Early Modern Period Key Terms

Prince Henry the Navigator

(1394-1460) Prince of Portugal who established an observatory and school of navigation at Sagres and directed voyages that spurred the growth of Portugal's colonial empire.

Henry VIII

(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532.

Thirty Years War

(1618-48) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

Enlightenment

(Hinduism and Buddhism) the beatitude that transcends the cycle of reincarnation

North American Fur Trade

An intense competition for furs in North America. Furs were in high demand, and Europeans often traded with Native Americans to get them.

Viziers

Ancient managers who used the managerial functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling

Factor

Anything that contributes causally to a result

Architecture of the Renaissance

Architecture based on mathematical precision, columns, domes, geometrically perfect designs, revival of Roman architecture

New Amsterdam

A settlement established by the Dutch near the mouth of Hudson River and the southern end of Manhattan Island

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish in the exploration of the Atlantic.

Nation-State

A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality.

Absolute Monarchy

A system of government in which the head of state is a hereditary position and the king or queen has almost complete power

Triangular Trade

A three way system of trade during 1600-1800s Aferica sent slaves to America, America sent Raw Materials to Europe, and Europe sent Guns and Rum to Africa

Northwest Passage

A waterway in North America thought to connect the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean

Protestant Doctrines

Although the doctrines of Protestant denominations are far from uniform, some beliefs extending across Protestantism are the doctrines of sola scriptura and sola fide. Sola scriptura maintains that the Bible (rather than church tradition or ecclesiastical interpretations of the Bible)[8] is the final source of authority for all Christians. Sola fide holds that salvation comes by faith alone in Jesus as the Christ, rather than through good works.

Mughal Dynasty

An Indian-Islamic power that ruled the Indian Subcontinent. It began in 1526 and ended in the mid-19th century. British were able to get rid of it by taking advantage of the diversity of India. Name comes from the word "Mongol", because one of the rulers was believed to be Mongolian.

Conquistador

An adventurer (especially one who led the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Peru in the 16th century)

Mercantilism

An economic system (Europe in 18th C) to increase a nation's wealth by government regulation of all of the nation's commercial interests

Osman I

1299 - Osman is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Empire, and it is from him that its inhabitants, the Turks, called themselves Osmanli until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

Massachusetts Bay Colony

1629 - King Charles gave the Puritans a right to settle and govern a colony in the Massachusetts Bay area. The colony established political freedom and a representative government.

Sir Isaac Newton

1643-1727. English physicist, mathmetician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian. Published work in 1687 describing universal gravitation, and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics.

English Enlightenment

1649-1690 - England reduces power of monarchy through overthrow of Cromwell, Glorious Revolution, English Bill of Rights, and writing by John Locke and Thomas Hobbes

Bartolome de las Casas

16th-century Spanish Dominican priest, writer and the first resident Bishop of Chiapas

French and Indian Wars

1754-1763, Also known as the Seven Year War (yes, the war was actually 10 years). in this war, the French and Indians fought on the SAME SIDE against the British. The war was the inevitable result of colonial expansion. As English settlers moved into the Ohio Valley, the French tried to stop them by building fortified outposts at strategic entry spots. The French were trying to protect their profitable fur trade and their control of the region. The Indians just joined the lesser of the two evils, and joined France in an alliance. The Americans just got stuck in the middle. When the war was over, England was the undisputed colonial power of the continent. The treaty gave England control of Canada and almost everything east of the Mississippi River

Mehmet II

7th sultan ruler of the Ottoman Empire, captured Constantinople from the Byzantine Empire

Capitalism

An economic system based on open competition in a free market, in which individuals and companies own the means of production and operate for profit

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain, declaring that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.

Zulu

A Bantu language of considerable literary importance in southeastern Africa

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A French man who believed that Human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts. Government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy

Sunni Ali

A Muslim ruler of Songhai that built the vast empire by military conquest. He had a professional army on horseback and a fleet of canoes. He captured Timbuktu-an important part of Mali's empire. He also took Djenné 5 years later. He died in 1492.

Society of Jesus

A Roman Catholic order founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1534 to defend Catholicism against the Reformation and to do missionary work.

Natural Laws

A body of unchanging moral principles regarded as a basis for all human conduct.

Plymouth Rock

A boulder in Plymouth supposed to be where the Pilgrims disembarked from the Mayflower

Dutch East India Company

A company founded by the Dutch in the early 17th century to establish and direct trade throughout Asia. Richer and more powerful than England's company, they drove out the English and Established dominance over the region. It ended up going bankrupt and being bought out by the British

Joint Stock Company

A company made up of a group of shareholders. Each shareholder contributes some money to the company and receives some share of the company's profits and debts.

