dlm final

4. What was the Compromise of 1850 and what did it have to do with the issues of California statehood and slavery?

1. CA admitted as a free state 2. Territorial govt formed w/oo restrictions on slavery in the rest of land acquired from mexico 3. Fed govt assume TX debt in exchange for border... 4. Slave trade would be abolished in DC 5. More effective fuigitive slave law would go into effect Was not passed. • Series of separate bills passed by different sometimes competing coalitions. Temporary solution to keep the country together.

6) Who were the Molly Maguires?

a secret Irish-American organization that consisted mainly of coal miners. Many historians believe the "Mollies"were present in the coal fields of Pennsylvania in the United States between the time of the American Civil War until a series of arrests and trials from 1876−78.

6. Describe the anti-slavery movement of the early nineteenth century. Who were the main actors behind these organizations and what impact did their actions have?

• 1829 Massachusetts General Colored association: advocated for the abolition and advancement of blacks. "appeal to the coloured citizens of the world" David Walker, free black. Sensational. Fundamental breach with earlier antislavery arguments "all men are created liberty. Written in blood in Virginia uprising • 1831 slave uprisings where they kill their masters, Turner. • American Anti Slavery Society- Fredrick Douglass • American Colonization Society 1816- white southerners, raised money to ship African Americans back to their "home land", established the nation of Liberia in 1830.

4) How did the labor movement in the post-Civil War period address women's issues?

• 1869 sewing women in boston petition for MA to provide them with public housing. • Women kept out of male unions • NLU initially welcomed wiomen, and then expelled Susan B Anthony o (female equality including right to vote, equal pay and jobs) • suffrage.

4) Some historians have argued that the Civil War marked "the second founding of the American Republic." Assess the validity of this statement, being sure to back up your argument with facts from our selected readings.

• 1st American republic • The 13th amendment abolished slavery o Affected political and economic landscape o Democracy, citizenship, opportunity, equality • Manifest destiny, national unity, expansion, settlement, ideas of progress • Permenant changes in labor

7. Why did southern planters, slave owners, and politicians want to expand the borders of the U.S. to the south and west?

• A greater slave empire. • Demand and higher price for excess slaves • Small farmers could hope for a better chance • More representation politically

5) What was the National Labor Union?

• A new federation of labor organizations, covered workers in diverse craft and industrial occupations, founded in Baltimore 1866, emergence of a nationwide institution that liked wage workers together in a broad community of interest. o Condemned chinese. Supported exclusion. o Lip service for the rights of blacks and women o Excluded blacks from membership.

1) What was "Artisan Republicanism?"

• An ideology that celebrated small scale producers who owned their own shops. Society as one constituted by, and dedicated to the welfare of, independent workers and citizens • Republican ideology

3) What role did theater, music, sports, and other forms of entertainment play in the lives of working people in the mid nineteenth century? How did these forms of culture reflect racial and class divisions in American society?

• Blackface. Popular among white audiences, antitemperance, anticapitalist and racist themes. • Baseball and horse racing for respectable • Boxing and cockfighting for working class • Difference in access to social life were, like access to jobs, determined by race and class..

1. What role did slaves play in the American Revolution? What was the significance of Lord Dunmore's Proclamation?

• Brits: Lord Dunmore, VA's last royal governor, promised freedom to all who rallied the King. o Many slaves escaped to serve in British or Loyalist units. o 12,000 slaves escaped south Carolina. • Americans: o RI promised freedom to slaves who would enlist o In the south slaveholders opposed recruiting slaves even though they needed soldiers • British and Americans kept these promises sometimes o British evacuated NYC in 1783, sailed over 3,000 slaves to Nova Scotia o British expelled African Americans from the fort at Yorktown, to the mercy of the Americans camped outside. • Dunmore's proclamation o fed colonists' fear of armed slave insurrections. o Virginia convention proclamation: runaways would be pardoned if they returned in 10 days, severely punished if not. Reminded the penalty of insurrections "death without benefit of clergy".

5. What role did evangelical religion play in the slave society that emerged in the early nineteenth century?

• By claiming Christianity, slaves were in the same spiritual world as whites. • Christian beliefs supported the institution of slavery,, claiming that it was god's will. • Black women were involved, a weapon against sexual abuse when women called on church authorities for discipline. • Formed their own standards of proper behavior. • Strengthened group identity, ties to each other • Asserted degree of self regulation and rule

9. What was the political platform of the Free-Soil Party following the Mexican American War? Why did the Free-Soilers oppose slavery in the western territories? Did they oppose slavery on the same grounds as the abolitionists?

