developmental textbook

Social Script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Epigenetic's

"Above" or "in addition to" (EPI) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environment can influence gene expression (without a DNA change)

RP-4: Match the following terms (1-3) to the correct explanations (A-C) 1. Epigenetic's 2. Molecular Behavior Genetics 3. Behavior genetics A. Study of the relative effects of our gene and our environment on our behavior B. Study of how the structure and function of specific genes interact with our environment to influence our behavior C. Study of environmental factors that affect how are genes are expressed

1. Epigenetic's: Study of environmental factors that affect how are genes are expressed 2. Molecular Behavior Genetics: Study of how the structure and function of specific genes interact with our environment to influence our behavior 3. Behavior Genetics: Study of the relative effects of our gene and our environment on our behavior

RP-1: Put the following cell structures in order from smallest to largest: nucleus gene chromosome

1. gene 2. chromosome 3. nucleus

MM: On average, girls begin puberty around about the age of ____________, and boys at about the age of ___________

10 12

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as an environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Testosterone

The most important male sex hormone, males and females have it but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Puberty

The period of sexual masturbation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing

Natural Selection

The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed onto succeeding generations

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environment studied.

X Chromosome

The sex chromosome found in males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes, males typically one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromsome

The sex chromosome typically found in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

LO 4-3: What have psychologists learned about temperament?

The stability of temperament, a persons characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, from the first weeks of life suggests a genetic predisposition. The genetic effect appears in physiological differences such as heart rate and nervous system reactivity.

Molecular Behavior Genetics

The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Molecular Genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Social Learning Theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or by being punished

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

LO 4-14: What are some of the ways in which males and females tend to be alike and to differ?

Whether female, male, or intersex, most of us receive 23 chromosomes from our mother and 23 from our father, of which 45 are unisex- the same for everyone. Males and females are more alike than different, thanks to similar genetic makeup- they see, learn, and remember similarly, with comparable creativity, intelligence, and emotions. Male-female differences include age of onset of puberty, life expectancy, emotional expressiveness, and vulnerability to certain disorders. Men admit to more aggression than woman do, and they are more likely to be physically rather than relationally aggressive. In most societies, men have more social power. Men tend to be more independent, while women tend to be more interdependent. Women often focus more on social connectedness than men do, and they tend and befriend.

RP-3: __________ are more likely to commit relational aggression and ________ are more likely to commit physical aggression

Women Men

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organisms chromosome

LO 4-11: How does culture affect our behavior?

A culture is an enduring set of behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one generation to the next. Cultural norms are understood rules that inform members of a culture about accepted and expected behaviors. Cultures differ across time and space.

Temperment

A persons characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender role

A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and women

RP-1: What is the selection effect, and how might it affect a teens decision to join a sports team at school?

Adolescents tend to select similar others and to sort themselves into like minded groups. For an athletic teen, this could lead to finding other athletic teens and joining school teams together.

LO 4-12: How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ in their values and goals?

Although individualists vary, different cultures tend to emphasize either individualism or collectivism. Cultures based on self-reliant individualism tend to value personal independence and individual achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based on socially connected collectivism, tend to value group goals, social identity, and commitments. They define identity in terms of interdependence, tradition, and harmony

Relational Aggression

An act of aggression (physically or verbally) intended to harm a persons relationship or social standing

Transgender

An umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth assigned sex

Norm

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior, norms prescribe "proper" behavior

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Sexual Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or unintended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault

LO 4-9: How do early experiences modify the brain

As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then prompt a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but thanks to neuroplasticity, the brain modifies itself throughout our lives in response to learning.

MM: Females and males are very similar, but one way that they differ is:

As children, females tend to play in small groups while males, tend to play in large groups

MM: When the mothers egg and the fathers sperm unite, each contributes?

B. 23 Chromosomes

MM: Adoption studies seek to understand genetic influences on personality. They mainly do this by:

B. Evaluating whether adopted children's personalities more closely resemble those of the adoptive parents or their biological parents

LO 4-16: How do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent sexual development?

