hurt the westernised sector which was larger in the Gold Coast than elsewhere in West Africa o The British were fighting the Mau Mau in Kenya at the same time - Atlantic Charter (1941) called for self-determination which undermined the rule in Ghana 30,000 Ghanaians had served with the British in Burma fighting against the Japanese
More Nkrumah
- Welfare system, community programs schools - Cocoa exports double - Volta River Dam 1961-1966 - Industrialisation - Increasily autocratic, oused in 1966 while on state visit to China
One party state and autocracy
- When the railway workers went on strike in 1961, Nkrumah ordered strike leaders and opposition politicians arrested under the *Trade Union Act of 1958*. - He told the union's wages must give way to patriotic duty because the good of the nation superseded the good of individual workers, Nkrumah's administration contended. - - The Detention Act led to widespread disaffection with Nkrumah's administration. - Some of his associates used the law to arrest innocent people to acquire their political offices and business assets. - Advisers close to Nkrumah became reluctant to question policies for fear that they might be seen as opponents. - In February 1966, while Nkrumah was on a state visit to meet Zhou Enlai his government was overthrown in a military coup by Kotoka and the NLC. ¨Nkrumah borrowed money to build the dam, and placed Ghana in debt. To finance the debt, he raised taxes on the cocoa farmers in the south. This accentuated regional differences and jealousy"
Role of Mandela, ANC in end of apartheid
- wanted one person one vote - ANC + National Party were old rivals and saw eachother as rivals - death toll mounted even while doing negotiations + de Klerk didnt stop ANC started growing more militant
Independence Movements in Algeria
1. 1954, French Algeria was a society rigidly polarised along racial lines - economically, politically and culturally 2. Role of FLN 3. War: 1954-1962
Reasons for French withdrawal from Tunisia (5)
1. Impact of WW2 2. June 1954 - Socialist premier Mendes elected to power in Paris - new policy of partial French withdrawl from two of nation;s most troubled colonies. Results (April 1955) agreement for Tunisia's internal autonomy with only foreign affairs and defense remaining in French hands 3. Bourguiba makes triumphal return to Tunisia & Neo-Destour government formed. Bourguiba refuses to accept natural place at head of new Tunisian government until full independence is achieved. 4. Bourguiba continues to negotiate next stage with French government keeping a policy of gradualism 5. Greatly helped by French crisis in Algeria and independence of Morocco
Reasons for French Withdrawal (4)
1. Reluctant to leave Algeria - considered & legally classified an integral part of France 2. Algerian War was unpopular internationally and very costly 3. African Nationalism - context of France's commitment to Imperialism anachronistic 4. Evian agreement
Achievements of Ben Bella
1.Infrastructure/Education/Healthcare 2. Nationalism/unity
South Africa
1948-1994
Date of independence in Ghana
1957 becomes a republic in 1960
Key date of independence for Tanzania
1961
Key date of independence Uganda
1962
Fall of Bourguiba
1975, national assembly appoints Bourguiba president for life but by late 1980s when he has been head of state and chief executive for 30 years becomes noticeably erratic in his conduct of affairs. November 1987 his prime minister, Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, removes him from office and takes his place as president.
Revival of Umkhonto we Sizwe - ANC's militant wing
1976 many young black South Africans left SA for neighbouring countries to join armed struggle (ANC's freedom school) Carried out isolated guerilla activities inside SA however they could not seriously challenge SA forces
Key date of independence in Nigeria
1st October 1960 - independence gained from Great Britain
Tunisia 1956
20th March Tunisia given complete independence with Bourguiba as President
Date of Independence in Algeria
5th July 1962
Sharpeville Massacre
After failed bus boycotts and petitions against pass laws, Pan African Congress formed March 1960 - start nationwide campaign, Africans encouraged to leave their passbooks at home then gather outside their police stations to *invite arrest* Led to police firing, killing *96* and wounding *186* - influenced protests and demonstrations, ANC and PAC are banned, state of emergency after *30,000* march onto Parliament in Cape Town
Under Boumedienne leadership
Algeria experiences rapid economic growth
Amin's fear of Obote 2
Although jubilant at his success, Amin realized that Obote, with Nyerere's aid, might try again. He had the SRB and the newly formed Public Safety Unit (PSU) redouble their efforts to uncover subversives and other imagined enemies of the state. General fear and insecurity became a way of life for the populace, as thousands of people disappeared. In an ominous twist, people sometimes learned by listening to the radio that they were "about to disappear." State terrorism was evidenced in a series of spectacular incidents; for example, High Court Judge Benedicto Kiwanuka, former head of government and leader of the banned DP, was seized directly from his courtroom.
Amin establishing ties with terrorist
Amin did attempt to establish ties with an international terrorist group in July 1976, when he offered the Palestinian hijackers of an Air France flight from Tel Aviv a protected base at the old airport at Entebbe, from which to press their demands in exchange for the release of Israeli hostages. The dramatic rescue of the hostages by Israeli commandos was a severe blow to Amin.
