DEP3053 EXAM 2 STDUY GUIDE DR BRETT LAURSEN FAU
Samantha decided to take a year off after college to travel. a. Erikson would describe this as a ______________.
-Psychosocial moratorium (time out period when, where possible, young people have a chance to explore who they are and what they want to be; in both near and distant future).
Describe accomplishments associated with each stage of cognitive development? (Hint: See Table 6.1 on p. 233 in your textbook & pp. 232-243.)
0-2yrs "I see and touch, therefore I know" -object permanence (it always there even if something is covering it) -Deferred Imitation(Infants' ability to copy behaviors they witnessed some time earlier is an indication of memory). -Mean-Goals mental coordination -Children understand the world through sensory and motor experiences. -cognition is practical
What is an explicit self? What technique is used to determine if a child has developed one?
A type of early concept at times referred to as me-self. -Conscious awareness of the self, "the idea of me." -visual self-recognition (ability to recognize self in a mirror)
infant-directed speech
baby talk (hey big boy! how are you doing today? huh? are you being a good boy it is characterized by high pitched tones exaggerated modulations simplified forms of adult words expansion of the child commication sounds and many questions and repetitions, mostly used with newborns and toddlers
"Universal grammar" refers to what?
basic grammatical rules that typify all language
Stages of Perspective Taking
stage o egocentric stage 1 subjective role taking stage 2 self reflective role taking stage 3 mutual role taking stage 4 social and conventional system role taking
theory of universal grammar
a linguistic theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky, that argues that the ability to learn language is innate, distinctly human and distinct from all other aspects of human cognition.
Visual Cliff
involves an apparent, but not actual drop from one surface to another. This tool was originally developed to determine if infants had developed depth perception. A visual cliff is created by connecting a transparent glass surface to an opaque patterned surface
Explicit Memory
involves deliberate, effortful recollection of events
When does speech perception begin?
it begins prenatally as fetuses hear their mothers voices as well as other sounds produced in the immediate environment
Why do adults speak to babies in infant-directed speech?
it makes some aspects of language acquistion easier for children. according to anne fernald she proposed that mothers use infant direct speech both to reguate their infants emotins and attention and to convey their own feelings t babes
What is the difference between language and communication?
language refers to the systematic and conventional use of sounds signs or written symbols for the intention of communication or self expression. language is a means of communication. Communication is the exchange of information between two or more people by speech, sign, signal or behavior.
creoles
languages that develop when children transform the pidgin of their parents to a grammatically more complex "true" language
During concrete operations, mental abilities are ______ and ______, but only if the topic is _____. At this stage children struggle with abstraction
logic and symbolic and possess ability of reversibility.. But only if the topic is on conservation. -not sure on this answer....
What is the difference between simultaneous and sequential bilingualism?
when children are exposed from both to two language ex spanish parents living in us when children learn a second language after mastering the first ex U.S born learning spanish
What is perceptual narrowing? Give an example.
with repeated exposure, infants become increasingly sensitive to sensory information in their surrounding environment and less able to process information they have not had experience with. The Other Race Effect the older an infant gets, their ability to discriminate faces from other races decreases. By 9 months, infants could only discriminate faces from own race rather than differentiate between other races. reflects role of experience in shaping perception during infancy not based on infants race, but rather the race of those they interact with.
Do young children have a high or low sense of self-efficacy?
HIGH
Self-esteem can be viewed as the product of two internal assessments. What are they?
(1) the discrepancy between the perceived self and the ideal self, and (2) support from social others.
Give examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary circular reactions. (Hint: See pp. 232-235 in textbook).
(i.e. baby accidentally puts hand near mouth and "naturally; reflex" begins sucking and enjoy it, after a couple incidents the baby begins forming repetitive habits) -The body (i.e. baby realizes if they kick something it spins, they continue to kick just to watch the object spin) -Objects rather than body parts -(ie. infant dropping something on the floor, but every time at a different height, to see the consequences) "Will this toy break if I drop it down the stairs? -"What if I throw it out the window?"
When a child treats inanimate objects as if they are alive and have thoughts, it is termed ______.
-Animism
List Piaget's stages of cognitive development in order.