• By the end of the Mexican American War in 1848, the Free Soil Party called for the opening of western territories as free lands for the settlement of white men and their families. • They did not want to compete with slave labor, or the economic and political power of slave owners. They saw the west a place for personal independence, with cheap and abundant land.

5. Explain the emergence of the proslavery movement in the 1830s. How did white politicians like John C. Calhoun and George Duffie, white professors and authors like Thomas Dew and George Fitzhugh, and other southern elites use religion, "science," and comparisons to northern wage labor to defend the institution of slavery?

• By the late 1830s, southern planters and slave owners were threatened by the abolitionist movement in the north, the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies, the demands of nonslaveowning whites, and ongoing slave escapes, rebellions, and insurrections. • In turn, southern politicians, professors, writers, and other elites began to articulate defenses of slavery. • Thomas dew: planters were instruments of god. Upholders of classical traditions and values. Biblocal support fo sslavery. • George duffie: biblical justificatios. Destiny. Inferiority. • Science: rules out universal human rights, undermines the status and claims of free blacks. w/o threatening the rights of poor southern whites.

8) How do the events of 1877—the end of Reconstruction and the Great Railroad Uprising—relate to themes about race relations, social class and labor relations, and the possibilities for collective action in earlier moments in American history that we have discussed in this course? Are these themes still relevant today?

• Closing frontier • Working ppl maintaining and establishing economic work destiny • Might fail but attempt to • Who has the power and why • Industrial revoloution • Bacon's rebellion • Lynn mass mills

4) What explains the tensions and conflicts that arose between native-born white Americans, African Americans, and recent immigrants from Ireland, Germany, and other European nations in mid nineteenth century cities and workplaces?

• Competition for work. Displacement by lower paid workers. • Irish workers were often segregated into the hardest, lowest paying jobs. • For men: construction, heavy labor (day laborers) • For women: domestic work, textile mill work • Both Irish men and women often competed with free African Americans for jobs in Northern cities. • Germans also faced job segregation, but were more likely to have been skilled laborers in Germany. • Many Scandinavians (Swedes, Norwegians) gravitated to farming and lumbering. • English and Welsh workers were more likely to gain skilled jobs • French Canadians worked in New England textile mills and on farms. • African Americans were segregated into the lowest paying jobs, and were barred from joining white trade unions. • Stereotypes in newspapers

2. Describe the conditions facing Continental Army soldiers during the American Revolution. Why did some soldiers mutiny? According to Samuel Dewees' account, how did the Army suppress dissention in the ranks?

• Conditions: shortages of supplies, 1/8 ration of food, sometimes no clothing, paid 5 months late, soldiers paid onlit a bit of what they were owed, hard lodging, cold weather, fatigue, illness (pox), dirty. • Mutiny (revolt) o Pennsylvania line at Morristown NJ, more than 1000 "mutinied" • Their officers were paid, clothed, and fed well • They were marched in rags w/o shoes, paid virtually nothing if at all, abused and beaten, wanted out of the war. o 1500 Pennsylvanians marched to Philly to protest Congress. • Army suppression of dissention o Washington had 2 of the most "atrocious offenders" court martialed, sentenced to be shot, and their fellow mutineers had to carry out the executions. o A sergeant was tied up and lashed, committed some trivial offense. o The soldiers were ordered to beat up the prisoners (fellow troops) o Dewees" 6 prisoners sentenced to death. Had to shoot each other and watch. Every man ordered to look at the bodies as they passed. o Soldiers were then afraid to say or do anything. The men who were killed committed offenses that seemed so trivial.

4. What were the economic and political conflicts between slave owners and nonslaveholding whites?

• Conflicts about political representation, taxation, debt, rights to land and waterways • Property laws, voting and holding office, made it hard for nonslaveholding whites to change laws.

7. What strategies did opponents of slavery put forth in the decades before the Civil War? Be sure to include the strategies and actions of slaves in your assessment.