Bureaucracy
Amin's government, conducted by often erratic personal proclamation, continued on. Because he was illiterate--a disability shared with most of his higher ranking officers--Amin relayed orders and policy decisions orally by telephone, over the radio, and in long rambling speeches to which civil servants learned to pay close attention. The bureaucracy became paralyzed as government administrators feared to make what might prove to be a wrong decision. T
Amin's fear of Obote
Another near-obsession for Amin was the threat of a counterattack by former president Obote. Shortly after the expulsion of Asians in 1972, Obote did launch such an attempt across the Tanzanian border into southwestern Uganda. His small army contingent in twenty-seven trucks set out to capture the southern Ugandan military post at Masaka but instead settled down to await a general uprising against Amin, which did not occur. A planned seizure of the airport at Entebbe by soldiers in an allegedly hijacked East African Airways passenger aircraft was aborted when Obote's pilot blew out the aircraft's tires and it remained in Tanzania.
Ben Bella 1964
Awarded title of Hero of the Soviet Union
1960s - 1970s
Banning of the ANC Death penalty for sabotage and could be retained for up to 90 days. Inflation and no rise in wages forced strikes Amendments, making apartheid stricter, greater security measures (BOSS and SSC), anti-communism act, military expansion and police. Propaganda and censorship. Bantustans made them independent. Education! Economic improvements led to prosperity for whites and little change for blacks.
Key figure of independence movement in Algeria
Ben Bella (1963) - Mismanaged counry, autocratic leader - Hero of Soviet Union 1964 Boumedienne (1965) - Socialist governmet - good relations with both sides of the cold war
Algeria 1963
Ben Bella passes Algeria's first constitution encourages creation of SONATRACH, Algeria's national oil and gas conglomerate, positive step for national wealth and sense of independence
Tunisia 1952
Bourguiba imprisoned again and banned his movement
Tunisia 1954
Bourguiba released from prison again and ban lifted on his party due to new socialist premier Mendes-France introduces new policy of partial withdrawal from nationals most trouble colonies, Indochina and Tunisia
Tanzania 1916
British, Belgian and South African troops occupy most of German East Africa
Ben Bella - Education
Built schools for thousands of former shoeshine boys
Economic Achievements of Mobutu
By 1970, with mineral revenues growing fast, Mobutu felt secure enough in his rule to make known his grandiose vision for Zaire. At an extraordinary party congress that year, he announced a bid for national greatness called Goal 80. The plan consisted of a 10-year program to double copper production, industrialize the country with steel mills and deep-water ports, and undertake a program of huge investments in Kinshasa, Kisangani and around the southern mining capital, Lubumbashi. The largest project of all was the Inga dam, near Kinshasa, at the time one of the world's largest hydroelectric dams, followed by the 1,110-mile-long Inga-Shaba power grid, spanning dense forest and empty savannah on its route to the copper-producing, independence-minded Shaba Province, which Mobutu's project aimed to make dependent upon electricity supplied from afar. A food shortage, he said, would be ended by organizing agricultural brigades. Unemployment was to be ended by decree. Every community was ordered to begin building nursery schools, and employers were told to provide free uniforms and supplies for their workers' children. After taking any businesses off foreigners; he handed them out to Zairians, which made him immensely popular
Amin;s friends
By 1978 Amin's circle of close associates had shrunk significantly--the result of defections and executions. Amin accused Nyerere of waging war against Uganda, and, hoping to divert attention from his internal troubles and rally Uganda against the foreign adversary, Amin invaded Tanzanian territory and formally annexed a section across the Kagera River boundary on November 1, 1978.Tanzania and the UNLA took Kampala in April 1979, and Amin fled by air, and the war was over. Uganda had lost an estimated 300,000 victims to Amin's murderous eight-year regime.
Tunisia 1945
Calls came for complete independence
Changes in Central Africa and West Africa
Congo Gold Coast / Ghana Nigeria All British and *non settler colonies*
Failures of Mobutu
Corruption One Party State/Dictatorship Restoring National Identity of National Cleansing Kepltocracy and Corruption
Role of the ANC
Defiance Campaign & Freedom Charter, PAC formed (more aggressive) Took up arms Strikes - used trade unions, make town ships 'un-governable' Mandela and ANC facilitated a peaceful transfer to democracy by appeasing both SA's tribes and the Afrikaners through offering them a place in a new SA.
Bourguiba - Single-party state
Democracy not part of Bourguiba's Tunisia - Remained one-party state (Neo-Desotour) though by 1987 name o single ruling party is RCD (Constitutional Democratic Assembly)
Conclusion on Mobutu's rule
During Mobutu's rule the Congo could be characterised under the following: • Installed, backed and maintained primarily by the United States • Reign marked by Kleptocracy • Destruction of the country Congolese resources were not used to improve the country, economy or people. The people of the Congo were afforded fewer rights than they were under Belgian control. Change was explicit, but improvements few.
Release of Mandela
February 1990 - refused to leave prison unless his fellow prisoners were also released and that ANC and other parties would be unbanned - immediately gave a speech which called for continued mass action, end of State of Emergency, freeing of all political prisoners andcomplete dismantling of apartheid - called for democratic, non-racial, unitary south Africa - offered whites a place in south africa - they were reassured August 1990 ANC makes Mandela new leader of ANC
Weakening of Colonial powers especially Britain and France
Financial cost of war Focus of internal rebuilding Nature of WW2 - fighting against oppressive regime "credibility/hypocrisy"
Key factors in Kenyan Independence Movement
Government of Kenya Economic and Political Disparity Development of Political Movements Mau Mau
Key figure of independence movement in Tunisia
Habib Bourguiba - gradualism
Tunisia 1949
Habib Bourguiba returned to reorganise independence movement from prison
Corruption
His cult of personality rose to such heights that for weeks at a time, Zaire's official press was forbidden to mention the name of any other Zairian than the president himself. Mobutu almost singlehandedly invented Zaire, even giving the country its name in replacement of the colonial name, Congo. But his personal appetite for luxury and wealth spawned a system of official corruption so rapacious that he left behind a country in ruin, where revenue from lucrative mines had been squandered or squirreled away in foreign bank accounts.
