Early Childhood Ch. 8 - 15

Ch. 14 Q6 How do biology and the environment influence the development of aggression? Report on the various ways to decrease aggressive behavior. Which seems to be the most effective and why?

- Aggression in a child can come from them observing aggressive behavior from their parents at home, from their peers, or both. However, it goes a bit deeper than that. It can also have to do with the child's biology and family history - Genetics, hormones (high testosterone), and neurological deficits (ADHD) - A child who is in a household where the caretakers are aggressive with the child or each other. Also, if the child is directly related to the caretakers, they can have some traits which can be passed down - Aggressive behavior from the child could lead to the parents becoming more frustrated and taking it out on the child, which makes the child more frustrated and take it out on the parent - nature vs. nurture - Decrease • Positive youth development focuses on five ideas of the self. o - Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts etc., seem to be the most effective in promoting positive youth development o - These programs promote leadership and are becoming increasingly popular in school curriculum as they focus on youths strengths rather than their weaknesses. These programs promote self-esteem, self-efficacy, attitudes towards school, civic engagement, social skills, and academic achievement • Intervention programs - intervene bullying in adolescents

Ch. 14 Q5* Aggression is the opposite of prosocial behavior. What are the different types of aggression and how do they develop over childhood?

- Aggression is behavior intended to physically or emotionally harm others and usually emerges early on - Instrumental aggression is aggression that is motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete object - Reactive aggression is emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one's perception that other people's motives are hostile. - Proactive aggression, which is unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire, in children tend to anticipate more positive social consequences for aggression, and is similar to instrumental aggression - Before 12 months of age, instances of aggression over possessing objects occur between infants, especially behaviors such as trying to pull objects away from each other, but most do not involve physical contact. - At around 18 months of age, physical aggression, such as hitting or pushing, becomes normal in development and usually becomes more frequent until about 2 or 3 years old. - As language develops, physical aggression usually decreases and verbal aggression, such as insults or taunting, greatly increases. - The most frequent form of aggression, especially in the preschool years, is instrumental aggression. - Instrumental aggression is aggression that is motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal

Ch. 11 Q2 Describe attachment in different cultures as discussed in the chapter. In the U.S., secure attachment during infancy is predictive of the best outcomes in adulthood. Why do you think this is the case?

- Attachment in different countries US Japan Germany Secure High High High Resistant Low High Low Avoidant High Low High - Why secure attachment is best teaches your baby to trust you, to communicate their feelings to you, and eventually to trust others as well. ... Secure attachment causes the parts of your baby's brain responsible for social and emotional development, communication, and relationships to grow and develop in the best way possible

Ch. 11 Q1 What is attachment? How do researchers measure the quality of a parent-child attachment?

- Attachment: Emotional bond between child and caregiver • Have needs met = secure attachment - Measure quality of parent-child attachment • Strange situation - Mary Ainsworth (main) • How a child reacts during reunion • Bowlby - primary drive • Harlow - wire monkey

Ch. 12 & 13 Q3 Introduce and describe Baumrind's four parenting styles. Include how each style varies on the two dimensions.

- Authoritative: more secure attach, cognitive development, more empathy, follow rules, good social skills • high control • high warmth - Authoritarian: low in social & academic, crazy when parents leave, more delinquent, not supervised = more trouble, no moral skills • high control • low warmth - Permissive: impulsive, low in school achievement, struggle socially, high self-esteem • low control • high warmth - Uninvolved: anti-social bx, no role model, no self-esteem, high rates of depression & anxiety • low control • low warmth

Ch. 12 & 13 Q7 What are the benefits and costs of friendships? Gender differences? What are the different types of bullying? Give some examples from your own childhood.

- Benefits • Not alone • Advice • Physical/emotional support - Costs • Promote bad bx/peer pressure - Gender differences • Want different things in relationships • Girls: closer, intimate, share secrets • Boys: more simplistic, more superficial - Types of bullying • Physical: physical aggression • Social - • Verbal I - 3 all relational aggression • Cyber -

Ch. 8 Q3 Discuss the biological and environmental contributions to intelligence. Discuss environmental factors that can influence?