Encomienda

A grant of land made by Spain to a settler in the Americas, including the right to use Native Americans as laborers on it

Act of Toleration

A legal document that allowed all Christian religions in Maryland: Protestants invaded the Catholics in 1649 around Maryland: protected the Catholics religion from Protestant rage of sharing the land: Maryland became the #1 colony to shelter Catholics in the New World.

Parliament

A legislative assembly in certain countries (e.g., Great Britain)

Ming Dynasty

A major dynasty that ruled China from the mid-fourteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. It was marked by a great expansion of Chinese commerce into East Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia

Enlightenment

A movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason in the reappraisal of accepted ideas and social institutions

Patronage of the Arts

A patron pays for art. In Italy, the Medici family and the Pope were the greatest examples of patrons.

Italian Renaissance

A period of intense artistic and intellectual activity, said to be a 'rebirth' of Greco-Roman culture. From roughly the mid-fourteenth to mid-fifteenth century followed by this movement spreading into the Northern Europe during 1400-1600

Lodestone

A permanent magnet consisting of magnetite that possess polarity and has the power to attract as well as to be attracted magnetically

Mestizos

A person of mixed Native American and European ancestory

Entrepreneur

A person who organizes a business venture and assumes the risk for it

Viceroyalty

A province ruled by a viceroy, who ruled in the king's name.

Glorious Revolution

A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange.

Indulgence

A release from all or part of punishment for sin by the catholic church, reducing time in purgatory after death

Taj Mahal

Beautiful mausoleum at Agra built by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan (completed in 1649) in memory of his favorite wife.

Divine Right

Belief that a rulers authority comes directly from god.

British East India Company

Britain's system of entering India and setting up a worldwide trading port. Originally the motives behind this company were purely economic- that is, Britain wanted to use the raw materials in India in order to make a profit. Eventually Britain would realize the power it could achieve in attaining political, as well as economical control of India, and moved further in their imperialist attempts.

Janissaries

Christian boys taken from families, converted to Islam, and then rigorously trained to serve the sultan

Spanish Importation of Smallpox and Measles

Columbian exchange negative - immunity lacking in indigenous people - led to millions of deaths - huge demographic switch

English Civil War

Conflict from 1640 to 1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in 1660 following execution of previous king

Rococo

Fanciful but graceful asymmetric ornamentation in art and architecture that originated in France in the 18th century

Henry Hudson

Discovered what today is known as the Hudson River. Sailed for the Dutch even though he was originally from England. He was looking for a northwest passage through North America.

Millet System

Divided regions in the Ottoman Empire by religion (Orthodox Christians, Jews, Armenian Christians, Muslims). Leaders of each millet supported the Sultan in exchange for power over their millet.

Ninety-Five Theses

Document written by Martin Luther and posted on a church door in Germany that listed 95 things that Luther saw wrong with the church

Boers

Dutch immigrants that settled in South Africa in the 1600's

Baroque

Elaborate an extensive ornamentation in decorative art and architecture that flourished in Europe in the 17th century

Siege of Vienna

Failed attempt by Ottoman Empire to invade Europe, ever since Europe had to fear/keep peace with Ottoman Empire - farthest Westward advance into Central Europe of the Ottoman Empire, and of all the clashes between the armies of Christianity and Islam might be signaled as the battle that finally stemmed the previously-unstoppable Turkish forces

Qing Empire

Empire established in China by Manchus who overthrew the Ming Empire in 1644. At various times they also controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, Turkestan, and Tibet. The last emperor of this dynasty was overthrown in 1911 by nationalists.

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator.

European Religious Wars

Following Reformation - European regions fought each other on whether to be Protestant or Catholic, stay Catholic, still pay taxes to Church, Church owns property, but traditional, princes/leaders would change minds & people would have to follow

Silver Mining

Forever altered world trade - became source of wealth for Portugal/Spain, currency for China, dominated resource of Mexico, extracted minerals from America and sent to Europe

Babur

Founder of Mughal dynasty in India; descended from Turkic warriors; first led invasion of India in 1526; died in 1530.

Estates-General

France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 led to the French Revolution.

Northern Wave of Exploration

France, England, Dutch explore North America set up independent colonies with direct ties to Western Europe, less role of the Catholic Church, greater political independence than Latin America, developed more diverse societies than monoculture of Latin America

Huguenots

French Protestants. The Edict of Nantes (1598) freed them from persecution in France, but when that was revoked in the late 1700s, hundreds of thousands of Huguenots fled to other countries, including America.