Key features of Independence movements in Ghana
Impact of WW2 Charismatic Leader - Kwame Nkrumah Election and Riots Pan Africanism A non-white Colony
Key features of Independence Movement in Nigeria
Impact of World War Two MacMillan's 'Winds of Change Speech' Federalism A Non-White Colony Nationalism Aftermath
Social
In September 1972, Amin expelled almost all of Uganda's 50,000 Asians and seized their property. Although Amin proclaimed that the "common man" was the beneficiary of this drastic act-- which proved immensely popular--it was actually the army that emerged with the houses, cars, and businesses of the departing Asian minority. This expropriation of property proved disastrous for the already declining economy.
Steve Biko - Black Consciousness
Inspired leadership to militant workers and new youth Young women and men bold about experiences of African struggle in Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe Inspired by black panther/theology movement in US Biko killed in 1977 by police made into a *matyr* called for self help, racial pride, psychological liberation work autonomously from white liberals
Bourguiba - Policy of non-doctrinaire socialism
Internal attitude is equally pragmatic - 1960s takes rigid line, state control & agricultural cooperatives when these measures fail he rapidly returns to a more moderate approach
Boumedienne establishes
Islamic socialist government and presided over the Council of Revolution maintains good relations with both sides of Cold War
Tanzania 1954
Julius Nyerere and Oscar Kambona transform TAA into Tanganyika African National Union. In the early 1950s the Mau Mau movement of violent resistance to British rule was active in neighbouring Kenya. The Tanganyika government expected the violence to spread to Tanganyika, especially in the north —but violence did not spread there from Kenya
Soweto Riots
July 16 1976 - independent from organisations - thousands or primary and secondary school children peacefully marched against imposition of Afrikaners as medium of instruction in classroom - Police fired killing (574) and injuring thousands - 13 year old Pieterson bleeding shocks the world
Ben Bella freed in
July 1979 as soon as Boumedienne died - moves to France in 1980
Date of Independence for Congo
June 30th 1960
East Africa
Kenya Tanzania/Tanganyika Uganda *all British settler colony*
Kenya 1963
Kenya gains independence, with Kenyatta as prime minister.
Bourguiba - Good Relations
Kept good relations with France, in spite of few periods of intense crisis. - bombing of a Tunisian village in 1958 by French planes (French claming right to pursue Algerian rebels across the border) - brief, costly war in 1961 initiates by Bourguiba to end agreed presence of French garrison in port of Birzete - suspension of French aid in 1964-6 in response to Bourguiba's nationalizing of all land held by foreigners
Tanzania 1919
LoN makes Tanganyika a British mandate
Ben Bella released from prison in France
March 1962 after Evian agreement between France and provisional government of Algeria had ended the war
Kenya 1956
Mau Mau rebellion put down after thousands killed - mainly Africans
International Sanctions set
Mid-1980s - becomes more effective after both USA and EEC takes action 1985 - American Chase Manhattan Bank refuses to lend further money to SA until Apartheid ended, Barclay follows suit 1985-86 - EEC stops buying SA fruit and wine
One Party State/Dictatorship
Mobutu ordered the creation of a sole, powerful political party, the Popular Revolutionary Movement, making membership obligatory for all Zairians. With time, however, a growing taste for power took over, and the president's style of rule became both insular and absolute. Challengers, both imagined and real, often paid with their lives, like the four former Cabinet ministers whom Mobutu had publicly hanged before 50,000 spectators six months after he took office. As an unmistakable Mobutu style began to emerge in the late 1960s and early 1970s, it became clear that the Zairian leader's ambition was to fashion a great African state. Mobutu began to study other dictatorships, drawing freely from them.
Tunisia 1955
Morocco claimed independence
Reasons for Belgian Withdrawal
Nationalism and Pan Africanism MNC and Lumumba A white colony Belgian Ambitions Impact of WW1
Party name of Bourguiba
New Destour
Key figure in independence movement in Ghana
Nkrumah
Conclusion for East Africa
No unity between the states. We see similarities with regard to KANU and TANU, and similarities afterwards with regard to one-party politics. However, economic decline characterized the post-colonial states. This was particularly acute in Uganda through the military dictatorship of Amin, and the subsequent religious and international war; in Tanzania through the failure of Umaaja and collectivization, and in Kenya through the lack of development in Kenyatta's later years.
Key figure for Tanzania
Nyerere
Key figure of Ugana
Obote Idi Amin
Strong Central Government
Obote's long term goal was to build a strong central government at the expense of entrenched local interests, especially those of Buganda. The first major challenge to the Obote government came not from the kingdoms, nor the regional interests, but from the military. In January 1964, units of the Ugandan Army mutinied, demanding higher pay and more rapid promotions. Obote was forced to call in British troops to restore order, a humiliating blow to the new regime. In the aftermath, Obote's government acceded to all the mutineers' demands, unlike the governments of Kenya and Tanganyika, which responded to similar demands with increased discipline and tighter control over their small military forces.