- Biological • Genetics - highly heritable • Deprived vs rich environment • Poverty = lower IQ (nutrition, support, less access to health care • More motivation = higher IQ

Ch. 15 Q1 Describe biological influences on gender development (include evolutionary and neuroscience approaches). What is the difference between gender and sex? Define any key terms that might influence how one perceives or understands gender.

- Biological influences • Evolutionary psychology: environmental pressured • Bio-social theory: strength/speed is nurturing • Neuroscience: genes, functioning - Gender: refer to the role of a male or female in society, social construct, cultural component - Sex: biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences

Ch. 14 Q5* How does childhood aggression relate to adult aggression? Discuss gender differences in aggression.

- Children who displayed very aggressive behavior and were prone to conduct problems throughout childhood tend to be more aggressive and delinquent in adolescence - They were also found to have more criminal convictions and engage in serious criminal behavior as an adult than compared to individuals who did not display aggression - Those who have low impulse control and poor regulations of aggression, continue to engage in negative behaviors and display problems with their mental health or substance abuse until their mid-20s.

Ch. 15 Q2 Describe cognitive and motivational influences on gender development (include cognitive developmental, gender schema, social identity, and social cognitive theories). Define any key terms that might influence how one perceives or understands gender.

- Cognitive development: how children think, explore and figure things out. It is the development of knowledge, skills, problem solving and dispositions, which help children to think about and understand the world around them - Gender schema: an organized set of gender-related beliefs that influence behavior. Gender schemas are formed as a result of the children's observation of how society defines what it means to be male and female in his or her culture - Social identity: a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s), influence of peers, ingroup bias/assimilation, how to identify - Social cognitive theories: how you learn/behave through observing, conform to stereotypes = have friends, consequences. The idea that people learn by observing others

Ch. 8 Q4 Describe cognitive intervention programs. What characteristics do successful programs have?

- Cognitive intervention programs = a form of psychological intervention, a technique and therapy practiced in counseling. It is also associated with cognitive therapy, which focuses on the thought process and the manner by which emotions have bearing on the cognitive processes and structures - Ex. = Headstart program Gov't funded programs to target at risk kids, catch them up to peers - Characteristics • Encourage exploration • Build basic skills • Support advances • Rehearse skills • Protects kids • Guide behavior • Communication skills

Ch. 14 Q3 How does prosocial-moral judgment influence the development of conscience? Describe the different types of social judgements that individuals face and how they influence behavior by age.

- Consciences can also help promote prosocial behavior because children will feel guilty when engaging in uncaring behavior or failing to live up to internalized standards about helping others - Age 2: start to recognize moral standards and riles and exhibit signs of guilt when they do something wrong - Mature: children are more likely to take on their parents' moral values -

Ch. 15 Q3 Describe cultural influences on gender development. Provide examples from your own development that illustrate the impact of culture on gender development. Is gender biological or socially constructed?

- Cultural influences on gender development • Bioecological model - individual's development is influenced by his or her interactions with various aspects and spheres of their environment - opportunity structures - on macrosystem (what the culture offers you) • Environment shaped by culture • Stereotypes - gender • Gender expectations - Examples • Toys, media, video games - Gender biologically or socially constructed • Both, genes, human evolution & environment, personal factors, friends & family

Ch. 12 & 13 Q6 Describe the developmental patterns of peer interaction from birth through adolescence, including the emergence of romantic relationships. How does technology influence the development and maintenance of friendships?

- Developmental patterns • Grow from preschool • Be around ppl w/ same interest • Trust • Romantic relationships • Learn what you like/dislike - Technology • Texting: easy to talk, not face-to-face • Bullying online: hide behind a screen • Facilitates false friendship

Ch. 12 & 13 Q6 As children mature, dyadic friendships shift into dominance hierarchies, cliques, and crowds. Define each of these and discuss how they develop.

- Dyadic friendship: 2 ppl friendship - Dominance hierarchies: popular kid, middle kid, lower. Type of social hierarchy that arises when members of a social group interact, to create a ranking system • Boys: Physical • Girls: Undermining, relationship, gossip - Cliques: Friendship groups, smaller (6-8 ppl), same gender, hangout w/ each other. Shared interests or other features in common, who spend time together and do not readily allow others to join them - Crowds: Same stereotype, cliques merge. Romantic couples form. A formation of several cliques with membership based on reputation or stereotypes.

