Earth Resources Final Exam

sedimentary rock types

Clastic (Detrital), Chemical, Biochemical Clastic: old rock pieces biological: Plant or animal material is accumulated in one place. It is compacted and cemented together into a rock as it is buried beneath more material. Chemical: dissolved ions in fluid

Explain why beryl can be a variety of different colors

Most of these colors form when an incompatible element substitutes into beryl's crystal structure in place of aluminum (Al). chemical formula: Be3Al2Si6O18

Pegmatite-forming magmas are enriched in _____ elements that act as fluxes

Pegmatite-forming magmas are enriched in incompatible elements that act as fluxes (prefers liquid)

Oceanic crust is (more/less) dense than continental because oceanic crust contains

Oceanic crust is more dense than continental because oceanic crust contains more iron and magnesium than continental

why does the US not produce oil but has a ton of crude oil

the crude oil is shale oil Very large deposits exist on Earth and most are in the US 240x more shale oil than conventional oil on Earth however, since shale oil is an unconventional oil reservoir, it must be mined and not pumped and Mining causes major land disruption Not very economical to produce (i.e., lower net energy) The US has an oil reserve ~3x that of Saudi Arabia's locked in oil shale deposits beneath federal land in Colorado, Utah and Wyoming.

define climate forcings

the four main things that can change Earth's surface temperature (climate forcings)

Which country has a large amount of unconventional oil but not conventional oil?

canada

Mountaintop removal mining is a type of strip mining, what resource is it used to mine? Why is it more damaging than traditional strip mining?

coal The main reason is the creation of "valley fill". This is essentially waste material from the mining process. Instead of putting it into a waste pile, dragline excavators move it into nearby streams and other waterways, destroying those freshwater ecosystems. Additionally, since it's a form of strip mining, it covers a large area and a lot of land is disturbed.

Give one example of a conflict resource that we covered in class and list three characteristics it possesses that make it a conflict resource.

coltan Rare (only a few countries around the world have reserves of clotan Found and mined mainly in country experiencing or prone to conflict High demand for things like cell phones/laptops

why do we need high temp and pressure in coal formation and how is it achieved

concentrates carbon and releases oxygen and hydrogen (causes the plant material coal is buried to 4-10 km depth by clastic sedimentary rocks to achieve the high pressure and temp

3 ways rocks melt

increase in temp decrease is pressure / decreased melting point addition of volatiles

List and describe the three ways that rocks can melt (ie magma formation). Then, list the plate tectonic boundary where that type of melting occurs

increase in temperature Ordinary melting occurs when there is an increase in temperature and the rocks simply turn into liquid. Decompression melting is when there is a decrease in pressure causing the melting point of minerals to lower. The mantle is basically expanding into new or open areas allowing for a reduction in pressure most likely to happen at a divergent boundary because this is where there is a decrease in pressure when certain liquids or volatiles are added, the melting point at which the minerals usually melt at, lowers. When the melting point lowers, it takes a lower temperature to melt the rock into magma. This is most likely to happen at a subduction zone, when sea water comes in contact with oceanic or continental crust. A report by At a subduction zone, sea water would infiltrate the pores of the rock and lower the temperature at which it will melt

recent (since ~1960s) trend in the global population's growth rate?

C.In general, it has been steadily decreasing.

Which of the following factors would most affect the birth rate of a population?

C.Increased access to education

Would you expect mafic or felsic minerals to be more dense? Which elements are more common in mafic rocks than felsic rocks?

A.Mafic iron and magnesium

once coal is formed it can be brought close to the surface by

tectonic processes and weathering/erosion

What is tonnage versus grade

Grade is percent of metal in ore 'Tonnage is the amount of rock that is ore (unit weight)

types of diamond deposits

1. Kimberlite 2. Placer Placer deposits are formed in the same way other placer deposits (e.g., gold) are formed so we won't discuss them.

types of unconventional oils and gases

1. Oil shale 2. Tar sands 3. Tight oil 4. Shale gas 5. Coalbed methane 6. Methane gas hydrates

Describe the two main goals of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and briefly explain how they meet those goals.

1. Secure better price for oil 2. Get greater control over production levels

types of surface mining

1. strip mining 2. open pit mining 3. mountaintop removal

Determine the percentage of gold in a material based on its purity (karat)

24k gold is 100%, 18K gold is 75% (18/24)

a lower grade deposit will always contain __ (more/less) total ore than a higher grade deposit

A lower grade deposit will always contain less total ore than higher grade deposit.