Kleptocracy and Corruption
One group of people, however, benefited far more than others, and in lasting ways, from the Africanization program: Mobutu and a small circle of relatives and friends.
Why were international sanctions set so late
Only successful sanctions before 1980 were sport related Neighbouring African countries were too reliant on SA for trade railway and ports so didn't impose (Angola, Botswana, Zambia) America Japan and Europe were unwilling as it invested $26.3 billion
1980s - 1990s
PW Botha's Reforms to prevent civil war: • Legalised Black Trade Unions (6m days lost to strikes • Repealed Pass Laws • Constitutional reform, coloured given votes, 70% still couldn't vote • Education - increase money • Watered down, sex, marriage, miscegenation permitted. FW de Klerk: • Apartheid wasn't working • A democratic non-racial system was essential to avoid civil war • Wanted peace and to reform apartheid (released prisoners) He saw need to include parties like the ANC in discussions
Consequence of one party state...
Paradoxically, however, the one-party state did not signal the end of political conflict; it merely relocated and intensified that conflict within the party. The issue that brought the UPC disharmony to a crisis involved Obote's military protégé, Idi Amin. Although Buganda had been defeated and occupied by the military, Obote was still concerned about security there. His concerns were well founded; in December 1969 he was wounded in an assassination attempt and narrowly escaped more serious injury when a grenade thrown near him failed to explode. He had retained power by relying on Idi Amin and the army, but it was not clear that he could continue to count on their loyalty. By January 1971, Obote was prepared to rid himself of the potential threat posed by Amin. Various versions emerged of the way this news was leaked to Amin; in any case, Amin decided to strike first. Despite its outward display of a military chain of command, Amin's government was arguably more riddled with rivalries, regional divisions, and ethnic politics than the UPC coalition that it had replaced.
Bourguiba - Pragmatic
Policies of independent Tunisia are to a large extent the policies of Bourguiba himself - meant a cautious and pragmatic approach which proved very successful
Achievements of Bourguiba (5)
Pragmatic Good Relations Good Political PR Policy of non-doctrinaire socialism Single-party state
Fall of Ben Bella
Public disillusion set in when he began mismanaging the country. - spurned FLN tradition of collective leadership by interfering in the jurisdiction of ministers and redistributing land through a corrupt bureaucracy forcing out former allies one by one. Viewed as AUTOCRATIC leader by some.
1950s Sauer Report
Race/marriage - population registration act (children categorised differently from parents), illegal for marriage between whites and blacks, and sex. Settlement - group areas act - races live separately, 3.5m uprooted, townships were formed, 60% lived outside areas. Bantustans formed where unemployed people sent, tribes left fragmented, under 50% lived in these areas Movement - pass laws, failed to show led to imprisonment (1960), couldn't stay in areas for more than 72 hours, public places segregated (banned miscegenation) Separate amenities act Education - education act - whites controlled schools, taught in Afrikaans, inferior quality, grants removed from black schools so they shut down. Politics - voters amendment act - no votes, only for black people
Ben Bella elected president
September 1963
Awareness of Sharpeville and Biko
Sharpeville Massacre (21st of March 1960) Steve Biko - Black Conciousness (late 1960s to early 1970s)
Bourguiba - Good Political PR
Skilful at maintaining good relations with other western powers, for the most part Tunisia under his rule has a respected role in Arab world. - However, inclination to take a less hard line than others on issue of Israel creates hostility - Various times Tunis is host to headquarters of Arab League (moving from Cairo in 1979) and of PLO (refugees from Beirut in 1982)
Achievements of Nkrumah
Social Economical and Infrastructure Rapid Industrialisation one party state and autocracy
Kenya 1920
Starts becoming administered by a British governor - true colony small but significant group of white settlers
Kenya 1960
State of emergency ends after Kenyatta released. Britain announces plans to prepare Kenya for majority African rule. Kenya African national Union (KANU) formed
Support of and opposition to apartheid at home and abroad
Support - ? Opposition - Soweto Riots (July 16 1976) - Revival of Umkhonto we Sizwe - ANC's militant wing - International Sanctions
Tanzania 1946
Tanganyika African Association founded
Criticism of the UN
The USSR, Belgium and France refused to pay their share of the cost of the UN operations in Congo because they disagreed with their actions. The USSR claimed that the UN was being biased towards the West. Belgium also had other interests in the Congo including the mines and the fact that it was supporting Tshombe in Katanga. ONUC was interfering in the internal affairs of the Congo which went against the UN charter, and the UN forces took a long time to eventually bring an end to the conflict.
Military under Amin
The army, which had been progressively expanded under Obote, was further doubled and redoubled under Amin. Recruitment was largely, but not entirely, in the north. There were periodic purges, when various battalion commanders were viewed as potential problems or became real threats. Each purge provided new opportunities for promotions from the ranks. Amin never forgot the source of his power. He spent much of his time rewarding, promoting, and manipulating the army. Financing his ever-increasing military expenditures was a continuing concern. Early in 1972, he reversed foreign policy-- never a major issue for Amin--to secure financial and military aid from Muammar Qadhafi of Libya. Amin expelled the remaining Israeli advisers, to whom he was much indebted, and became vociferously anti-Israel. To induce foreign aid from Saudi Arabia, he rediscovered his previously neglected Islamic heritage. He also commissioned the construction of a great mosque on Kampala Hill in the capital city, but it was never completed because much of the money intended for it was embezzled.