Ch. 9 & 10 Q3 Define and talk about the function of emotions (e.g., why are they important, how do they help us).

- Emotion = neural & physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action. Emotions are specific reactions to a particular event that are usually of fairly short duration - Function • Communication • Motivation - Importance • Allow other people to understand us • Help us survive, thrive, & avoid danger • Motivate us to take action • Make decisions • Understand others

Ch. 14 Q2 Describe Kohlberg's cognitive theory of moral development. Provide examples that characterize the preconventional stage, the conventional stage, and the postconventional stage

- Expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages. Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level has two distinct stages - Moral development: Wife has cancer, husband can't afford it. Steal or let her die? - After Kohlberg did all of his interviewing and research, he came to the conclusion that there are three levels of moral reasoning - preconventional: self-centered; it focuses on getting rewards and avoiding punishment • Stage 1: "Punishment and Obedience Orientation". Children see obedience to authority figures as the only right thing to do • Stage 2: Instrumental and Exchange Orientation". What is right is what is in one's own best interest or involves an equal exchange between people - Conventional: centered on social relationships; it focuses on compliance with social duties and laws • Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation". When someone is in this stage, they want to satisfy others be doing what is expected of them; whether it be their peers or family members. • Stage 4: Social System and Conscience Orientation". This requires one to fulfill their personal duties, uphold the law, and contribute to either society or their social group - Postconventional: centered on ideals; it focuses on moral principles • Stage 5: Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation". Moral behavior is important within the rules of the group • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles". Moral behavior is commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice. They will react to a violation of these principles stronger than they would react to a violation of the law

Ch. 8 Q 1 Describe the three major theories of intelligence (general intelligence, Sternberg's theory, and Gardner's theory). Which approach makes the most intuitive sense to you? What are the pros and cons of each?

- General intelligence: Individual's general ability to think and learn • Fluid intelligence: thinking, declines w/ age • Crystalized intelligence: knowledge, increases w/ age • what's measured in IQ test (other ppl your age) - verbal, quantitative, processing speed - Sternberg's theory - success = compensate in increase strengths, decreased in weakness Different intelligences: • Analytical: everything that's measured in IQ test, book smarts • Practical: Solving problems, "street smarts" • Creative: Flexibility, novel solutions - Gardner's theory - 8 intelligences - identify strengths & weaknesses • Linguistic • Logical • Spatial • Musical • Kinesthetic

Ch. 9 & 10 Q3 How do emotional expressions develop over infancy? What are primary emotions (basic emotions)?

- Happy Examples • 2-3 wks - prototype emotions, response to internal stimuli - Ex: smiling during sleep, relaxations • 3-8 mo - precursor emotion, tied to arousal & external world • 7 mo - stranger anxiety • 10 mo - true emotions, recognizing people - Basic/Primary Emotions • Happy, Sad, Angry, Scared, Surprised, Disgust • Emotions we're born with

Ch. 9 & 10 Q2* Summarize the impacts of media on social development. What do you think are the greatest benefits of media exposure and the greatest drawbacks? Based on your understanding of the effects, what suggestions would you make regarding exposure to media to a parent with young children?

- Media on social development • Sesame street = positive impact • Exposure to violent games/tv = violent bx • Media violence increased aggression & violence = risk factor for positive youth devel. • Exposure to media has impact in 4 ways 1. seeing actors engage in aggression teaches aggressive bx & inspires imitation of them 2. Viewing aggression activates viewer's own aggressive thought, feelings, & tendencies 3. More likely to react violently to provocations after watching violent movies 4. Frequent long-term exposure = gradually leads to emotional desensitization - Benefits • Learning tool • Meeting new people/ make friends - Drawbacks • Violence, physical inactivity, unhealthy commercials, false news, bullying, lower grades, self-esteem - Suggestions on exposure to child • Limit screen time to 1 hr/day in ages 2-5 • No screen time under 1.5 years old

Ch. 11 Q3* Can attachment style change? If so, what is needed to facilitate changes?