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence river and laid claim to the region for France (1491-1557)

Voltaire

French, perhaps greatest Enlightenment thinker. Deist. Mixed glorification and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions. Wrote Candide. Believed enlightened despot best form of government.

Babur the Tiger

Fthe Mughal dynasty of India. He was a direct descendant of Timur, and believed himself to be a descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother

Toyotomi Hideyoshi

General under Nobanga; suceeded as leading military power in Japan; continued efforts to break power of daimyos; constucted a series of military alliances that made him the military master of Japan in 1590; died in 1598.

Hideyoshi

General under Nobunaga; succeeded as leading military power in central Japan; continued efforts to break power of daimyos; constructed a series of alliances that made him military master of Japan in 1590; died in 1598

Martin Luther

German theologian and leader of the Reformation. His opposition to the wealth and corruption of the papacy and his belief that salvation would be granted on the basis of faith alone rather than by works caused his excommunication from the Catholic Church (1521). Luther confirmed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, effectively establishing the Lutheran Church.

Charles V

Holy Roman emperor (1519-1558) and king of Spain as Charles I (1516-1556). He summoned the Diet of Worms (1521) and the Council of Trent (1545-1563).

Harem

Living quarters reserved for wives and concubines and female relatives in a Muslim household

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish explorer who conquered the Incas in what is now Peru and founded the city of Lima (1475-1541)

Creoles

In colonial Spanish America, term used to describe someone of European descent born in the New World. Elsewhere in the Americas, the term is used to describe all nonnative peoples. (p. 482)

Sha Jahan

Indian Mughal ruler - tried (not successfully) to expand frontier - built Taj Mahal

Printing Press

Invented by Johann Gutenberg in 1454; first book was Gutenberg Bible; changed private and public lives of Europeans; used for war declarations, battle accounts, treaties, propaganda; laid basis for formation of distinct political parties; enhanced literacy, people sought books on all subjects

Safavid Empire

Iranian kingdom (1502-1722) established by Ismail Safavi, who declared Iran a Shi'ite state.

Askia Mohammed

Islamic King of Songhai, established madrassa schools and universities, legal system based on Shari'ah law

Galileo

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars; demonstrated that different weights descend at the same rate; perfected the refracting telescope that enabled him to make many discoveries (1564-1642)

Christopher Columbus

Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China (1451-1506)

Louis XIV

King of France from 1643 to 1715; his long reign was marked by the expansion of French influence in Europe and by the magnificence of his court and the Palace of Versailles (1638-1715)

Sugar Production and the Slave Trade

Labor intensive, dangerous, spurred growth of Atlantic Slave trade to Caribbean/Latin America - numbers kept up through extensive trade, not through reproduction - males primarily brought over - overseers keep order violently, absentee landowners

Atlantic Slave Trade

Lasted from 16th century until the 19th century. Trade of African peoples from Western Africa to the Americas. One part of a three-part economical system known as the MIddle Passage of the Triangular Trade.

Apartheid

Laws (no longer in effect) in South Africa that physically separated different races into different geographic areas.

Saint Ignatius Loyola

Leader of Jesuits - pushed for universities, education, human rights

Gold Trade in West and Central Africa

Made inland nations rich, relied on slave trade and gold to increase wealth, stunted/slowed industrialization, made African nations dependent, needed to purchase European weapons to expand control of region

Maria Theresa and Joseph II

Maria - administrative reforms to strengthen Habsburg state, modernized and enlarged army, conservative, didn't follow philosophy; Joseph - made reforms according to philosophy and religion, to an empire with a variety of ethnic groups, languages, religions and cultures. The reforms were overwhelming to all classes: nobility (freeing serfs), serfs (sudden changes), and church (attacks on monastic system).

Osei Tutu

Member of Oyoko clan of Akan peoples in Gold Coast region of Africa; responsible for creating unified Asante Empire; utilized Western firearms

Puritans

Members of a group of English Protestants of the late 16th and 17th centuries who regarded the Reformation of the Church of England under Elizabeth as incomplete and sought to simplify and regulate forms of worship

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order of priests founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, St. Francis Xavier, and others in 1534, to do missionary work. The order was zealous in opposing the Reformation. Despite periodic persecution it has retained an important influence in Catholic thought and education

Tokugawa Shogunate

Shogunate started by Tokugawa Leyasu; 4 class system, warriors, farmers, artisans, merchants; Japan's ports were closed off; wanted to create their own culture; illegal to fight; merchants became rich because domestic trade flourished (because fighting was illegal); had new forms of art - kabuki and geishas

Hagia Sophia

Most famous example of Byzantine architecture, it was built under Justinian I and is considered one of the most perfect buildings in the world.