West Africa Conclusion
The divisions in Nigeria were what Nkrumah sought to prevent in Ghana. Essentially although independence was relatively peaceful in terms of the relationship between the Colonial power and the Nationalists, divisions in Nigeria created instability, and the policies designed to prevent such divisions in Ghana ultimately led the nation into severe debt. Nkrumah brought political stability in the short run, but through financial mismanagement and failing to genuinely bring unity to his party, was overthrown by a military force who objected to his Socialist ideas. He was an idealist whose vision for the 'United States of Africa' never became a reality.
Increasingly military role
The military then began to assume a more prominent role in Ugandan life. Obote selected a popular junior officer with minimal education, Idi Amin Dada, and promoted him rapidly through the ranks as a personal protégé. As the army expanded, it became a source of political patronage and of potential political power. Obote's efforts to produce a one-party state with a powerful executive prime minister appeared to be on the verge of success.
More on Changes in apartheid under Botha
Trade unions banned since 1960s for black workers became legalised: - stopped 'wildcat' strike sprung up since the 1970s - allowed business owners to know who to negotiate with Tripled spending on black education throughout the 1980s Jobs previously reserved for only whites opened up to blacks New constitution for greater representation Encouraged desegregation - government with petty apartheid such as segregation of parks and shops - pass laws relaxed and abolished in 1986 - mixed marriages act of 1959 repealed - laws relaxed so blacks could move off bantsustans into towns
Independence Movement in North Africa
Tunisia and Algeria - French settler colonies Arab/Islamic
Economic/Political and social effects of the war on Africans
UN and self-determination Impact of 'decline of colonialism - French in Vietnam, British in India • Experience of war shook the confidence in the class system and confidence in white superiority. • Returning colonial soldiers felt that because they had fought for their freedom that they were owed it - "why should I fight for their freedom, when I am not free in my own country?" • The defeat of British Empire forces by the Japanese in 1940-42 exploded the myth of white military technological and organisational superiority.
Tanzania 1929
UN converts this to a trusteeship
Achievements of Obote and Amin
Uganda's first few years of self-rule saw a series of successful development projects. The new government built many new schools, modernized the transportation network, and increased manufacturing output as well as national income. However.....
Independence movements in Uganda
Unlike neighboring Tanzania, Uganda enjoyed rich natural resources, a flourishing economy, and an impressive number of educated and prosperous middle-class African professionals, including business people, doctors, lawyers, and scientists. Independence, too, was in a sense a gift of the British because it came without a struggle. The British determined a timetable for withdrawal before local groups had organized an effective nationalist movement. Uganda's political parties emerged in response to impending independence rather than as a means of winning it.
Key themes
Violent struggle, emerging African leadership, against the backdrop of the 'wind of change' for the British Empire. Further we see the problem of Tribalism is Kenya as a divisive force - hence the importance of KAU/ KANU.
Impact of Second World War
Weakening of Colonial Powers Political, Economic and Social Effects of the war on Africans Strengthening of Nationalism in many African States Changing attitudes to colonialism Pressure from the USA and UN to end colonialism MacMillan's 'Wind of Change' speech
Political achievements of Mobutu
With its borders with nine other countries, Mobutu marketed his country to Washington and Paris, obtaining economic aid and political support in exchange, as a platform for interventions and covert operations throughout central and southern Africa. - Maintained close economic and political ties with Belgium although these were occasionally overshadowed by the financial issues that had remained unresolved after party independence - Mobutu enjoyed the support of the West and in particular of the United States because of his strong anti-communist stance
Restoring National Identity or National Cleansing
Zairians were obliged to change their Western names to African ones, drop titles like Mr. and Mrs. in favour of "citizen" and abandon European dress for tunics for men and wraps of printed cloth for women. Mobutu sought to set the tone by replacing his given name, Joseph Desire Mobutu, with Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu waza Banga, which has often been translated as "the all-conquering warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving fire in his wake." Authenticity was followed, in 1973, by "Zairianization," a program that took farms, factories and businesses belonging to foreigners, from Belgians who had remained since the colonial period to the Greek, Jewish and Pakistani traders who had dominated much of the country's small-scale commerce. With almost no prior experience in the businesses they inherited, many Zairians quickly sought to lure foreigners back to run them in their place. Soon Zaire's economy was near collapse.
Boumedienne unseats Ben Bella
by military coup June 1965 - president tried to open negotiations with rebels. European sympathisers detected CIA's hand at work.
de Klerk and National Party
de Klerk wanted power-sharing whereby minority partied like NAtional Party would share power to reassure whites police encouraged violence to disrupt peace talks and stop process of blacks gaining rights National Party wanted protection is one person one vote democracy was introduced. Compromise was reached
Ben Bella post 1965
house arrest, married Zahra Sellam journalist who came to interview him couple draws closer to Islam. He condemned the violent excesses of Islamists, Ben Bella saw Muslim values as surest guarantee of rights in Algeria.