- Most of the time attachment styles are developed and does't normally change drastically as a child develops - There are instances where there might be a need to "change" a child's attachment style. And to do so there are different types of interventions that can help • Clinicians who work with families have developed programs to intervene in parent-child relationships in order to promote attachment security • One commonly used intervention is called the Circle of Security, and parents are encouraged to reflect on their own mental representations of how parents and children should interact and then are guided by trained therapists change any maladaptive representations • Attachment and Behavioral Catch-up (ABC) and was developed specifically for mothers who were identified as at as risk for maltreating their children

Ch. 8 Q4 If you could create your own intervention program, how would you design it? Comment on timing, intensity, etc. Should government funds be spent on early intervention programs for children at risk for educational failure? Why or why not?

- Own intervention program • Supply breakfast & nutrition • Intensity - math, science, reading & music - Extensive communication • All day • Early intervention • Getting parents involved - Yes gov't funds should be spent on early intervention programs • Many benefits: finishing HS, better nutrition, higher IQ

Ch. 11 Q3* How does parental sensitivity influence attachment? Is attachment environmentally constructed or a byproduct of the genes? What is your evidence?

- Parental sensitivity: caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress - Influence attachment: Mothers who have securely attached babies tend to read their babies' signals accurately, responding quickly to the needs of a crying baby and smiling back. There are many positive exchanges between mother and child, such as mutual smiling and laughing, making sounds at each other, and engaging in coordinated play. These characteristics of sensitive parenting are particularly important in promoting secure attachment - Attachment is a combination of both environmentally constructed and a byproduct of their genes • many studies done • Nature or nurture - look at twins, adopted kids, changing parents • One study showed that mothers who are insensitive, only 38% of infants show secure attachment • But with all the research that has been done, it is still impossible to determine whether parents' sensitivity was actually responsible for their children's security of attachment or was merely associate with it • Genes have been researched and associated with less attachment security or more attachment disorganization in their environment

Ch. 12 & 13 Q3 Do you think parenting is influenced by culture? Do developmental outcomes of parenting style differ by culture? What factors influence which style a parent chooses? Include a discussion of bidirectionality.

- Parenting influenced by culture • Parenting norms - Factors that influence parenting • Personality • Copy their parent's parenting styles - Bidirectionality: Need to respond to the needs of the kids, the kids mater

Ch. 12 & 13 Q7 Do parents or peers have a great influence on an individual's development? Come up with a list of topics that a child or adolescent may need help/advice on. For each, do you think they would be more likely to go to a parent or a peer? Can you see a pattern in your predictions?

- Parents/peers influence on development • Peers: choose who you're around, day-to-day decisions • Parents: when younger no friends, - parenting style = attachment style = how you form relationships - Most align politically, come to for big decision, values

Ch. 14 Q1 Describe Piaget's cognitive theory of moral development. Provide examples that characterize each stage. Include in your discussion the notion of immanent justice and intentions behind behavior.

- Piaget's cognitive theory of moral development • focused on how a child's mindset changes from just accepting rules as they are and following them to having an understanding of how moral rules are byproducts of social interactions and that they can be changed - Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality • children in this stage are at stages before the concrete operational stage • justice is whatever authorities say is right • If these rules are broken, whatever punishment these authorities come up with is justified - Immanent justice: This is known as immanent justice, and if a child breaks a rule, they believe they will get immediate and severe justice • children believe as long as they do what they are told and follow the rules, then they are good - Stage 2: Autonomous Morality • 11- 12 yrs • Children have a full understanding that rules come from social agreements and can be changed is most people in the group choose to. • At this age, children begin to believe that punishments should be as severe as the crime • Consider the motives behind the actions

Ch. 12 & 13 Q8 What are the different categories of children and what types of outcomes are they likely to have based on their status?

- Popular • pro-social • friendly • empathetic • attractive • good communication - Rejected • aggressive • withdrawn • mess stuff up • less sensitive - Controversial • class clown • a lot of ppl hate/like them - Neglected (most worried about) • don't initiate • aren't like or hates • know they're neglected

Ch. 14 Q4 Define typical development of prosocial behavior. Discuss genetic and environmental influences on the development of such behavior.

- Prosocial behavior: a voluntary behavior that tends to benefit another individual by helping, sharing with, or comforting - The typical development of this kind of reasoning is measured by presenting children with a moral dilemma, and analyzing the way in which they respond to the situation (girl w/ broken arm) - People who demonstrate prosocial behaviors are more likely to be surrounded by others who are prosocial, and thus are more likely to reproduce more prosocial genes - Other genetic factors that influence empathy and sympathy are through differences in temperament - The main environmental influence on children's development of prosocial behavior is their socialization within their family -

Ch. 14 Q3 Describe prosocial-moral judgment and discuss how it develops over childhood.