-Sensorimotor Stage (0-2yrs) -Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs) -Concrete operational stage (7-11yrs) -Formal Operational stage (11-16yrs) -"Sam Played Catch Friday"
Which 3 features of objects do infants need to learn to recognize? Describe each one.
-object constancy Does not change shape or size no matter the position. -object continuity and cohesion The knowledge that objects are cohesive entities and move continuously through space. (ex: we see the dish on top of the table but do not perceive the dish to be part of the table as well.) -object permanence. The knowledge that objects have an existence in time and space independent of one's own perception or action on those objects. (i.e. the knife still exists even if you put your napkin over it).
What are transductive, inductive, and deductive reasoning? At what stages do children learn each?
-refers to a type of thinking commonly identified in young children. -concrete instances rather than inductive or deductive reasoning -Final stage of cognitive development, in which children are able to apply abstract logical rules. (i.e. "Why should I have to be home at midnight? why not 2AM or 4AM?)... The formal operational period (11-16yrs) The type of reasoning that goes from specific observations to broad generalizations, CHARACTERISTIC OF FORMAL operational thought. (i.e. what combination of factors causes differences in the rate that a pendulum oscillates or swings. weight, height, force, etc.) The formal operational period (11-16yrs) -Formal operational ability to think by generating and testing hypothesis. -goes from general to specific -What is possible is more important than what is real -Formal operational Stage (11-16)
What are the main criticisms of Piaget's theory? (Hint: See Table 6.2 on p. 246 in your textbook.)
-timing of stages are more variable than he claimed -he only described children limits of behavior but only in certain circumstances. -he underestimated the ability of sensorimotor children -preoperational children are not as egocentric as he proposed -preoperational children can learn some concrete operations as well as formal. -Adults do not ALWAYS use formal operations; not all adults exhibits these characteristics -Stage is not a worth concept; no proof of existence -stage could be more useful if used more liberally -Social environment and culture play a more significant role than proposed -Environmental dispositions play more significant role in early development than proposed.
At what sensorimotor substage do children stop making the A-not-B error?
12-18 months infants stop making the error. Tertiary circular reactions.
What are Piaget's two complementary operations of adaptation? Explain.
Assimilation and accommodation. -Assimilation refers to the incorporation of new information into already existing schemes -accommodation refers to changing ones schemes in order to incorporate the new info.. (For example: when a child can grasp and hold a rattle with one hand they realize they can do the same with a spoon. The child is assmiliating the spoon into a preexisting scheme (grasping). (For example: a child cannot hold onto a balloon with one hand, she may need to learn to hold on with two hands instead=accommodating)
When do children develop an explicit sense of self?
18 MONTH OLD
pidgins & creoles
structurally simple communications system that arise when people who share no common language come into contsant contact languages that develop
At what stage do children master conservation?
7-11 concrete operational
Describe what happens in the visual cliff experiment.
A glass top table with a board across its center (Walk &Gibson). On the shallow side infants see a checkerboard pattern placed directly under the glass; on the deep side the checkerboard pattern placed several feet below the glass. -Infants who can crawl are placed on the center board and called by their mothers on either side of the cliff.
Johnny, a third grader, is told to rehearse a list of words. Here is the list: Dog, Man, Butterfly, Swing. Johnny rehearses by repeating "dog" three times, then repeating "man" three times, then repeating "butterfly" three times and then repeating "swing" three times. a. What type of rehearsal is this?
Active (or commutative) rehearsal : memory strategy in which a person repeats the most recently presented item (for example, a word) and then rehearses it with as many other different words possible.
What does the dimensional card-sorting task illustrate? (p. 319)
Children are asked to sort cards initially by one dimension (for example, color) and later by a second dimension (for example, shape). Children much younger than 4 years of age have difficulty on the switch trials and usually continue to sort by the original dimension
What is a production deficiency? What is utilization deficiency?
Children's tendency not to use spontaneously a strategy that they are capable of using when instructed. children can use strategies they are taught but do not produce them on their own.. al. Using a strategy that does not improve performance
Alex claims that poodles are both dogs and animals, indicating that he has mastered which cognitive ability?
Class inclusion: the knowledge that subordinate class (for example: dogs) must always be smaller than the subordinate class in which it is contained (for example: animals).