Both sex chromosomes and sex hormones influence development. About seven weeks after conception, a gene on the Y chromosome from the father who can contribute either this or an X chromosome (the mother always contributes the latter)- triggers the production of testosterone. This promotes male sex organ development. Estrogens contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amount by females than by males. During the fourth and fifth prenatal months, sex hormones bathe the fetal brain, with different patterns developing due to the males greater testosterone and female estrogens. Prenatal exposure of females to unusually high levels of male hormones can later dispose them to more male-typical interests. Another flood of hormones occurs in puberty, triggering a growth spurt, the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics and the landmark events of menarche and spermarche, Sexual development variations may occur through unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy.

MM: Evolutionary psychologists are most likely to focus on? A. How individuals differ from one another B. The social consequences of learned behaviors C. The natural selection of traits that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce D. Social Scripts

C. The natural selection of traits that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

MM: Fraternal twins result when

C. Two eggs are fertilized by two sperm

MM: The threadlike structures largely made of DNA molecules are called?

Chromosomes

LO 4-8: What are the key criticisms of evolutionary explanations of human sexuality, and how do evolutionary psychologists response?

Critics argue that evolutionary psychologists start with an effect and work backward to an explination, minimize contemporary social and cultural influences (including learned social scripts) and relieve people from taking responsibility for their sexual behavior, including mens sexual aggression. Evolutionary psychologists respond that they recognize the importance of social and cultural influences, but note the value in testable predictions based on evolutionary principles: Understanding our predispositions can help us overcome them.

MM: Gender role refers to our?

Cultures expectations about the right way for men and women to behave

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

MM: Behavior geneticist are most interested in exploring _________ in our behaviors. Evolutionary psychologists are most interested in exploring ___________.

Differences Commonalities

Androgny

Displaying both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

MM: Epigenetic's is the study of the molecular mechanisms by which _________ trigger or block genetic expression

Environments

Environment

Every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to people and things around us

LO 4-6: How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies?

Evolutionary psychologists attempt to understand how natural selection has shaped traits and behavior tendencies found in all people. Genetic variations that increase the odds of reproducing and surviving in a particular environment are most likely to be passed onto future generations. Some variation arise from mutations, others from new gene combinations at conception. Humans share a genetic legacy and are predisposed to behaviors that promoted our ancestral survival and reproduction. Charles Darwins theory of evolution is one of biology's fundamental organizing principles. He anticipated todays application of evolutionary principles in psychology.

RP-2: How do evolutionary psychologists explain male-female differences in sexuality?

Evolutionary psychologists theorize that females have inherited their ancestors tendencies to be more cautious sexually because of the challenges associated with incubating and nurturing offspring, Males have inherited a tendency to be more casual about sex, because their act of fathering requires a smaller investment

LO 4-10: In what ways do parents and peers shape children's development?

Family environments and parental expectations can affect children's motivation and future success. Personality however, is mostly not attributable to the effects of nurture. As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their culture- styles, accents, slang. By choosing their children's neighborhoods and schools, parents exert some influence over peer group culture.

RP-3: What are the three main criticisms of the evolutionary explanation of human sexuality?

First, it starts with an effect and works backward to propose an explanation. Second, this explanation may overlook the effects of cultural expectations and socialization. Third, men could use such explanations to rationalize irresponsible behavior toward women,

LO 4-15: What factors contribute to gender bias in the workplace?

Gender bias in the workplace is seen in such differences as perception, compensation, and child care responsibility. Social norms, interaction styles and everyday behaviors also contribute. Mens leadership style tends to be more directive, whereas women's tends to be more democratic. In their everyday interactions and behaviors, men tend to act more assertive and opinionated; women tend to act more supportive and apologetic.

MM: Our sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female is known as our ___________ ____________-

Gender identity

RP-5: What are gender roles, and what do their variations tell us about our human capacity for learning and adaption?