Diamond has a relatively high density compared to rocks that form the continental crust. From which of the following deposits would ancient humans have first mined diamonds?

A placer deposit consisting mostly of gravel

describe magmatic fractional crystallization ore forming process

A process through which some elements are concentrated in the remaining liquid magma. A process through which different minerals are crystallized at different times as magma cools, the composition of a magma changes through time. A process through which some elements are removed earlier from the magma by crystallizing minerals.

conflict resource

A resource ( mineral resource) mined from an area experiencing corruption and violence High demand, location where its found (unstable political climate), rare

Define renewable resource. Is coal renewable

A resource that can be used and replaced naturally in our lifetime e.g., solar, wind, biomass Coal is a resource that is replaced naturally, but not on a time scale where what we use would be replenished so not a renewable resource

hydrocarbons in oil shale are contained where? Are the hydrocarbons liquid or solid? Does a cap rock need to be used in oil shale? is extraction of hydrocarbons from oil shale damaging?

A. The hydrocarbons in an oil shale are contained in the source Rock C. The hydrocarbons in an oil shale are solids D. An oil shale does not require a cap rock to prevent the hydrocarbons from migrating to the surface E. Extracting the hydrocarbons from an oil shale is more environmentally damaging than extracting conventional oil

shared characteristics of both lode (gold) and porphyry (copper) deposits?

A.Associated with felsic magma B.Formed by a hydrothermal ore-forming process C.Formed at oceanic-continental convergent boundaries D.Magmatic water is involved in the ore-forming process

Beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18) is commonly found in pegmatites. Pegmatites are enriched in incompatible elements compared to other igneous rocks. What is the incompatible element in beryl?

A.Beryllium (Be)

Give one example of what you would do to remediate water contaminated by acid mine drainage.

Add alkaline material, which will cause the metal to precipitate as a mineral and be removed from the water.

describe room and pillar mining and its advantages and disadvantages

Advantage: Uses very primitive technology that would be cheaper than the more modern methods of underground mining (e.g., longwall). Disadvantage: If you don't leave enough pillars, or make the pillars too thin, then the roof of the mine can collapse and trap/injure workers.

why do oil and gas migrate up

After oil formation, the hydrocarbons start migrating upwards out of their source rock to a lower pressure rock (want to rise to be at lower pressure)

role of sulfur in coal

All coal contains sulfur (S), but sulfur content varies depending on the type of environment the peat accumulated in Coal is called "high sulfur coal" or "low sulfur coal" Sulfur can be sourced from plant material or, more importantly, from seawater Whether high sulfur or low sulfur coal is formed depends on if there is more freshwater influence or seawater influence where the coal was formed Still both tropical, swampy areas High sulfur: marine environment Low sulfur: freshwater environments

Why are copper porphyry deposits mined using open pits

All of the above (low grade, copper disseminated within the rock, can be found closer to surface and high tonnage

Define the term "gemstone".

Any mineral that is highly valued for its beauty, durability, and rarity. Doesn't have to be a mineral (could be organic or synthetic) Could be a rock Some of these qualities are more important for some gemstones than others e.g., aquamarine isn't that rare, but it is beautiful and durable

Describe in general how the Pink Panthers carried out jewelry heists.

An infamous gang of jewelry thieves active since ~1999 The most successful jewel thieves in the world ~200 members, many ex-soldiers, from Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina As of 2016 had stolen an estimated $372 million worth of gems and jewelry in 280 heists across 35 countries Smash and grab type of burglaries with movie heist drama

Which of the following is not a difference between extracting conventional natural gas and extracting shale gas? A. Conventional natural gas is extracted using vertical wells only, whereas shale gas is extracted using both vertical and horizontal wells. B. Conventional natural gas is extracted from the source rock, whereas shale gas is extracted from the reservoir rock. C. Conventional natural gas is hosted in a reservoir rock, whereas shale gas is hosted in its source rock. D. Conventional natural gas is extracted without the addition of fluids, whereas to extract shale gas, fluid must be injected into the rock that hosts the gas. E. All of the above are differences between extracting conventional natural gas and shale gas.