• Daily resistances: Using white prejudices about laziness and irresponsibility, slaves broke tools, worked at a slow pace and damaged property, feigned illness or pregnancy, and engaged in other sabotage. Poisoned their masters. • Some ran away. • Nat turner's rebellion 1831slaves killed 55-65 ppl • American Colonization Society and Liberia

8. What was the significance of the Dred Scott decision by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1857? How did the decision affect the legal rights of both slaves and free blacks? How did the decision sanction slavery in free states and territories?

• Dred scott: petitioned for freedom. became free when his master took him into a free state and territory. Pronounced constitutional all laws restricting the movement of property. No black person should enjoy the rights of white ppl. • Could legalize slave ownership in free strates. As a black man he was excluded from citizenships. Congress never had any right to prohibit slavery in any territory.

3. What was the U.S. Government's policy toward Native Americans in the period after 1812?

• During Andrew Jackson's presidency • Proclamation of peace, and then Indian removal to land west of Mississippi. Became known as the trail of tears. One in four died on the way. • Cherokees don't have independent political authority- us supreme court 1831

2. What were the origins of the 1849 California Gold Rush? How did the Gold Rush transform small communities into "boom towns?"

• In 1848 james marshall discovered gold in a mill race along the American river, word spread quickly. News spread around the nation. Thousands came to the area.

7) What were the major causes of the 1877 Great Railroad Uprising? Why did it spread from being a local work stoppage to a major rebellion in cities throughout the United States?

• In response to wage cuts. • Federal troops sent in got everyone angry (domestic labor dispute. • There were no labor laws • 1870s downwarcds economics

4. What were the consequences of the invention of the cotton gin?

• Lowered the cost of producing cotton fiber, and increased demand of cotton fabric by textile mills. • Slave population grew, and dependence on slave from the economy.

6. In the years after the ratification of the constitution, the newly formed United States was a "People's Republic." Agree or disagree.

• Male property owners had the right to vote, majority of the people could not. When property was abolished, you still had to be white • 3/5 clause, fugitive slave law relegitimized slavery. Bill of rights offered nothing to slaves. • "dependents" unable to exercise their own judgment (slaves, people of color, women)

8) How did the abolitionist movement impact the social reform agendas of the mid-1800s?

• Middle Class Moral Reformers, 1830s-1850s: religiously based, and often led by the wives of bankers, merchants, and other professionals. • The Female Moral Reform Society worked to eradicate prostitution, blaming licentious men for "ruining" young women, rather than blaming the women themselves. • Other reformers focused on child poverty, "rescuing" children from struggling poor and working class households • The abolitionists of the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS, founded in 1833) sought the abolishment of slavery in the U.S. • AAS leaders attacked slavery on economic, religious, and moral grounds. • Prominent leaders of the AASS, including William Lloyd Garrison and Lucy Stone (pictured), developed radical critiques of U.S. society and politics. Not only did they call for abolition and racial equality, radical abolitionists also linked their causes to women's equality and the labor movement. • At its height, the AASS had 250,000 members—3/4ths of them African Americans. However, many less radical abolitionists left the AASS over issues like women's suffrage and women's equality.

3) Discuss the possibilities and limitations of working class solidarity in the late 1800s.

• Mining and railroads • Many white men refused to work alongside blacks, chinese, and women. • Many unions, strikes.

1. How did growing white settlement in the U.S. west affect Native American societies?

• Mining, urbanization, railroad costruction devastated local habitats, intensified conflicts among tribes and with soldiers and citizens.

1. How did planters and slave owners consolidate their economic and political power in the South in the 1830s and the 1840s? Who were the "nabobs" of Natchez, Mississippi?

• Nabobs were a group composed of the regions wealthiest families who bega buying land in 1820s. they had plantation houses with expensive imported furnishing, fancy clothes, etc. threw elaborate parties. • The panic of 1937 destroyed the fortunes of most plantation owners • During the panic of 1837 members of the nabobs added slaves and acreage at depression era prices taking advantage of the rising cotton prices in the 1840s, climbing to the top.

1) How did war transform the economic conditions of the United States between the years 1861-1865?

• Northern factories had to turn out weapons, ammo, blankets, clothing, shoes, products. Shipyards built fleets. Coal mining and iron production rise. Lower wages paid to women children immigrants and free blacks: increase in profits and pce of work. • Gov't ordered blankets, firearms, and other gooods. • Gov't: large contracts for railroads to carry troops and supplies, loans and land grants. Tarrif on imported goods that were manufactured. Creation of a national currency and national banking system.