Gender roles are social rules or norms for expected behaviors for women and men. The norms associated with various roles, including gender roles, vary widely in different cultural contexts, which is proof that we are able to learn and adapt to the social demand of different environments

LO 4-17: What are some cultural influences on gender roles?

Gender roles, the expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits a culture expects from its men and women, vary across place and time. Gender roles in many parts of the world have changed dramatically in the last century. Expectations about gender roles also influence cultural attitudes about sexual aggression

MM: A small segment of DNA that codes for particular proteins is referred to as ____________

Gene

RP-3: Those studying the heritability of a trait try to determine how much of the person-to-person variation in that trait among members of a specific group is due to their differing ______________

Genes

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Spermarche

The first male ejaculation

Menarche

The first menstrual period for women

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

LO 4-1: What are chromosomes, DNA, Genes, and the human genome? How do behavior geneticists explain our individual differences?

Genes are the biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, the threadlike coils of DNA. When genes are expressed, they provide the code for creating the proteins that form our bodies building blocks. The human genome is the shared genetic profile that distinguishes humans from other species, consisting at an individual level of all the genetic material in an organisms chromosomes. Behavior geneticists study the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. Most of our differing traits are polygenetic, and are influenced by the interaction of our individual environments with these genetic predispositions.

Individualism

Giving priority to ones own goals over group goals and defining ones identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

Giving priority to the goals of ones group (often ones extended family or work group) and defining ones identity accordingly

MM: ______________ Is the proportion of variation among individuals in groups that we can attribute to genes

Heritability

LO 4-4: What is heritability, and how does it relate to individuals and groups?

Heritability describes the extent to which variation among members of a group can be attributed to genes. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height or intelligence) need not imply heritable group differences. Genes mostly explain why some people are taller than others, but not why people are taller than they were a century ago.

MM: ____________ Twins share the same DNA

Identical (monozygotic)

LO 4-13: How does the meaning of gender differ from the meaning of sex?

In psychology, gender refers to the behavioral characteristics that people associate with boy, girl, man, and woman. Sex refers to the biologically influences characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex. Our understanding of gender arises from the interplay between our biology and our experiences.

Gender

In psychology, the behavioral characteristics that people associate with boy, girl, man and woman

Sex

In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex

MM: Individualist cultures tend to value _______ collectivist cultures tend to value ____________

Independence Interdependence

LO 4-20: How do nature, nurture, and our own choices influence gender roles and other aspects of our lives?

Individual development results from the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. Biological influences include our shared human genome; individual variations, prenatal environment; and sex-related genes, hormones, and physiology. Psychological influences include gene-environment interactions; the effect of early experiences on neural networks; responses evoke by our own characteristics, such as gender and temperament; and personal beliefs, feelings, and expectations. Social cultural influences include parental and peer influences; cultural traditions; and values; and cultural gender norms. And our individual choices affect the way all of these influences interact.

RP-2: How do people in individualist and collectivist cultures differ?

Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity in terms of group identifications

Identical (monozygotic) twins

Individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but shared a prenatal environment

MM: A person born with a combination of male and female biological sexual characteristics is __________

Intersex

MM: How do evolutionary psychologists use the principle of natural selection to explain differences in mating preferences in women and men?

Natural selection favors traits and behaviors that enable survival and reproduction. Evolutionary psychologists argue that women are choosier about their mates because of the investment required to incubate, birth, project, and nurse children. Straight women tend to prefer men who seem capable of supporting and protecting their joint offspring. Men, who have less at stake, tend to be more casual about sex, and straight men tend to prefer women whose traits convey health and fertility

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structure (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

LO 4-5: How is molecular genetics research changing our understanding of the effects of nature and nurture?

Our genetic predispositions and our specific environments interact. Environments can trigger genetic expression, and genetically influences traits can influence the experiences we seek and the responses we evoke from others. Molecular genetics study the molecular structure and function of genes, including those that affect behavior. One goal of molecular behavior genetics is to identify specific genes- or more often, teams of genes, that together orchestrate complex traits (such as body weight, sexual orientation, and impulsivity) or put people at risk for disorders. The field of epigenetic studies the molecular mechanisms by which environments can trigger or block genetic expression

Gender identity

Our sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female

RP-1: How are Belyaev and Trut's breeding practices similar to, and how do they differ from, the way natural selection normally occurs?