- Prosocial-moral judgment: when behavior is intended to benefit another person, such as helping, sharing, or comforting - Preschool: • express primarily self-interested reasoning . • This will meet their own needs, not someone else's needs - Elementary: • children develop the understanding that certain behaviors are wrong even if authorities, such as teachers, do not see the behavior. • During this stage children increasingly express concern about social approval and acting in a manner that is considered "good" by other people and society - Adolescence: • base judgments on explicit perspective-taking and morally relevant emotions such as sympathy, guilt, and positive feelings that are the real or imagined consequences of performing beneficial actions - With age children's prosocial-moral judgment become more abstract and is based more on internalized principles and values.

Ch. 8 Q5* Summarize typical development of academic skills including reading, writing, and mathematics

- Reading • Stage 0 (0-6) - Phonemic awareness • Stage 1 (6-7) - Phonological recording • Stage 2 (7-8) - Fluency in reading • Stage 3 (9-13) - Aquire info • Stage 4 (13-18) - pragmatics - Pre-reading - Word identification - Sounding out - Comprehension - Writing - Math • Pre-writing • Need to learn strategies • Form letters • Magnitudes • Learn scripts • Comes after reading & • Spelling writing • Content knowledge • Culturally different

Ch. 9 & 10 Q6 The ability to recognize emotions, regulate emotions, and learn emotional display rules is important for social intelligence. Define (in your own words) each of these abilities and discuss why each is important.

- Recognize emotions: the process of identifying human emotion, most typically from facial expressions as well as from verbal expressions. - Regulate emotions: the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed - Learn emotional display rules: a social group or culture's informal norms that distinguish how one should express themselves. They can be described as culturally prescribed rules that people learn early on in their lives by interactions and socializations with other people

Ch. 9 & 10 Q5 Discuss the difference between primary (basic) and secondary (self-conscious) emotions. Identify which specific emotions fall into each category.

- Secondary Emotions/ self-conscious emotions • Need self-awareness comparing • Jealousy culturally driven • Embarrassment I • Shame Expectations • Guilt (awareness) • Pride

Ch. 11 Q2 If you had a child, which attachment style would you prefer? Think of and describe an environment where you would prefer a different type of attachment.

- Secure

Ch. 11 Q1 Include a description of the different types of attachment outlined by the strange situation

- Secure attachment • Needs are met consistently & quickly • Relief, emotion regulator, schema - Insecure Resistant • Inconsistent parenting • Kids cry twice as much/hard • Cry more/angry - Insecure Avoidant • Parents make it worse • Avoid her/him, indifference - Insecure/Disorganized • Usually abused by attachment figure • Dazed & confused

Ch. 11 Q6 Summarize the development of the self over development.

- Self-concept: what they think of themselves • 18 mo - realize self • Childhood - likes/dislikes • Adolescence - abstract - Self-esteem: self-worth, how you feel about yourself • Comes from approval & fir culture - Identity: who you think you are, exploration • Achievement Exp. √ Comm. √ • Foreclosure Exp. X Comm. √ • Diffusion Exp. X Comm. X • Moratorium Exp. √ Comm. X Exp. = Exploration Comm. = Commitment

Ch. 9 & 10 Q1 Summarize Selman's, Dodges, and Dweck's theories of social development. Make sure to include their assumptions of how social development occurs and define any keys terms and put them in context.

- Selman's Theory of Role Talking • Stage 0 (<6) - no role talking • Stage 1 (6-8) - Appreciate/aware of diff. perspectives • Stage 2 (8-10) - Think about stage above • Stage 3 (10-12) - Compare/contrast • Stage 4 (12+) - "Most people" - Dodge's Information Processing Theory • Hostile attribution bias - Self-fullfilling • individuals choose to act a certain way in a given situation through a series of five stages. They include encoding, mental representations, response accessing, evaluation and enactment. - Dweck's Theory of Self-Attribution & Achievement Motivation • Learning vs. Performance (Ach. Mot.) -Ex. standardized testing (have to do it, not want to) • Threat vs. Challenge (Att.) Anxiety - Motivating • Incremental feedback vs. Entity feedback