5) Assess the role that women played in the working class political cultures that emerged in the United States during the period of early industrialization in the urban North.

• Pawtucket mill owners- women, strike to resist extended workday and lowered piece rates. • New York Taloresses' Society founded 1831, 1600 women, fight a series of wage cuts by merchants • Sarah Monroe, New York Tailoresses' leader, why should we bear oppression in silence when it's unfashionable from men. • 1833 shoe binders from Lynn " women should be included in constitution. • 1824, Pawtucket, RI: women weavers strike to protest longer workdays and lower piece-rates • 1833, Lynn, MA: women shoe binders form a protective association, declaring, "Women as well as men have certain inalienable rights, among which is the right at all times of 'peaceably assembling to consult upon the common good.'"

7. How did growing anti-slavery politics lead to the emergence of the Republican Party?

• Peaceful end to slavery no longer seemed likely. Opposition to Kansas Nebraska bill. First platform denounced slavery as immoral and halted its further westward expansion.

1) What was Reconstruction? What promises did it hold for freed African Americans in the south? In what ways did white southerners resist Reconstruction and how did this resistance contribute to its failure?

• Reconstruction, 1865-1877, held the promise and possibility of creating citizenship, rights, and democracy in the post-Civil War South. causes African Americans and their allies continued to fight for in the Civil Rights movements of the 20th Century. • Passed over President Andrew Johnson's veto, the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 established new state governments in the South, empowered black men to vote, and barred several thousand confederates from the ballot. • The 15th Amendment of the Constitution extended black male suffrage to the entire nation. • African Americans voted in great numbers. According to historian Eric Foner, Reconstruction "was a remarkable, unprecedented effort to build an interracial democracy on the ashes of slavery." • Goal was to readmit the south on terms acceptable to the north: full political and civil equality for blacks • Failed to help blacks economically, right to vote,

1. Describe some important aspects of Harriet Jacobs' experiences as a slave. What is her relationship to her owners? How does she describe what it was like for her as a slave? How does she describe the institution of slavery and the attitudes of whites as a whole? How is she able to escape? What does James Norcom offer in his advertisement seeking her return? Which laws is he referring to in the advertisement?

• Relationship to owners: abusive • What it was like: she was never whipped, beaten, chained, or cruely over worked. She was kindly treated and tenderly cared for until she was in the hands of Dr. norcom. Dr. nocom sexually harassed and abuse her, tried to get a sexual relationship with him. He threatens her. Denied basic human rights and legal protection. Could not marry the lawyer she wanted to. • Institution of slavery: there can be no good slave masters. Slavery destroys the morality of slave holders. Slave masters view slaves as animals or objects. • Attitudes of Whites: sexual abuse of slave women was taboo and veiled, but the public must know about it. • Escape: For a it she stayed with neighbors. She hid in the roof of a shed that had a trap door in her grandmother's house that her uncle built. She lived there for 7 yrs. Took a ship from north carolina to the north. She hopes that Dr. Norcom thinks that she's gone north and will sell her children. • James Norcom: offers $100 in reward for returning harriet • Laws referred to in AD: "all persons are hereby forewarned against harboring or entertaining her, or being instrumental in her escape" Fugitive Slave laws

2. How did planters try to use religion as a tool to control slaves? How did slaves resist?

• Religion created bonds. • Owners controlled slave attendance at church. • White pastors, god had given the continent to white men and we should submit. • Groups lingered for black peachers. A few black independent churches thrived.

3) "During the 1820s and 1830s, working people began to act together to defend the principles of equality in a divided society." P 342, Who Built America? Detail some of the ways workers did this, and assess how successful they were.