Betty had to go grocery shopping, but could not take a list. Before leaving her house she memorized the shopping list. She did this by grouping together all of the meats, all of the drinks, and all of the condiments. a. Which memory device is she using?
Clustering (sort items into groups into a study phase and recalling them according to their category membership.).
By which stage are children capable of reversing mental operations?
Concrete operational stage (7-11yrs)
Maggie's mother hides her toy underneath a cloth. Maggie quickly removes the towel and takes her toy from underneath. Because Maggie understands the object is still there and actively seeks it, it is likely that Maggie has developed ________?
Coordination of secondary circular reaction ; Object permanence.
________ is a distinctive characteristic of the preoperational period. It describes children's tendency to focus on the self causing problems understanding that others can see or think about the world differently
EGOCENTRISM
What are the two forms of explicit memory? Give an example of each. (Hint: see p. 327)
Episodic and semantic
I know that when I go to a restaurant, a woman will take us to a table and give us menus. Then we order the drinks. Then we order food. Then we pay. I am using a ________ to recall what happened when I went out to eat
Episodic memory
Habituation
Habituation is said to occur when infants' looking time decreases significantly as a result of repeated presenta- tion of a stimulus.
Speed of Processing
How quickly any cognitive operation can be executed; hypothesized to be a measure of mental capacity and related to performance on many cognitive tasks.
What does the visual cliff reveal about depth perception and fear of heights?
Infants who crawl to their mothers on the shallow side, suggesting to some that little or no learning is necessary to discriminate depth. -Infants do have depth perception; babies deem to have lower heart rates due to interests; but older infants deem to be fearful of heights due to increase in heart rate.
Compare the development of implicit and explicit memory.
Knowledge at the implicit level is not available to consciousness but reflects a person's intuitive understanding of the world. -How all knowledge is represented to infants. -Infants may learn about an object when it is released hits the floor, how to retrieve a toy hidden under a cloth, and to reproduce the sounds their mothers make, such knowledge is important to navigate their physical and social worlds. -Consciousness permits a child to take one piece of info. (reproduction of sound made by mom), reflect on it, and make some inferences (perhaps she wants me to repeat the word and associate with that object). *****-With consciousness, experiences can be "redescribed", permitting knowledge that was once implicit to become explicit. ********
Metacognition
Knowledge of one's own thinking .. literally means cognition about cognition, or more informally, thinking about thinking. 1. A person learns about his or her own style of learning. 2. A person learns about what things help him or her to remember facts, names, and events. 3. A person becomes aware of his or her own biases in judging others. 4. A person learns about what strategies are the most effective in solving certain problems.
What are three factors that influence children's memory strategy use? Explain each.
Mental capacity, knowledge base, and metacognition.
What are the four forms of social learning? (pp-297, table 7.5)
Mimicry Emulation Imitative Learning Teaching (instructed learning) "Mary Eats In Town"
If a cat mask were placed on a dog, how would a preschooler explain the identity of the dog? What is this called and at what stage does it occur?
Most 3-year-olds said that the mask had actually changed the identity of the animal, whereas most 5- and 6-year-olds believed that changes in the appearance of the animal had not altered its identity. More recent research has confirmed young children's confusion between appearance and reality.. Preoperational stage (2-7years) -This is due to egocentrism- ones ability to see things their own way
Describe the basic principle underlying false belief tasks. What are some standard procedures for assessing children's performance on false belief tasks?
Not until typically 4 yrs old where children solve them. -Child must infer that another person holds a belief that is not true. -Children understand that people believe things that are not true.
Why would children use a memory strategy that is not successful?
One explanation is that young children lack the mental resources necessary to both execute a strategy and devote to the problem at hand Once strategies can be executed with greater efficiency, children will begin to realize some benefit for their effort. Another reason why children use an ineffective strategy is that they may not realize that the strategy is not working for them In fact, young children frequently overestimate their physical and cognitive abilities, thinking they are performing bet- ter than they actually are finally, children may use a new strategy just for the sake of trying something new Although the reason adults use strategies is to enhance task performance (that's what strategies are for, after all), that may not be how children see it. Trying something new may be a goal unto itself, and the fact that it does not improve performance may be relatively unimportant to them.
stages of cognitive development
Piaget proposed four major stages of development sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
Adam puts his thumb in his mouth accidentally, at first. He realizes this is enjoyable and proceeds to suck his thumb repeatedly and intentionally. This is an example of what type of circular reaction? (Hint: This time repetition is focused on his body).