Ch. 11 Q4 Describe social and emotional outcomes that can be predicted by attachment during infancy. How might these factors influence cognitive outcomes for each style? Predict your own attachment style

- Social & emotional outcomes that can be predicted • Secure - healthy, comfortable, mature, good communication, empathy • Resistant - angry, aggressive, volatile, blaming, victim • Avoidant - don't let people in, bullies - Influence cognitive outcomes • Secure - maximize • Resistant - more time crying • Avoidant - object focused, productive, so ok

Ch. 9 & 10 Q4 Describe social referencing. Brainstorm ways that social referencing is used in infancy, in childhood, and in adolescence

- Social referencing = look to others to known how to feel about something - Used • Infancy - notice parents emotions • Childhood - emotions expressed through other things (peers) • Adolescence - Predicting other's emotions, look to peers' emotions

Ch. 8 Q2 Review the different tests used to measure intelligence (IQ). How important is IQ? What do IQ tests predict, and what do they not predict?

- Stanford-Binet - Focuses on 5 factors • Fluid reasoning • Knowledge • Math *Measured by verbal/ • Visual nonverbal • Working memory - WISC - ages 6-16 - 5 factors • Verbal (WAIS for adults) • Visuospatial • Working memory • Fluid reasoning • Processing speed - Predict • Wages • Academic success • Occupational success • Economic • Self-discipline • Perseverance

Ch. 15 Q5 Identify gender differences in cognitive and academic abilities. Identify some stereotypical gender differences that are and some that are not supported by the research (either reported in the chapter or not mentioned). How does effect size relate to gender differences? What abilities differ by gender?

- Stereotypes not supported • Math & Science (m) • Verbal (f) • Art & music (f) - Supported • Physical strength (m) • Speed (m) • Growing speed (m) • Spatial ability (m) • Toys (b) • Physical aggression (m) • Reading & writing ability (f) • Self-control (f) • Direct speech (f) • Growth rate (f) - Change perception • Before HS - Should genders be treated equal • In some instances • Benefits/jobs - Not • Physical/sports?

Ch. 12 & 13 Q8 How do researchers study peer acceptance, what factors affect peer status, and what are the consequences of being unpopular?

- Study peer acceptance • Sociometrics - methods that qualitatively measure aspects of social relationships, such as social acceptance (i.e., how much an individual is liked by peers) and social status (i.e., child's social standing in comparison to peers). • Interview: traits - popular kids - rejected kids - controversial - neglected - average

Ch. 9 & 10 Q5 What external factors impact the development of different emotions? How does temperament impact emotional development? How does a child's understanding of emotions change over childhood?

- Temperament impacts emotional development • Increase of emotional reactivity - Emotions change in childhood • 3 mo - identify facial expressions • 7 mo - distinguish b/w emotions, notice coherence & attend • 2yrs - emotions - late school, mixed emotion • 3yrs - label emotions

Ch. 11 Q5 Critical Thought Question: Look back to chapter 10 and define temperament. Temperament and attachment are unique concepts, but temperament has been shown to influence attachment. Describe how this is possible.

- Temperament: influences attachment, refers to the characteristics and aspects of personality that we are born with - Temperament influences attachment • Emotions • Whether or not parents meet needs or not • Needy = not secure = needs not met

Ch. 14 Q2 For the ethical dilemma on page 595, discuss how children in different stages would differentially respond to the question posed at the end of the scenario and WHY they would respond that way.

- When prompted with the Heinz Dilemma, a child who is in the preconventional level would say that Heinz should steal the drug but try his best not to get caught (avoiding punishment). - A child who is in the conventional level would say that Heinz shouldn't steal the drug because it's against the law. - A child who is in the postconventional level would say that he should steal the drug because a life has more value than a personal item or a medicine.

Ch. 11 Q1 Can children attach to other people, siblings, or objects? What are the most important things that a parent can do to facilitate attachment?

- Yes, anyone/anything who can soothe them, meet each other's emotional needs - Parental sensitivity: refers to the ability to correctly interpret and respond appropriately to infants' signals

Ch. 15 Q4 What are some of the milestones in gender differences across development? Define any key terms that might influence how one perceives or understands gender. How does one's understanding of gender change with age?