• Resisted changes in the work process o 1830 a NY master refused to divide work in his shop according to skill b/c it would violate republican principle... usually leading to economic ruin o other masters pressed employees to produce more, hiring foreman to supervise and discipline workers o NY installed a bell in 1836 to signal beginning and end of a work day. 28 employees threatened to strike. Compromise: workers retain right to determine work hours, promised to return to work steadily and cease drinking and storytelling on the job. o Masters become bosses supervising other's labor, or merchants selling finished shoes. o Women and children did some tasks- less fully trained workers. o Piece-rate workers who worked for merchants usually rural from home. • Organized labor unions to secure better pay and working hours o New York General Trades Union. Parade. Aided strikes over wages and conditions among many workers in NE. • Campaigned for legal measures that might secure their rights in a harsh economy

3. How did the Revolution change the status of American women?

• Revolutionary ideals led women to question the subordination • Elite women called for improved education • A small # of women were able to use liberal divorce statutes to free themselves from oppressive marriages • Little altered women's social position- didn't alter family law • Proper role as raising and educating good republican citizens • In NJ women who were free and proper were able to vote, abolished soon. • Revolution gave women the idea to think it was possible to take greater control of their circumstances • Women participated in protest movements, formed public organizations. • Elite discussed politics within the home

2) In what ways did the Civil War expose class-based tensions in American society?

• Rich man's war, poor man's fight. • Upper class urged lower class to join the war • Lower class believed it affected them more. • NYC draft riots. Working class discontent w/ new laws passed by congress, draft men to fight, turned into race riots. • White women enter the labor force • Southerners felt their livelihood depended on slavery • African americans employed by the union army: roads, copping wood, supplies, guarding supplies, piloting boats, driving teams. Black women: cooks, laundress, seamstress, nurses. Received wages late if at all. • Death rate was 3x greater for black soldiers- poor health, meager food, hard labor, minimal medical care. • In the south medical care by women voluntary. • Women in the workforce: in industrial jobs. Nursing. • Food shortages and inflation

5. What was the significance of Shay's rebellion? What were the political and economic divisions between Massachusetts farmers and urban artisans and merchants?

• Shay's Rebellion: Daniel Shays and other Massachusetts farmers took arms and marched on the state gov't in Boston 1786. • The farmers wanted debt and tax relief because the war disrupted the markets for their products. Many sold their goods to the army for money (paper) which was worthless at the time. • The wealthier artisans and merchants crafted a gov't policy of hard currency, "free" trade, and no tax/debt relief • Gov't sent the MA militia to crush the rebels. Shays fled in exile. Other leaders of the rebellion were executed for treason. • The old notion that small communities could defend themselves against outsiders no longer applied when the govt itself was theoretically of the ppl. To overturn policies, ppl would have to organize and formally enter the political arena.

2) How did industrialization challenge the traditions of labor in the United States? Why did many Americans see this change as a threat to the new republic?

• Shift from household based production. • Increasing reliance on wage workers. • Inequalities grew • Workers were essential but they had limited access to property and wealth. • Urban cities grew- new york. • Artisans became employees, they couldn't produce at the same level as manufacturers. • More canals- deleware and Raritan • More literacy rates

8. How did the Mexican American War of 1846-1848 relate to the debates surrounding slavery? Why did northern politicians oppose the expansion of slavery into former Mexican territories?

• Southern slave owners welcomed the Mexican American War of 1846-1848, hoping that the southwest would become slave owning territories • Many northern politicians initially resisted the war, thinking it a plot by slave owners. • Most northern whites opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories, even though not all called for abolition in the south.

1) How did the American workplace change in the period from 1812 to the years before the Civil War? How can these changes be explained?

• Technology: greater production, power driven machines • Railroads: people and goods move faster and cheaper • Communication: the telegraph • Wage workers • Shift from agriculture to urban • Industrialization and urbanization

2) What was the meaning of "redeeming" the South at the end of Reconstruction? What were the consequences for African Americans?

• The KKK intimidated African americans and white republicans, democrats resorted to electron fraud. Southern democrats called on all whites to help "redeem" or save the south from Black Republican Rule. • Appeals to white racism, defined elections as a struggle btwn whites and blacks.

2. In the period after the American Revolution, many Americans, including white southerners, believed that slavery would eventually come to an end. However, the opposite happened. Explain this shift in the position that slavery held in the American economy.

• The invention of the cotton gin led to acquisition of new territories, establishment of new states, and the birth of industry in England and the US. • Slaves were stable labor for southern cotton plantations. Cotton brought a lot of prosperity. Women slaves were encouraged to have babies. • Cotton made the ppl who were rich richer and employ more slaves so more inequality • Also profits from sugar and rice.