Primary circular reaction
Prospective Memory
Remembering to do something at a future time (e.g., take a medicine at dinner)
What is prospective memory?
Remembering to do something in the future; i.e. stop at the store after work tonight to get milk.
What are the five cognitive abilities associated with executive functioning?
Researchers have identified at least five areas of self-esteem: -scholastic competence, -social competence, -behavioral conduct, -athletic competence, and -physical appearance. "Sam Sold Beth A Pig
What are the five components of a child's self- esteem?
Researchers have identified at least five areas of self-esteem: -scholastic competence, -social competence, -behavioral conduct, -athletic competence, and -physical appearance. "Sam Sold Beth A Pig"
Preoperational children have problems with reversibility. Explain this.
Reversibility is The knowledge that an operation can be reversed, characteristic of the concrete operational period. -Children lack rules of cognitive operation -Due to egocentrism (i.e. 2+3=5, using reversibility it would look like 5-3=2 [mentally]; in conservation such as mass, solid quantity, and/or numbers of objects that can change appearance but still maintain its original features: THIS is something concrete operational children process, BUT PREOPERATIONAL children DO NOT...))
a. Goal-directed behavior marks ________ circular reactions. At this point, the infant does an activity intentionally. He or she does not simply stumble upon the initial response.
Secondary circular reactions
Ana presses accidentally squeaky toy and realizes that it makes a sound. She proceeds to repeatedly and intentionally press on the toy to make it squeak. This is an example of what type of circular reaction? (Hint: This time repetition is focused on objects and outside of the body events).
Secondly circular reaction
Trying to focus on a homework assignment while watching TV requires what type of attention?
Selective attention (concentration on chosen stimuli without distraction by non target stimuli).
What types of questions should be asked during an eyewitness interview with a young child? Why?
Specific cues; "was anyone else in the store?" What did you look at? "Did you talk to anyone?" Then can possibly be followed up with "And then what happened?" -The more general the cues, the less info is provided. -How much and how accurately children remember events is influenced by how they are interviewed and by the characteristics of the interviewer
b. During _______ circular reactions, infants behave like small scientists, actively experimenting with variations of circular reactions.
Tertiary circular reactions
Visual acuity
The ability to see something sharply and clearly
receptive expressive language in
The ability to understand words and sentences produced by others. what you understand
What is conservation? Describe different conservation tasks.
The knowledge that the quantity of a substance stays the same despite changes in its form. -Conservation of mass (i.e. Do these SQUARE-LIKE cubes have the same size or different, Now out of two cubes I've changes its square set-up into a RECTANGULAR one; Now do they have the same size or different?) -Conservation of solid quantity (i.e. Do these two balls of clay have the same or different amount?, Now after squishing one ball of clay, do they have the same amount of clay or different?) -Conservation of number (i.e. two STRAIGHT lines of 6 squares, Now after re-arranging one line of 6 squares into a ZIG ZAG pattern, DO they have the same amount of squares or different?)
Describe the concept of self-esteem.
The evaluative component of the self. The judgments people make of their general worth as a person and the feelings associated with those judgments.
What is self-efficacy?
The extent to which a person views him or herself as an effective individual; -the confidence one has in being able to control events in one's surroundings. -Self-efficacy develops with experience, but young children believe that they are more competent (efficacious) than they actually are, frequently overestimating their abilities. -self Perception of ones own ability
Perception
The process of becoming aware of objects, relations, and events by way of the senses, including mechanisms such as discrimination (distinguishing one sensation from another) and recognition (identifying a sensation as one that has been previously experienced). Unlike sensation, which involves generally disorganized input, perception involves organized input, in that it enables the individual to organize and interpret events into meaningful knowledge.