B. Conventional natural gas is extracted from the source rock, whereas shale gas is extracted from the reservoir rock.

Which statement about oil shale is false? A. The hydrocarbons in an oil shale are contained in the source Rock B. The hydrocarbons in an oil shale can be extracted using a well (i.e., pumped to the surface) C. The hydrocarbons in an oil shale are solids D. An oil shale does not require a cap rock to prevent the hydrocarbons from migrating to the surface E. Extracting the hydrocarbons from an oil shale is more environmentally damaging than extracting conventional oil

B. The hydrocarbons in an oil shale can be extracted using a well (i.e., pumped to the surface)

What type of plate boundaries do not host magma chambers and volcanoes?

B.Continental-continental convergent D.Transform

Review: Which of the following is a characteristic feature of porphyry (copper) deposits? A.They tend to be very high grade deposits. B.They tend to be very low grade deposits. C.They are only found in South America. D.They are formed along divergent plate boundaries. E.They are made up of numerous small veins of ore.

B.They tend to be very low grade deposits.

Berylliums roll in pegmatites

Beryllium (Be) is a "common" incompatible element in pegmatites

similarities in formation of oil and natural gas

Both formed when organic material (phytoplankton) is accumulated and trapped within marine sediments in an anoxic environment Organic material is subjected to increased heat and pressure and is eventually transformed into oil / natural gas

Which of the following is not true regarding pegmatites? A.They can be enriched in incompatible elements B.They are igneous rocks C.They always contain gemstones D.They can contain rare metals that are used in electronics E.They can be compositions other than felsic

C.They always contain gemstones

Explain how carat is used to value diamonds.

Carat is weight 1 carat= 0.2 grams At 1 carat price climbs You can get way more value for your money with a 0.9 carat diamond (and you / your fiancé probably won't be able to tell the difference)

Explain how cut is used to value diamonds.

Certain cuts maximize the sparkle Others intensify color Round is the most common, though Princess and Cushion have recently gained popularity 5 grades from excellent to poor

what are the 4 things that can cause the Earth's climate to change (climate forcings)

Change in amount of solar radiation Change in distribution of solar radiation Change in absorption/reflection of solar radiation by the earths surface and atmosphere Change in recycling solar radiation by the earths atmosphere

describe coal ash

Coal ash is a finely powdered material thats created in the burning and chemical extraction of coal Highly toxic - contains arsenic, selenium, lead, chromium, and other heavy metals

describe how water contamination occurs and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

Coal ash is produced when coal is burned. This is very small particles of coal. regulations require coal-burning plants to capture their coal ash instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. They mix it with water and store it in ponds. These ponds often leak into the groundwater because they are not lined with a thick plastic liner like tailings ponds are. Also, they are more likely to breach because the dams that prevent water from flowing out of them are often made of soil (earthen dam).

what is coalbed methane

Coal contains several gases including methane Methane is released from the mined face of the coal in coal mines In the 19th century, this posed a huge risk to miners Gas is highly flammable and caused explosions

Standard used to establish value of diamonds

Color, cut, clarity and carat

fault trap

Compressional or tensional forces cause rocks to .. move relative to one another. The line along which the movement occurs is the fault. The movement can create an area surrounded by impermeable rocks.

what is patina

Copper reacts readily with oxygen Patina: reaction products that give the green characteristic green color Copper bearing oxide, carbonate, sulfide and sulfate minerals Minerals are slightly different depending on environment

Define the resource curse and give an example of a country that has been affected by it.

Countries rich in resources have been affected by "resource curse" Phenomenon where countries that are rich in resources have worse economic development than countries that have fewer resources Often marred by corruption, authoritarian repression, militarization, and civil war Greater wealth of resources = greater levels of corruption Rebel groups, governments, and mining companies exploit mineral resources, fueling civil and interstate conflict as they try to gain control over riches Political instability No balanced and sustained development

Unconformity trap

Created if a reservoir layer is tilted and eroded, and a new layer of impermeable shale is then deposited When layers of sedimentary rocks stop being formed, erosion can occur. During that time, the layers may also be folded, causing their angle to change. Later, deposition of new sedimentary rocks can resume and deposit horizontal layers on top. The tilted layers below the unconformity can create an area to trap oil / natural gas.

list the layers of the Earth based on chemical composition. For each layer, write a brief description (2 sentences max) about what distinguishes that layer from others.

Crust: Mainly composed of silicate minerals (contain SiO4) and rich in potassium (K) and sodium (Na). Oceanic versus continental crust are distinguished based on density (more/less), chemical composition (more/less Fe- and Mg-rich), and thickness (less/more). Mantel: abundant silicate minerals but less abundant than in curst, higher contents of iron and magnesium than in the crust Core: metallic (iron and nickel )

Which of the following statements about natural gas is true? A.Natural gas forms at shallower depths in the Earth than oil. B. All natural gas is conventional (i.e., it can be pumped to the surface). C. Natural gas is formed from partially decomposed plant material. D. Some types of natural gas are unconventional (i.e., it can't be pumped to the surface). E. Natural gas is formed from a different source material than oil.