Tanzania 1961
independence achieved
More Social problems
monarchs, with the same problems of enforcing orders at a distance, controlling rival factions at court, and rewarding loyal followers with plunder. However, Amin's regime was possibly less efficient than those of the precolonial monarchs. Religious conflict was another characteristic of the Amin regime that had its origins in the nineteenth century. After rediscovering his Islamic allegiance in the effort to gain foreign aid from Libya and Saudi Arabia, Amin began to pay more attention to the formerly deprived Muslims in Uganda, a move which turned out to be a mixed blessing for them. Muslims began to do well in what economic opportunities yet remained, the more so if they had relatives in the army. Christians, in turn, perceived that they were under siege as a religious group; it was clear that Amin viewed the churches as potential centers of opposition. A number of priests and ministers disappeared in the course of the 1970s, but the matter reached a climax with the formal protest against army terrorism in 1977 by Church of Uganda ministers, led by Archbishop Janan Luwum.
Nyerere dates
o 1961 - Nyerere PM of independent Tang. o 1962 - Nyerere Pres. o 1964 - widespread army mutiny + union with Zanzibar, after left-wing revolution, to form Tanzania o Initial credit as moderate, but growth of one-party, police state o 1967 - Arusha Declaration o 'ujaama' collectives disastrous o Growing friendship with communist China o Denounces lack of British military action over Rhodesia's UDI and concern re British arms sales to South Africa o Leading campaigner for majority rule in Rhodesia; key influence behind Lancaster House peace conference, 1979 o 1979-80 - costly invasion of Uganda to remove Amin
Corruption
o Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures multiplied and excessive tax rates set by officials further damaged the economy. Enormous amounts of public funds were misappropriated and put to unproductive use. Purchasing power declined at an unprecedented rate and even essential commodities became unavailable. Economic decline was compounded by corruption.
Reasons for independence in Tanzania
o Making Swahili the national language - encourage nationalism; facilitated political mobilisation and a growth in nation conscience. o British place a limit on tertiary education due to fear of inciting revolution in neighbouring Kenya. Though education would lead to revolution o Context surrounding: ww2 and other independence movements.
One Party System
o Nyerere believed multiple political parties, in a nation with hundreds of ethnic groups, were a threat to national unity and therefore sought ways to ensure a one party system. To further his aim for national unity Nyerere established Kiswahili as the national language.
Ujaama
o Nyerere introduced Ujaama literal meaning 'family-hood'. Nyerere's government had made Ujamaa the philosophy that would guide Tanzania's national development; 'the government deliberately de-emphasized urban areas to deconcentrate and ruralize industrial growth
Preventative Detention Act
o Nyerere used the Preventive Detention Act first to suppress trade unions and then to lock up any opponents when he wanted.
Amin and Nyerere
o Nyerere's Tanzania had a close relationship with the PRC. In 1979 Tanzania declared war on Uganda after the Soviet-backed Uganda invaded and tried to annex a northern Tanzanian province. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but, enlisting the country's population of Ugandan exiles, also invaded Uganda itself. On April 11, Amin was forced to quit the capital, Kampala, ending the Uganda-Tanzania War.
Expanding state
o Scope of the state expanded rapidly into virtually every sector. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country. It was involved from everything from retailing to import-export trade and even baking. This created an environment ripe for corruption.
Transition to Black Majority Rule
power sharing system for 5 years whereby any party with 20%+ vote had the right to elect a deputy president. any party with 5%_ had the right to appoint a member of government April 1944 - 20 million people voted ANC wins 62.5% - Mandela becomes president National Party wins 20.%% - elects de Klerk as deputy
Final years of Boumedienne
unsuccessful in trying to establish North African Society Federation
Aftermath and Lead-up to independence
• 1960 after the Mau Mau had been supressed, the state of emergency was ended • The British announced plans to prepare Kenya for African Rule. • The Kenyan African National Union or KANU was formed. • Kenyatta released in 1961 and assumed presidency of KANU. • 1963 independence gained after a coalition is signed with the whites and radicals.
Background on Nigeria
• Administration of Nigeria had always proved difficult due to ifs variety of ethnic background • The country was split into mainly three different tribes: Hausa (from the north and mainly Muslim), Yoruba (from the east) and Igbo (from the west). Both Igbo and Yoruba were mainly Christian. • Britain's policy was to encourage Christian education in the south; however in the north they allowed Islam to retain its supremacy and the Emirs were allowed to rule on behalf of the British • British adopted a federal system, splitting into three states, each responsible for revenue for their own state.
Pressures of the US and UN
• Atlantic Charter (1941); Churchill agreed to American requests that self-determination be granted to all nations in return for American aid in the war effort. • Role of the UN all members had to agree to work towards self-determination. • Condemnation of Soviet control of Eastern Bloc, hypocrisy of Britain and France. • Christian ideology disagreed with Colonialism - hypocrisy of the 'Golden Rule' • On the world stage the US wanted to end colonialism for free trade and political influence • The USSR wanted an end to colonialism and capitalism for reasons of ideology and to increase its sphere of influence • While African nationalists took a pragmatic view of the soviet style communism, the british government was concerned about the soviet influence on Africa. And where African nationalists met with resistance or persecution from Europe, many welcome the support and interest of the Soviet Union. • The UN wanted to establish a place where bilateral or multilateral agreements could be discussed peacefully, and thus be solved without war.