Sensation
The process or experience of perceiving through the senses. It is the result of stimulation of a sensory receptor (for example, the rods or cones of the eyes for vision) and the resulting activation of a specific area of the brain, producing an awareness of sight, sound, odor, taste, etc.
Executive Functioning
The processes involved in regulating attention and in determining what to do with information just gathered or retrieved from long-term memory.
Cognition
The processes or faculties by which knowledge is acquired and manipulated. These include perceiving, remembering, reasoning, imaging, and problem solving. Perception, then, is a form of cognition. However, when we contrast perception with cognition, as we do in this chapter on "what infants know," we use perception to refer to what are generally viewed to be lower-level processes, such as discriminating two sights or sounds. Cognition is used to refer to higher-level processes, such as remembering an experience, realizing that objects continue to exist even when they are out of one's immediate per- ception (for example, a toy still exists when it is covered by a cloth), and copying the behavior of another person.
Preoperational thought is "centered." What does this mean?
They lack the logical rule of reversibility (rule of cognitive operations), that an object can be transformed. CHILDREN in PREOPERATIONAL period CANNOT DO THIS. They are egocentric and focus on things through their OWN perception causing them to "centered" and view things as it and not the forms in which things are able to change into.
What is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence according to Erikson?
To establish Identity (forming an idea of self)
Sue sees a picture of a dog. She stares at it for a while. Eventually, she stops looking at the image. When she is later shown a picture of the dog and a new stimulus, a goldfish, she directs her gaze to the goldfish. a. This paradigm of infant perception is termed ________. b. When Sue eventually stops staring at the dog, this describes ________. c. Sue's increased attention to the image of the fish describes ________.
VISUAL PREFERENCE PARADIGM HABITUATION DISHABITUATION
What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory? (Hint: See pp. 327-330)
What are the two forms of explicit memory? Episodic and semantic Define Episodic Memory. LTM of episodes and events (i.e. where you parked your car, gist of the convo you had with your sister this morning, and the trip to Disney when you were 8 yrs old.) Define Semantic Memory. LTM representations of definitions and relations among language terms. i.e. language, rules, and concepts. Meaning of the word "liberty", name of the first U.S. president, or rules for long division that were taught in 4th grade where you learned the name of the first president. 4th grade is example of episodic but the knowledge acquired is semantic.
What is visual acuity? How do researchers measure visual acuity in infants?
What is visual acuity? The ability to see something sharply and clearly. (Newborns have POOR visual acuity). -When infants look at a striped pattern like this one (the black and white stripes) LONGER than at a plain gray one, we know that they can see the lines. -When their looking time is equivalent between a striped and gray pattern, we know the narrowest width of stripes that infants can discriminate, and this measure is used to determine their visual acuity.
Give an example of reflective abstraction
a basketball player analyzing some aspect of a previous game realin that moving a different way he can avoid the defense of an opponent and be in a better position to make a basket. it is linked to the "A-ha"
object permanence?
according to Piaget, children much younger than 6 months old believe that an object, such as their bottle, no longer exists when it is out of their sight. When they are sitting in front of an object and a cloth covers it, they do not try to retrieve it but act as if it no longer exists. Out of sight is out of mind. They lack what Piaget called object permanence. By 8 months or so, infants understand that the covered object continues to exist in time and space even if it is out of their immediate perception. Now when the cloth cov- ers the object, babies will remove the cloth to get the object.
Schema
an abstract representation of an object or event
What are overextensions? Provide an example.
an error in the opposite direction using a word with restricted meaning such as "fluffy" to refer to not only to the family pet but also to all cats one encounter
When does the word spurt occur and what is it?
around 18 months of age a vocabulary explosion occurs for many children with children adding about 30 new words per month. shortly after their first birthday not starting until age 2 or later 20%
What is infant-directed speech? What are the characteristics of infant-directed speech? (Hint: See p.
baby talk (hey big boy! how are you doing today? huh? are you being a good boy it is characterized by high pitched tones exaggerated modulations simplified forms of adult words expansion of the child commication sounds and many questions and repetitions, mostly used with newborns and toddlers
Shaina is shown a picture with 5 cats and 4 dogs. Her teacher asks her, "Are there more cats or animals?" Shaina says, "More cats." Shaina lacks which cognitive ability?