Over many generations, Belyaev and Trut selected and bred foxes that exhibited a trait that they desired: tameness. This process is similar to naturally occurring selection, but it differs in that natural selection is much slower, and normally favors traits (including those arising from mutations) that contribute to reproducing and survival.

Intersex

Possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth

MM: Primary sex characteristics relate to __________ secondary sex characteristics refer to _______________

Reproductive organs Non-reproductive traits

RP-2: How do researchers use twin adoption studies to learn about psychological principles?

Researchers use twin and adoption studies to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how much is due to environmental factors. Some studies compare the traits and behaviors of identical twins (same genes) and fraternal twins (different genes, as in any two siblings. They also compare adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents. Some studies compare traits and behaviors of twins raised together or separately

RP-4: Prenatal sexual development begins about __________ weeks after conception. Adolescence is marked by the onset of _________

Seven Puberty

MM: In psychology, ___________ is the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex. The behavioral characteristics that people associate with boy, girl, man, and woman is ___________

Sex Gender

Estrogens

Sex hormones such as estradiol that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than males

LO 4-18: What are the effect of sexual aggression? How have cultural views changed, and how can we reduce sexual aggression?

Sexual aggression, which includes sexual harassment and sexual assault, can disrupt sleep, harm health, and make it difficult to trust new relationship partners. Cultural views of sexual aggression differ across time and place, with some cultures continuing to blame victims. But changes in the United States and elsewhere over the last half-century have made victim-blaming less acceptable. Therapy for sexual aggressors has not proven effective, but we may reduce sexual aggression by encouraging people to report and share their experiences, empowering those victimized and educating people about preventive bystander intervention strategies

LO 4-19: How do we form our gender identity?

Social learning theory proposes that we learn our gender identity-our sense of being female, male, neither or some combination of male and female- as we learn other things: through reinforcement, punishment, and observation. But critics argue that cognition also plays a role, because modeling and rewards cannot explain variation in gender typing. Some children organize themselves into "boy worlds" and "girl worlds"; others prefer androgyny. For people who identify as cisgender, gender identity corresponds with birth assigned sex. For those who identify as transgender, gender identity differs from whats typical for hat persons birth assigned sex. Transgender people may be sexually attracted to people of the other gender, the same gender, all genders or to no one at all

LO 4-2: How do twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects and interactions of nature and nurture?

Studies of identical (monozygotic) twins versus fraternal (dizygotic) twins separated twins, and biological VS. adoptive relatives allow researchers to consider the effects of shared environment and shared genes, which shed light on how nature and nurture influence our traits. Shared family environments have surprisingly little effects on personality, though parenting does influence other factors

MM:From the very first weeks of life, infants differ in their characteristic emotional reactions, with some infants being intense and anxious, while others are easygoing and relaxed. These differences are usually explained as differences in ___________-

Temperment

Gender Typing

The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity, that made up the chromosomes; small segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

RP-6: How does the biopsychosocial approach explain our individual development?

The biopsychosocial approach considers all the factors that influence our individual development: the biological factors including evolution and our genes, hormones and brain. Psychological factors including our experiences, beliefs feelings and expectations, and social cultural factors including parental and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism and gender norms

LO 4-7: How might an evolutionary psychologist explain male-female differences in sexuality and mating preferences?

Women tend to be more selective than men when choosing sexual partners. Evolutionary psychologists reason that mens attraction to multiple fertile-appearing partners increases their chances of spreading their genes widely. Because women incubate and nurse babies, they increase their own and their children's chances of survival by searching for mates with the potential for long term investment in their joint offspring.

MM: A fertilized egg will develop into a male it is receives an _______ chromosome from its father

Y