MacMillan's 'Winds of Change Speech'
• British PM Macmillan said that change in African colonies was coming • It can be argued this sparked the fire of change which kick-started many independence movements. • Not a real factor, though it was an important observation of the times ahead.
Economic and Political Disparity
• British were far more powerful than Kenyans in a political sense • Laws were passed in favour of the British - e.g. 1938 in the midst of famine, the government forced the sale of 23,000 cattle to reduce overgrazing. These were sold at unfairly low prices • Taxation heavily favoured whites. • White people could only grow profitable crops such as coffee and tea, while Blacks were restricted to what they could sell. • White people took the most fertile land in the home of the Kikuyu tribe, Kikuyus were forced to relocate. • 3000 British white settlers owned 12,000 square miles compared to one million Kikuyu who owned just 2000 miles. • Black people had to carry ID cards and were paid lower wages than their white counterparts
A white colony
• Congo was occupied by over 100,000 Belgians • they didn't want to face a long guerrilla war , so they hoped granting rapid independence would protect bloodshed of colonialists, army was brought in to protect • Katanga: a copper, rubber rich region, economically important to Belgium.
Belgian Ambitions
• Didn't want to repeat Kenyan Mau Mau massacre • Wanted to leave the Congo weak so it would turn back for help • Belgium ambitions to leave Congolese uneducated led to original riots. • Belgians lacked any long term strategy for the Congo, and the system of education and political involvement of the Congolese was poor • Shift in Belgian policy towards the Congo after 1945 because of the changes elsewhere in Africa and the commitment to article 73 of the UN Charter - essentially they realized they could not keep power for long.
Key features of the Civil War
• Divisions in the Congo pre and post-independence, resulting from the election 'compromise' • The copper-rich province of Katanga, led by Moise Tshombe, declared independence and asked for Belgian help. Belgium sent in an invasion force of paratroopers to protect the mines and Belgians working in the Congo (Belgian self-interest). • Kasavubu (President in Leopoldville) appealed to the UN for help. Dag Hammarskjöld, the Secretary-General, agreed. • Soviet Union gladly equipped Lumumba's forces with Soviet transport planes. In August 1960 Lumumba's forces attacked Katanga themselves but the attack failed. Lumumba assassinated. • The various factions especially the Katanganese had hired mercenaries to fight the war for them. • In January 1963, after years of unrest, Katanga was finally reunited with the rest of the Congo • Immediately following the departure of the UN troops, a military government under Joseph Mobutu installed itself in the capital Leopoldville and seized control.
Aftermath
• Dr Azikiwe became the first president. • Ethnic tensions and power struggles soon emerged and became a crisis in 1966 when military had to intervene in order to prevent Igbo descent towards the newly elected government.
Nationalism
• Enthusiasm for a free Nigeria encourages local differences to be temporarily overlooked. • The belief for an independent Nigeria is allowed to disguise the political differences that remained. • The Nigerians were able to put their differences behind a veneer of nationalism, in order to progress to independence.
UN Intervention
• Hammarskjöld decided to use the powers under the UN Charter to organise a meeting of the Security Council • Under his management the ONUC (UN Operation in Congo) was quickly and effectively put in place. • This action was supported by the USSR and the USA who both feared upheaval in Africa. The USA supported the UN action because it wanted to prevent the spread of the Soviet interference in the Congo and install a pro-Western government in the Congo. • The USSR wished to be seen to support the UN that was protecting a nation from its 'imperialist' ex-coloniser. • When ONUC arrived in the Congo they took over from the Belgians except in Katanga where UN troops were stationed peacefully. The UN experts started to help the Congolese government. • Lumumba asked the UN to use ONUC to attack Katanga. However, it is not the part of the UN to attack another state and so they refused • UN Security Council authorised the use of force by ONUC in February. Things seemed to move forward diplomatically with all rival groups, except Katanga, meeting in August 1961 in order to elect a new legitimate Congolese government. • September 1961 ONUC ended up fighting Katangan troops whilst on a mission to rid Katanga of Belgian mercenaries. Hammarskjöld decided that events were spiralling out of control and flew to the Congo to try to negotiate a peace deal in person. He died in a plane crash. • November ONUC was given authorisation to use force now to remove all foreign forces and advisers from Katanga. After the UN attack in December a ceasefire and peace talks ensued. Again these failed to succeed and 1962 heralded a final UN attack which forced Tshombe to flee Katanga and seek sanctuary abroad
Development of Political Movements
• In 1944 the Kenyan African Union or KAU was formed. • KAU represented the whole of Kenya, but especially the Kikuyu tribe, the people who had suffered most at the hands of the British. • Memberships swelled after the second world war as 97,000 who fought returned home.
Kenya 1944
• KAU (Kenyan African Union) formed, and Kenyatta became the leader from 1947. Key group demanding independence.
Kenya 1978
• Kenyatta dies in office. The last 5 years were ones of general economic decline, as an old Kenyatta became more removed from politics.
Kenya 1961
• Kenyatta freed and assumes presidency of Kanu. • Coalition with whites & radicals.
MNC and Lumumba
• Movemente Nationale Congolaise or MNC founded in 1959 - pro-independence • Lumumba was the MNC's educated leader • Acted as a figurehead, has socialist ideas and acted as a leader in which the government could gather behind. • Elected in 1960, assassinated in 1961
Impact of World War Two
• Nigeria had become an important strategic link as a staging post on the trip round to India. • Nigeria's large population had made it a great provider of troops for the campaign in the Indian sub-continent. • The war created great economic strains; this manifested in the decline of real wages and the drop in living standards • There was also a great spread in urbanisation.