classification
sensitive period
children must be exposed to language early in life if they are ever to master it. a sensitive period implies that the brains of children are specially suited to learning language any language but with time experience and brain maturation they lose their special knack for language learning making it more difficult to learn a first or second language ex. isolation,older people get,hearing impaired,recovery of language=brain damage
How is private speech different from inner speech?
children talking to themselves, produced for themself not directed by others children still talk to themselves but covertly in their heads, they use to guide their thinking and problem solving
telegraphic speech
childrens economical use of words including only high information words that are most important in conveying meaning verb noun combination usually 2,3 words stuck together "go patty" "come soon"
holophrases
childrens use of one word sentences single word that represents a complex concept typically conveyed in an entire sentence bigger phrase "all gone" complicated set of meanings used by babies "
What is the order in which conservation tasks are mastered?
conservation for different types of materials) does not occur all at once, but in an invariant order, and is referred to as horizontal décalage: acquisition of a certain skill within the same intellectual stage (concrete operational stage). -At age 7 most children will conserve number and mass but not master weight or volume until 9. 1. number/mass 2.weight/volume
Are fear of heights and depth perception innate or learned in humans?
depth perception does not emerge suddenly between 6 and 8 months of life, but rather involves a series of components that infants progressively acquire over the course of their first year: kinetic cues, stereo- scopic cues, and monocular, or pictorial, cues. -It is a innate behavior, picked up through experience.
What is the necessary but not sufficient link between cognitive development and perspective taking?
egocentrism
Violation of Expectations
examine a participant's reaction when something they think is going to happen doesn't. Its generally used in developmental studies with young children, to examine their ability to understand cause and effect. You show a child a logically impossible situation, the common example is a person/object passing behind a wall with which the middle section is cut lower down so you should be able to see the person's head as they pass. When the child sees the person go behind the wall and emerge the other side without seeing their head in the cut section, if they have the principle of object permanence and cause and effect, it will violate their expectation that they should be able to see it (and will spend a longer time looking at the scene, because it doesn't make sense). the violation-of-expectation method does more than simply inform researchers that infants "can tell the difference between two stimuli," and variants of this method have been frequently used to provide insights into the infant mind
noam chomsky
he is credited for the universal grammar
B.F. SKINNER
he proposed that children learn not only words but also grammar via mechanism of operant and classical conditioning. they leran to speacl and understand the language of their culture. at one theoretical extreme is the empiricist position which holds that language is acquired the way every other complix ability is acquired via the mechanism of learning .
How do behaviorists such as Skinner suggest that children learn language?
he suggest children not only learn words but also grammar via the mechanism of operant and classical conditioning.
language acquisition support system
in chomsky theory an innate mechanism possessed by all humans at birth in order to enable them to acquire a language given a minimum linguistic input
The average number of morphemes a child uses in sentences is a strong indication of linguistic development, this length is termed ________.
mean length of utterance a measure of language development defined by the average number of meaningful language units (root words and endings) a child use at any one time
What is the difference between memory span and working memory span?
memory span is the amount of information one can hold in mind at any one time and working memory span is a bit more complicated in that it measures how many items a person can hold in immediate memory while also doing some processing or thinking about these items
Implicit Memory
memory that occurs unintentionally, automatically and without awareness previous experiences or knowledge aid in the performance of a task without being aware of doing it. ex you cannot just ask someone to remember something they know only implicitly and expect a coherent answer). For example, asking someone to describe the landscape on his ride to work each day would likely result in only a most general and cursory description, and asking someone for a description of her tennis serve would likely produce a state- ment only vaguely resembling the actual actions.
James, who is 3 years old steps on a scale. Although he does not understand the intent behind his actions, he is simply imitating his dad's actions. a. What type of social learning is occurring?
mimicry
The inability to read minds is referred to as _______. a. Children with which developmental disability are not able to read minds?
mind blindness autism
Memory strategies are also called
mneonmics
morphology
morphology refers to the structure and construction of words. Morphology skills require an understanding and use of the appropriate structure of a word, such as word roots, prefixes, and affixes (called morphemes). Strong knowledge of grammatical morphemes, such as use of -ing for a present progressive verb, /s/ to indicate a plural form and correct use of verb tense, is necessary in order to have well developed morphology skills.