3. Why did planters feel threatened by the presence of free blacks in the south? Were nonslaveholding opposed to the presence of free blacks for the same reasons or different reasons? Explain.

• The mere existence of free blacks in the south challenged any simple connections between race and enslavement. • Fear of the influence that free blacks had • Nonslaveholders: unwanted competition for jobs.

4. "The Revolution raised more questions about equality and human rights than it answered," Who Built America, p. 232. Discuss this point.

• The question of slavery o Colonists claimed they were enslaved by British but then they enslaved Africans. Hypocritical. o Many people in the North became opposed to slavery • Alexander Hamilton released slaves. • MA. Ruled that slavery went against constitution's "all men were created equal" and abolished slavery • The question of women.

5. What was the "underground railroad?" How did the Fugitive Slave Law (part of the Compromise of 1850) affect runaway slaves living in the north? How did the Fugitive Slave Law fuel the abolitionist movement?

• The underground railroad: network of thousands of free blacks and white sympathizers who concealed, sheltered, clothed and guided runaway slaves in the course of the northward flight • Fugitive slave act : required that all escaped slaves be returned to their masters. o Hoped it would put tubman, douglass, and runaways back into hiding • Reinvigorated protests against slavery and slave owners who were abusing fed power. Wanted to give black males the right to vote. Uncle toms cabin fuels opposition.

3. Why was their conflict among different among different groups of workers including white Americans, Chinese, Mexican Californians, and Native American Californians during and after the Gold Rush?

• They didn't find gold so they had to be wage laborers working for mines and railroads. Non-whites subordinated.

6. Why did most southern planters and slave owners oppose the expansion of industry and economic diversification in the south?

• They saw it as a threat to the institution of slavery. Contact with slaves and free laborer could expose new ideas about life and liberty. • Threat of a common cause between blacks and whites.

3) Why did the North win the Civil War?

• Ulyssess Grant (general) huge attacks that brought down confederate numbers. • Slaves joined the union. • Numbers and strategies

6. Explain the origins and conflicts surrounding the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. What was the meaning of "Bleeding Kansas?"

• Vote over whether it would become a slave state, effectively removing all fed barriers to spread slavery throughout the west. Annulling Misso compromise. Popular sovergnity, voters decide. • Bleeding Kansas: violent political confrontations involving anti and pro slavery elements in Kansas. Further strained the north and south

5) How did women's roles in the American workplace change by the mid-1800s? What options did women have in terms of employment? How did women assert themselves as social actors during these years?

• Wage earning, low pay and status • 1846 sewing machine invented. Women had to work longer for less pay. • Isolated. Sexual harassment. • Teachers were the only profession that led to economic independence

7) How did the political and moral debate over slavery impact the rhetoric of labor reformers in the mid-1800s?

• Women's rights activists referring to their current predicament as "wage slavery"

2) Describe the efforts at social reform in the mid nineteenth century. What causes were addressed? How did reformers explain the causes for social problems, and did they agree on the solutions?

• Women:1840s and 50s: analyze the position of women in society o Grimke sisters and abolition. o 1848 seneca falls women's rights convention. Celebrated the achievements of the past and present, many burdens of their sex. Manifesto modeled on the declaration declaring all men and women created equal. Demands for greater social and economic rights o rights in the home, church, education and work were just as important. • Abolition tensions between advocates. o Grimke sisters say the plight of slaves and the plight of women were linked o Attack the church and gov't as props for slavery o Opposed war, capital punishment, refused to buy slave made products, rejected religious worship, campaigned for women's indian and land reform.

4) Describe the early formation of the "workingmen's movement" in the United States. What were the objectives of this movement's and what ways did it seek to realize its goals?

• mid 1920s-late 1830s • resist subordination to bosses, asserted equal rights when economic power was unequally distributed. • Political parties, journals and newspapers, trade unions, and action by workers campaigned. • Vision of equality • The poor should win control f the gov't and redistribute property equally among all adults including women and slaves, and abolish inheritance. -Thomas Skidmore. Self employment • Abolition of paper money, free land in west, publicly funded school. Abolish imprisonment for debt, curb power of banks and corporations. • The raised the issues and affiliated with the Democrats and Whigs. • In August 1834, 25,000 workers united in the National Trades Union (NTU), leading to the formation of over 60 unions and over 100 strikes.