Akbar

Most illustrious sultan of the Mughal Empire in India (r. 1556-1605). He expanded the empire and pursued a policy of conciliation with Hindus.

Aurangzeb

Mughal emperor in India and great-grandson of Akbar 'the Great', under whom the empire reached its greatest extent, only to collapse after his death

Lepanto

Naval battle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire resulting in Spanish victory in 1571; demonstrated European naval superiority over Muslims.

Population Growth and the Agricultural Revolution

Need for more food for Industrialization/growing population (little disease, improving health/diet), improved technology, crop rotation, enclosure movement

Sikhs

Nonviolent religous group that blended Buddhism, Hinduism and Sufism

Suleiman I

One of the early Ottoman rulers who strengthened Muslim forces prior to the Battle of Lepanto. He was a multitalented man - a heroic military commander, a skillful administrator and patron of the arts. Ruling from 1520 - 1566 AD, Suleiman organized the Ottoman laws as he acted as both the Sultan and Caliph of his empire.

Guinea States

States in West Africa known for gold and African slave labor

Parliamentary Monarchy

Originated in England and Holland, 17th century, with kings partially checked by significant legislative powers in parliaments.

Devshirme

Ottoman policy of taking boys from Christian peoples to be trained as Muslim soldiers

Cossacks

Peasants recruited to migrate to newly seized lands in Russia, particularly in south; combined agriculture with military conquests; spurred additional frontier conquests and settlements.

Peninsulares

People living in the New World Spanish colonies but born in Spain.

Proto-Inustrialization

Phase in the development of modern industrial economies that preceded, and created conditions for, the establishment of fully industrial societies.

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who produced a workable model of the solar system with the sun in the center (1473-1543)

Henry of Navarre

Political leader of the Huguenots and a member of the Bourbon dynasty, succeeded to the throne as Henry IV. He realized that as a Protestant he would never be accepted by Catholic France, so he converted to Catholicism. When he became king in 1594, the fighting in France finally came to an end.

European and Arab Domination of East African-Indian Ocean Trade Network

Portugal and Islam dominated trade of trees, exotic animals, slaves to Arab world, back to Europe

Iberian Wave of Exploration

Portuguese and Spanish move across coast of Africa, exploring quickest route to India, starts wave of exploration, set up forts on islands on coast

Portuguese Sugar Production

Portuguese cultivated in Brazil 1532 - surpassed honey as primary sweetener

Tea and Chinese Trade with Europe

Portuguese discover Chinese tea in 1560s, starts as drink of the wealthy, eventually supply increases, becomes part of daily life of Europe, dominates life

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese navigator who led the Spanish expedition of 1519-1522 that was the first to sail around the world.

Footbinding

Practice in chinese society to mutilate women's feet in order to make them smaller; produced pain and restricted women's movement; made it easier to confine women to the household

New Spain

Spanish colony in North America including Mexico, Central America, the southwest United States, and many of the Carribean islands from the 1500s to the 1800s

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico (1485-1547)

Frederick the Great

Prussian king of the 18th century; attempted to introduce Enlightenment reforms into Germany; built on military and bureaucratic foundations of his predecessors; introduced freedom of religion; increased state control of economy.

Kangxi

Qing emperor (r. 1662-1722). He oversaw the greatest expansion of the Qing Empire.

Protestant Reformation

Religious reform movement within the Latin Christian Church beginning in 1519. It resulted in the 'protesters' forming several new Christian denominations, including the Lutheran and Reformed Churches and the Church of England.

Empirical Research

Research that operates from the ideological position that questions about human behavior can be answered only through controlled, systematic observations in the real world

Boyars

Russian landholding aristocrats; possessed less political power than their western European counterparts

Russian-American Company

Russian trading company that had monopoly over trade with Alaska

Isfahan

Safavid capital under Abbas the Great; planned city laid out according to shah's plan; example of Safavid architecture.

Abbas the Great

Safavid ruler from 1587 to 1629; extended Safavid domain to greatest extent; created slave regiments based on captured Russians, who monopolized firearms within Safavid armies; incorporated Western military technology.