How is the nativist perspective different from the behaviorist perspective?
nativist argue that children are born with a broad theory if language that they modify in accordance with the speech they hear growing up. For instance, we have what Chomsky called a "language acquisition device" in our brains that lets us learn language very quickly, particularly during the first 2-3 years of life. Nativists argue that without such a biological predisposition, it would be impossible to learn language as quickly and as thoroughly as we do. Behaviorists, on the other hand, argue that everything we know we have learned through interactions with our environment. They say that, rather than being biologically predisposed to learn language, we learn language through being reinforcement (e.g., parents give children praise and attention when they start making speech sounds, which encourages the children to continue to do so) and shaping (e.g., as time go by, parents no longer reinforce "cooing" noises in their children, but instead reinforce "successive approximations" of language. So parents of a 4-month old would reinforce cooing; parents of a 10-month old would reinforce babbling but not cooing, and parents of a 18-month old would reinforce words but not babbling or cooing). Essentially, nativists say that the ability to learn language is inborn, whereas behaviorists say that this is entirely learned.
______ is responsible for the idea of an innate universal grammar.
noam chomsky
What are phonology, semantics, grammar, and pragmatics?
phonology is the actual sounds or smallest sounds semantics is the understanding of word and sentences pragmatics is the knowledge about how language can be adjusted to fit different people and circumstances
what is Egocentrism
piaget defined it as the ability to differentiate between self and other , the inability to understand or assume any perspective other than ones own
What are some factors that influence a child's performance on false belief tasks?
quality of attachment, parenting styles, parent-child communication, language skills, maternal warmth, and extent of which mothers use mental state talk (talking about what they and their children are feeling) -executive functioning (basic cognitive abilities in planning, executing, and inhibiting action)
Which develops first, Receptive or Expressive language?
receptive language develops first
Kinetic Cues
refer to information associated with the movement of objects we are watching. For example, if I take an apple in my hand and I watch it while I move it across my visual field, I pick up information related to the three- dimensional nature of the fruit. The image of the apple on my retina changes as I have slightly different views of it, providing information about its three-dimensional shape.
Cognitive Flexibility
refers to the brain's ability to transition from thinking about one concept to another. The quicker you are able to switch or "shift" your thinking from one dimension (e.g. color of an object) to another (e.g. shape of an object), the greater your level of cognitive flexibility.
Theory of Mind
represent mental states of self and others. ability to explain mental states, framework of understanding mental state, yours and others
syntax
rules structure grammar ex ain't how things are put together
According to Piaget, the ______ is the basic unit of knowledge
scheme
Binocular Cues
serve to integrate the images provided by each eye into a single, richer one. In this way, new cues for depth, particularly in the case of reaching nearby objects, are incorporated. Stereoscopic vision requires the ability of both eyes to focus together on the same object (binocular convergence), which, as mentioned previously, does not develop until about 2 months. Stereoscopic vision emerges between the third and fifth months of life, becoming adult-like by about six months
phonology
smallest sound actual sounds different in every language
pragmatics
social rules that guide the use of language describes the social events or rules how it can be adjusted to fit different people and circumstances ex how are you doing ?
The hallmark of the preoperational period is ______ thought. At this stage, children are capable of mental representations.
symbolic thought. -Children lack true cognitive operations. Thought is driven by perception, or the appliance of things. -"what it looks like than what it actually is." -(i.e. clay is flat and that same clay is used to roll a ball, they do not perceive it with same weight, size, etc. they believe they are different things with different appearances."