A Non-White Colony
• Nigeria was only thinly settled by white people • Oil was first discovered by engineers working for Shell • In the 1950's British and American oil companies alone have the investment and infrastructure to develop the oil fields • Independence would not change this.
Government of Kenya
• No Voice - the native people were given no say in the rulings of their country, whites dominated politics due to an agreement with the Colonial Office establishing them as clear rulers of this country • No Middle Class - there was a large influx of Asian settlers, who dominated and monopolised the commercial activities of the nation • No Talk Of Independence - there were no political parties in Kenya. Black people had no power and there was no indication that the British were going to grant further independence to Kenya
Kenya 1964
• Republic of Kenya. Kenyatta president - single-party rule. Regional & ethnic opposition suppressed. He viewed the abolition of rival parties as the key to unity - or the perception of unity. His rule brought consistency to and stability to Kenya but at the cost of political freedom and opportunity. Nonetheless there was noticeable economic growth under his leadership, and he improved the provision of (free) education. An idealist who dealt firmly to any threats to his vision for Kenya.
Kenya 1952
• Secret Kikuyu guerrilla group known as Mau Mau begins violent campaign against white settlers. State of emergency declared. Kenyatta arrested. Kenyatta charged with management of Mau Mau and jailed. KAU banned.
MacMillan's Wind of Change Speech
• The "Wind of Change" speech was made by the British Prime Minister. Harold Macmillan, whilst addressing the South African Parliament during his tour of African Commonwealth states. • It was a watershed moment in the struggle for Black Nationalism in Africa and the independence movement across the continent. It also signalled a change in attitude towards the Apartheid regime in South Africa. • Macmillan acknowledged that black people in Africa were, quite rightly, claiming the right to rule themselves, and suggested that it was a responsibility of the British government to promote the creation of societies in which the rights of all individuals were uphe
Nationalism and Pan Africanism
• The Congolese wanted independence from the Belgians because there was no education, high unemployment and low living standards • There were few nationalist idea's due to the nations diverse 150 tribes • Anti-Colonial/Socialist extreme ideas meant riots in 1960 • Lumumba went to the pan-African conference in 1958
Achievements of Jomo Kenyata
• The KAU was led by Kenyatta, an educated Kikuyu, who had lived in Britain and Russia • There he picked up on many socialist ideas. • He was an opponent of white rule and thought that the indigenous peoples beliefs should be respected • He believed self-governance could be achieved through reform, education and self-help • 1963 achieved independence, one party rule. • Regional & ethnic opposition suppressed. He viewed the abolition of rival parties as the key to unity - or the perception of unity. • His rule brought consistency to and stability to Kenya but at the cost of political freedom and opportunity. • Nonetheless there was noticeable economic growth under his leadership, and he improved the provision of (free) education. An idealist who dealt firmly to any threats to his vision for Kenya.
Role of the Mau Mau
• The Mau Mau, were a secret Kikuyu society who used terrorist tactics in order to demand the return of their land • Their violent and guerrilla tactics scared the colonialists and they were banned in 1950 • Kenyatta condemned them. • They were supressed by the British by 1956 through the use of concentration camps.
Economical and Infrastructure
• The construction of a dam on the Volta River (launched in 1961) provided water for irrigation and hydro-electric power - This produced enough electricity for the towns as well as for a new aluminum plant. - Government funds were also provided for village projects in which local people built schools and roads. - The dam was completed and opened by Nkrumah amidst world publicity on 22 January 1966.
Federalism
• The creation of regional assemblies with a federal centre allowed for the tribal, ethnic and religious differences cultivated by the British to remain intact • It was the basis of a national settlement that provided an uneasy equilibrium - but it minimised risks of fragmentation in the short term.
Parties in the Congo Civil War?
• Three parties: AKABO (Kasavubu) - for independence and most powerful regional party; MNC (Lumumba) - pro-independence and 'nationalist' -he sided with USSR after UN refused to fight rebels in Katanga, and CONAKAT (Tshombe) - wanted independence of Katanga to keep resources for Katanganese.
Impact of WW1
• UN Growth (Self-determination) • Post war independence context, Ghana, India, Kenya etc. • Domino effect • Cost of war - superpowers were redefined.
Achievements of Obote
•Apprenticeship with KNU in Mau Mau rising •Founded Ugandan National Congress, 1955, & member of pre-independence legislative council, 1958 •Allied with King Only Party & easily won first elections, 1962 - PM •Avoids gold smuggling charges, 1966, by scrapping constitution & making himself President •One-man rule; Common Man's Charter; socialism
Achievements of Amin
•Army did not enjoy the spoils of independence - overthrew Obote, January 1971 •8 year rule of terror •Asian merchants fleeced & forced to flee - "the politics of plunder" •Overthrown by Tanzanian govt., 1980 - civil war until 1986. By January 1971, Obote was prepared to rid himself of the potential threat posed by Amin. Various versions emerged of the way this news was leaked to Amin; in any case, Amin decided to strike first. Despite its outward display of a military chain of command, Amin's government was arguably more riddled with rivalries, regional divisions, and ethnic politics than the UPC coalition that it had replaced.