Disintegration of the USSR
Russia
Elections had taken place for the Congress of People's Deputies in March and April 1990 and gave the majority to reformers and outright opponents of the Communist regime. It was clear that the old USSR in the form that it had existed in since the early 1920s was doomed. Gorbachev's rival, Boris Yeltsin, emerged as the leading politician in Russia and was elected chairman of the Congress. On 12th June, the Congress declared that Russia was a sovereign state and that its laws took precedent over USSR laws. This did not rule out the possibility of voluntarily negotiating a new federation.
The Summer of Sovereignty
Elections took place in the other republics during March and April 1990 for all the republic's Supreme Soviets. All followed Russia's example in declaring their sovereignty.
Baltic States
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania had been parts of the Russian Empire until the collapse of Russia in the First World War, when they gained temporary independence. They were absorbed by the Soviet Union in 1940. Glasnost and Perestroika encouraged reformers and nationalists to press for independence. In 1988 Popular Fronts formed in all 3 republics. In February 1990, local elections were held throughout the USSR and pro-independence candidates won the the Baltic republics. In March 1990, Lithuania and Estonia declared independence, and then Latvia followed in May. They were supported by Solidarity in Poland.
Gorbachev's reaction to Baltic independence
Gorbachev initially reacted strongly against the independence in the Baltic. He imposed an economic blockade on Lithuania in April 1990 and in January 1991 Soviet Troops entered all three Baltic states on the pretext of searching for military deserters. In Vilnius, Lithuania, they seized the radio and television centre, killing 13 civilians; this encouraged mass public demonstrations and forced the Soviets to withdraw. On the 11th January President Bush wrote to Gorbachev, expressing his concern.
Gorbachev's response to the Blockade of Armenia
Gorbachev responded by declaring martial law and sent soviet troops to restore the government. Late at night on 19th January 1990, 26000 Soviet troops entered Baku, smashing through barricades established by the Popular Front and attacking protesters, killing over 130. Most of the population of Baku attended the mass funerals of the victims and thousands of Communist Party members publicly burned their membership cards.
Gorbachev under threat
Gorbachev was in an increasingly vulnerable position. Unlike Yeltsin, he had not been democratically elected, nor did he have a secure power base. He was still president of the nearly defunct USSR and faced opposition from two quarters: Communists in the army, party, and KGB who were bitterly critical of his policies, and reformers led by Yeltsin, who in June 1991 became the first directly elected president of Russia.
Uzbekistan
Gorbachev's attempts were equally clumsy in Uzbekistan. Over 18,000 Uzbek Communist Party members were dismissed and mostly replaced with ethnic Russian officials, who knew little of the country or language, triggering rising nationalism which encouraged ethnic Uzbek rule and independence.
Blockade of Armenia
In July 1988, Nagorno-Karabakh was placed under temporary direct rule from Moscow. USSR's Supreme Soviet voted in November 1989 to return Nagorno-Karabakh to Azerbaijani control. Armenian Supreme Soviet decided to ignore the decision and integrate the territory into Armenia. The Azerbaijani Popular Front organised a rail blockade of Armenia which led to petrol and food shortages. It also held a series of demonstrations in Baku which rapidly developed into riots. 91 local Armenians were killed. On 19th January the Azerbaijani Popular Front declared a state of emergency, and its members seized government and Communist Party buildings.
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan
In Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, Gorbachev's attempts to purge the local Communist Party organisations of corrupt officials triggered a nationalist backlash that ultimately led to both republics voting to leave the USSR. In 1986, Gorbachev replaced the ethnic Kazakh leader of the local branch of the Communist Party with a Russian. This was seen as humiliating by the local population and was deemed evidence of further ethnic Russian domination. On the 16th December, rioting broke out in cities across the republics and the government arrested thousands in a brutal crackdown.
The Coup of August 1991
On 18th of August, two days before the Union Treaty was to come into effect, leading Communists made a final attempt to save the USSR. They launched an abortive coup in Moscow while Gorbachev was on holiday in the Crimea. There was no public backing for the rebels and the coup collapsed. Yeltsin played a key role in rallying the crowds in Moscow against the coup and was able to emerge as the saviour of the new Russia
Consequences of the end of the Cold War
The 9 republics that had agreed to the Union Treaty now refused to implement it. Gorbachev attempted to draft a new treaty but this was also rejected by all the republics. Ukraine decided to become independent after a referendum in December 1991. Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) which was then joined on the 21st December by 8 former Soviet states. Georgia joined 2 years later in December 1993. On the 25th December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and on the 31st December 1991 the USSR ceased to exist.
Belarus
The Belarus Popular Front was established in 1988, inspired by the Baltic, as a political party and a cultural movement demanding democracy and independence for Belarus. The discovery of mass graves in woods outside the capital of those executed by the NKVD during the Stalin era added momentum to the pro-independence movement in the republic.
Moldova
The Democratic Movement of Moldova was created in 1988 to campaign initially for greater cultural independence from the USSR. This took the form of demands for the revival of Moldovan traditions and the recognition of Moldovan as the official language. In May 1989, inspired by the events in the Baltic States, the Popular Front of Moldova was founded. It successfully persuaded the Moldavian Supreme Soviet to adopt a new language law on the 31st August 1989 which made Moldovan the official state language. In March 1990, it became the largest party in the elections for the Supreme Soviet.
Armenian-Azerbaijan conflict
The Nagorno-Karabakh district, populated by Armenians, was claimed by Armenia but had been granted to Azerbaijan by Stalin in 1923. It was divided from Armenia by a thin strip land. Glasnost enabled the Armenians to hold rallies during the winter of 1987-88 and demand its return. In February 1988, Nagorno-Karabakh voted to merge with Armenia. After this was vetoed by Gorbachev, anti-Armenian riots erupted in Azerbaijan. Gorbachev removed the leaders in both republics, but his failure to find a solution led to growing nationalism in Armenia and Azerbaijan.
The end of the USSR
The declarations of independence prompted Gorbachev to create a draft of the new Union Treaty in November 1990. In March 1991, a referendum was held on the question of creating a new union formed by the former members of the USSR. Soviet citizens were asked whether the supported the creation of a 'renewed federation of equal sovereign republics'. The referendum was boycotted in the Baltics, Moldova, Georgia, and Armenia but in the other republics it was supported by 74%.
Georgia
The independence movements in the Baltic and Transcaucasia inspired similar movements in Georgia. On 7th April 1989, troops were sent to the streets of Tbilisi after more than 100,000 people gathered in front of government offices and the Communist Party headquarters and called for Georgia's independence. 19 people were killed and more than 200 wounded. This radicalised Georgian politics, leading many to believe that independence was preferable to Soviet rule.
Ukraine
The key to the future of the USSR was Ukraine, the second largest republic. If Ukraine chose independence, the USSR would be irreparably damaged. Lvov became the centre of protests which demanded greater toleration for Ukrainian Christian culture. Initially, local Communist authorities attempted to end demonstrations, but that became much more difficult when the republic-wide Ukrainian Popular Front Movement, Rukh, was created in 1989. In October 1990, it declared that its principal goal was now complete independence.