• 6-8 mo - Differentiate genders by hair & voice, respond to others • 2 yrs - Gendered toys • 2 1/2 yrs - Gender identity • 3-4 yrs - Gender stability/stereotypes, know what they're supposed to do, avoid violaters, gender segregation • 6 yrs - Gender consistency • 9-11 yrs - Gender is social category, flexibility, individuality • Adolescence - Intensifies (15), then relaxes (18)

Ch. 8 Q1 Flynn (1987, 2007) demonstrated that the average IQ score in developed countries has increased about 15 points over the last 20 years. Brainstorm explanations for this finding. Would you expect similar findings if non-developed countries were included in the data?

• Adopting to technological advancements • Enriched environments = more access to info • More opportunities • Parents are learning to help kids • Prenatal care • Nutrition

Ch. 11 Q2 In other countries, avoidant or resistant attachment styles are more common and may have better predictive outcomes. Why do you think this is the case?

• Be able to figure it out themselves • Different environments • Single parent • Cultures value independence to work on own goals • Innate characteristics of each culture

Ch. 9 & 10 Q1 Which theory resonates most with how you understand the social world? Are their theories mutually exclusive?

• Dodge's & Selman's together • Dweck's is exclusive

Ch. 12 & 13 Q2* It has been proposed that we should make it harder to obtain a divorce. Would you support this proposal? What might be the problems with this proposal? Should the government be involved in decisions about divorce? Why or why not?

• It's their choice and no one else's, why should other people be involved in someone else's life. • The process of divorce is already long, so by making it harder it will probably become an even longer process • Divorce is so simple, if you want one you can get one • A foundation of society, with the ease of being able to divorce it gives people an easy way out of a relationship rather than people work on fixing their relationship • Some problems is that not every relationship is the same, and some are abusive, so making it harder to divorce could be detrimental to some people and also children. • I don't think the government should be involved in decision about divorce because the decision is between the two people and should be private matter

Ch. 8 Q2 Is IQ stable or can it change over time? How predictive are infant and child IQ scores for adult IQ?

• Mean IQ = 100, 130+ = gifted • IQ is stable, unless you want to change • Remains relatively stable after age 5 • Relatively predictive where it is stable at a young age

Ch. 8 Q5* Based on the reading and your own thoughts, should children with exceptionally low and exceptionally high IQ's have specialized classrooms or should they be included in the mainstream schools? What are the pros and cons of inclusion or specialization?

• Mixture of each • Math & reading - benefit children to be with other children at same level to learn & benefit at their own pace, or help themselves • May become bored if mixed • Should have mixed classes to socialize

Ch. 12 & 13 Q2* Describe the effects of divorce and remarriage on developmental outcomes.

• Model in relationships • Change: move, new school, new parent, adjustment issues • Developmental delays: academic, social, emotional • Trust issues • Increase in anxiety, depression, delinquency • Coping skill decrease

Ch. 8 Q3 How do things such as social class and motivation impact IQ? Discuss stereotype threat and propose solutions to minimize its ramifications.

• Poverty = lower IQ (nutrition, support, less access to health care • More motivation = higher IQ - Stereotype • Activate (bring into conscious awareness = influence performance • Challenge vs threat - Solutions • Reduce stereotypes • Gender segregated classrooms • High expectations for everyone • Posters • Guest speakers • Teachers of color, gender . . . etc.

Ch. 8 Q3 How can schools be organized in a multicultural society to provide equal opportunity for all children to attain their academic potential?

• Programs to help • Even playing field

Ch. 11 Q6 How does one's understanding of the self change over development and how is such changes measured? Include descriptions of changes in self-concept and self-esteem over development and between genders. How does one discover an identity?

• Through exploration and commitment •

Ch. 12 & 13 Q3 What are the two major dimensions of parental behavior?

• Warmth • Control

Ch. 9 & 10 Q4 How does social referencing promote survival? What difficulties would occur if you did not have the ability to socially reference?

• What you should be showing (culturally) • Learn what's appropriate • Feedback • What you're allowed to do

Ch. 9 & 10 Q3 Imagine a child who did not develop emotional expression. Would lack of ability create a difficulty for the child? In what ways?

• Yes, would be difficult • Dangerous to the child • Not able to cry = no needs met