Ronin

Samurai who had lost their daimyo and were forced to wander until another master would accept their services

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who advocated private enterprise and free trade (1723-1790)

Sovereignty

Supreme and independent power or authority in government as possessed or claimed by a state or community

John Calvin

Swiss theologian (born in France) whose tenets (predestination and the irresistibility of grace and justification by faith) defined Presbyterianism (1509-1564)

Colonization

System of settling new lands that remain under the government of their native land

Indo-Gangetic Plain

The "prized" area in India with its fertile and well watered lands that surrounds India's most holy of rivers

Ivan the Great

The Grand Duke of Moscow, ended Mongol domination of his dukedom, extended territories, subdued nobles, and attained absolute power; made Moscow the center of a new Russian state with a central government

Heliocentric Theory

The idea that the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun

Istanbul

The largest city of Turkey, formerly called Constantinople (capital of Byzantine, or Roman, empire) and originally called Byzantium in ancient times.

Catholic Reformation and Counter Reformation

The Reformation was the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th century; its greatest leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin. Having far-reaching political, economic and social effects, the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one of the three major branches of Christianity. The Counter Reformation was the reform of the Church of Rome in the 16th and 17th centuries that was stimulated by the Protestant Reformation.

Excommunication

The act of banishing a member of the Church from the communion of believers and the privileges of the Church

Predestination

The belief that what happens in human life has already been determined by some higher power

Reconquista

The effort by Christian leaders Isabella and Ferdinand to drive the Muslims out of Spain, lasting from the 1100s until 1492.

German Enlightenment

The era in Western philosophy and intellectual, scientific, and cultural life, centered upon the 18th century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Columbus's voyages.

Jamestown

The first successful settlement in the Virginia colony founded in May, 1607. Harsh conditions nearly destroyed the colony but in 1610 supplies arrived with a new wave of settlers. The settlement became part of the Virginia Company of London in 1620. The population remained low due to lack of supplies until agriculture was solidly established. Jamestown grew to be a prosperous shipping port when John Rolfe introduced tobacco as a major export and cash crop.

Peter Stuyvesant

The governor of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, hated by the colonists. They surrendered the colony to the English on Sept. 8, 1664.

Class Diversification in Europe

The growth of a middle class between aristocracy and peasantry

Qing Dynasty

The last imperial dynasty of China (from 1644 to 1912) which was overthrown by revolutionaries; during the Qing dynasty China was ruled by the Manchu

Northern Renaissance

The movement in Art in Germany and Flanders that reflected greater religious tones; , Emphasized Critical Thinking, Developed Christian Humanism criticizing the church & society, Painting/ Woodcuts/Literature

Commercial Revolution

The period of economic and political expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism that occurred in Europe

Purdah

The practice among Hindu and Muslim women of covering the face with a veil when outside the home.

Deism

The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life.

Reunification of Japan

The reunification of Japan is accomplished by three strong daimyo who succeed each other: Oda Nobunaga (1543-1582), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), and finally Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) who establishes the Tokugawa Shogunate, that governs for more than 250 years, following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600

Middle Passage

The route in between the western ports of Africa to the Caribbean and southern U.S. that carried the slave trade

Sultan

The ruler of a Muslim country (especially of the former Ottoman Empire)

Ashikaga Shogunate

The second of Japan's military governments headed by a shogun (a military ruler). Sometimes called the Muromachi Shogunate.

Mulatto

The term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of mixed African and European descent. (p. 484)

Laissez-Faire Economics

Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.

Philosophes

Thinkers of the Enlightenment; Wanted to educate the socially elite, but not the masses; were not allowed to openly criticize church or state, so used satire and double-meaning in their writings to avoid being banned; Salons held by wealthy women also kept philosophes safe; They considered themselves part of an intellectual community, and wrote back and forth to each other to share ideas.

Francis Xavier

This was a man who helped Ignatius of Loyola to start the Jesuits. He also was famous for his number of missionaries he went on to promote Christianity

Elizabeth I

Tudor Queen of England. Succeeded Mary I in 1558 and ruled until 1603. In addition to leading the defeat of the Spanish Armada and developing England into a world power, she strengthened Protestantism. Daughter of Henry VIII.

Oda Nobunaga

Took over most of Japan by 1583 with his powerful army, using muskets and cannons. He banished the last Ashikaga and unified most of Japan. He committed suicide because he was betrayed by one of his leaders.

Delhi Shogunate

Various Afghan dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526

Onin War

War between rival heirs of Ashikaga Shogunate; fought between 1467 and 1477; led to warfare between rival headquarters and Kyoto and destruction of old capital.

Dutch Learning

Western learning embraced by some Japanese in the eighteenth century

Mancus

a term used in early medieval Europe to denote either a gold coin, a weight of gold of 4.25g or a unit of account of thirty silver pence