Depth Perception
the ability to discriminate visual patterns denoting depth, is important. Without it we would not know that stairs require careful footing, that people at a distance can be as tall as people nearby, and that the soccer ball we see growing larger in size is going to hit us if we do not move out of the way. We could not gauge distance or navigate successfully in our environment without depth perception.
reflexive abstraction
the ability to reflect upon knowledge one already possesses and without the need of additional information from the external environment to arrive at new knowledge characteristic of adolescent thought ex basketball player analyzing some aspect of a previous game realin that moving a different way he can avoid the defense of an opponent and be in a better position to make a basket. it is linked to the "A-ha"
Memory Span
the amount of information one can hold in mind at any one time
Infant Amnesia
the inability to remember informtion from early childhood.
semantics
the meaning of words and sentences
Preoperations
the second major stage of cognitive development (2-7) characterized by prelogical intuitive thought. thinking is symbolic
What are underextensions ? Provide an example .
the use if a word with broad meaning to refer to only a restricted group of items an example would be using the word cat to refer to only the yellow family pet and not to the other felines in the neighborhood
What are different ways used to measure infant cognition? (See pp. 205-207)
the violation of expectation method ex infants shown dolls sucking ex mother reading to their infants head turning ex czech psychologist buzzer or bell with milk kicking conjugate reinforcement infants begining around 3/4 mnths of age will associate some of thier actions to some enviromental outcome ex ribbon memorization copying actions of others deferred imitation
What is the violation of expectation method? What does it tell us?
the violation of expectation method uses infants looking behavior much as in the visual preference and habituation/dishabituation procedure to asses infants reactions to unexpected events. if infants see an event that deviates from what they expect that violates their expectations they should look longer at that event than at an expected event. it does more than simply inform researchers that infants can tell the difference between two stimuli and variants of this method have been frequently used to provide insights into the infant mind
Describe the nativist perspective on language acquisition.
theories that propose that children are born with a broad theory of language that they modify in accordance with the speech they hear growing up
The formal operational period has two forms of egocentrism: imaginary audience and personal fable. Explain the difference between them and give an example of each.
true
At birth, all the senses are fully developed except ________.
vision
Kelly is given a box of crackers. Initially, she believes there are crackers inside the box. When she opens the box, she finds there are candles within the box. She is then asked what her mom (who is not in the room) would think is in the box, at first glance. a. This type of experiment is called a ________. b. What does this experiment measure?
-False-Belief Task -It measures children's memory for their initial belief and then assesses their ability to understand false belief
Sometimes children extend theory of mind abilities to explain natural phenomena. What is this called?
-Finalism (children's tendency to attribute human causes to natural events)
What are the four possible identity statuses? Describe each with examples.
-Identity diffusion status -Identity foreclosure stays -Identity moratorium status -Identity achievement stats "Don't Follow Me Anymore."
I cannot remember anything that happened before age 3. What does this demonstrate? What are some reasons for my inability to remember anything from an earlier age?
-Infantile Amnesia -infants represent events differently than older children. -Children with better verbal scores have higher capacity to remember things -At 3 children are learning to use language to organize memory with the help of adults -Depending on their development of self-concept.
What are the basic social-cognitive skills underlying theory of mind development? (See pp. 286-288)
-Self-awareness -social cognition (seeing oneself and others as intentional agents-individuals who cause things to happen in order to achieve some goal). -Perspective talking(ability to take the point of view of others; another person may know things that you do not know) -Shared attention (two people both attending the same thing or event and sharing that experience)
What are the six sub-stages of the sensorimotor period? What happens during each sub-stage?
-The use of REFLEXES(birth-1 month) -Primary Circular Reactions (1-4months) -Secondary circular reactions (4-8months) -Coordination of second circulatory reactions (8-12) -Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 Months) -Invention of new means through mental combinations (18-24Months)
Non-intentional sucking, grasping, eye movements, and vocalizations in response to sounds are examples of what type of sensorimotor sub stage?
The use of Reflexes (birth - 1 month)
What is conversational babbling?
The final stage is known as conversational babbling, or the "jargon stage". Usually occurring by about 9-18 months of age, the jargon stage is defined as strings of sounds are filled with a variety of intionations and rhythms to sound like meaningful speech. infants often sounds as if they are carrying on their end of a converstion with their intonations sometimes sounding as if they reflect questions or explanations but their words are only babble sounds
What is memory span? On average, how many digits can a 2 year old, a 5 year old and an adult remember?
The number of items a person can hold in the short-term store, assessed by testing the number of (usually) unrelated items that can be recalled in exact orde
Mnemonics
a short rhyme, phrase, acronym, or other mental technique used to ease the task of memorization. EGBDG Every Good Boy Does Good (Music notes) ICE (informational, critical and emphatic)