D. Some types of natural gas are unconventional (i.e., it can't be pumped to the surface).

Which of the following factors was not important in producing extensive oil reserves in the Middle East? A. Extensive salt layers in the sedimentary rock package B. A restricted oceanic environment C. A warm, equatorial climate D. The presence of a large amount of plant material E. The absence of a subduction zone

D. The presence of a large amount of plant material

Which change is most likely the main cause for the rise in global temperature we are currently experiencing? A.A change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun. B.A change in the distribution of solar radiation on the Earth. C.A change in how much solar radiation the Earth absorbs or reflects. D.A change in how much solar radiation is recycled by the atmosphere. E.All of the above are equally likely to be responsible.

D.A change in how much solar radiation is recycled by the atmosphere.

foliated metamorphic rock was subject to

D.The rock was subjected to high compressive pressure as it was forming.

what is shale gas

Deep shale formations Organic-rich shales that were buried deeper than the oil window (>3 km) Organic material was converted to natural gas; gas in a shale Remains in the source rock

Worlds largest producer of tantalum

Democratic republic of congo

Describe change in absorption/reflection of solar radiation by the earths surface and atmosphere and state whether is it responsible for the current rise in surface temperatures on earth

Description : Certain materials absorb/reflect different proportions of the Sun's energy. If these materials are changed, for example due to a conversion of forest to cropland, or an addition of particulate matter to the atmosphere, then it will change the amount of energy that is absorbed and re-emitted as heat. Is it responsible: We need more data to confidently say if this is a factor or not, but it seems to be that change in albedo is actually causing a decrease in temperature. This means it could not be causing the overall increase in temperature the Earth is currently experiencing.

Describe change in distribution of solar radiation and state whether is it responsible for the current rise in surface temperatures on earth

Description : Energy from sunlight is not spread evenly over Earth. Only the point directly under the Sun receives full-intensity solar radiation. From the equator to the poles, the Sun's rays meet Earth at smaller and smaller angles, and the light gets spread over larger and larger surface areas. As the geometry of the Earth's orbit changes (in terms of the tilt of the axis closer to or farther from 0, the shape of the orbit around the Sun, and the direction its axis points), the intensity of sunlight received at different places on the Earth also changes. Is it responsible:it is likely not responsible because the data shows the amount of energy per unit area the Earth receives from the Sun has varied over time. Currently, the energy/area is decreasing while the temperature is increasing.

Describe change in recycling solar radiation by the earths atmosphere and state whether is it responsible for the current rise in surface temperatures on earth

Description : Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb radiation from the Sun and re-emit it as heat. If more greenhouses gases (like CO2, CH4, H2O vapor, etc.) are added to the atmosphere, then the heat-trapping capability of the atmosphere will increase. Is it responsible: It is likely responsible because the data shows that many greenhouse gases such as CO2, CH4, and N2O have all increased dramatically in concentration in the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution. These gases trap heat and warm our planet. Their increase correlates with the observed increase in temperature

Describe change in amount of solar radiation and state whether is it responsible for the current rise in surface temperatures on earth

Description: The amount of radiation that is generated by the Sun can change with the occurrence of more/less sunspots. Sunspots are essentially storms on the surface of the Sun. When there are more sunspots, more radiation will be generated by the Sun and more radiation will reach the Earth. Is it responsible: It is likely not responsible because there is no correlation between the amount of solar radiation released by the Sun and the Earth's temperature. In fact, recent data shows that the radiation from the Sun has been decreasing while temperature is still increasing.

why are diamonds not forever

Diamonds aren't stable on earths surface A diamond is not forever it is slowly converting back to graphite

Describe the geological conditions necessary for diamond formation.

Diamonds only form at extremely high pressures, deep within the Earth (at least 87 miles) Rocks at these depths are ~2700 °F Too hot for diamonds to grow Diamonds form at ~1750-2550 °F There needs to be a "cool" region that still exists at great depth (where there is enough pressure)

how do you frack

Drill horizontal wells in shale layers at depth Inject high pressure fluids - break the rock, increase permeability 90% water <1% toxic chemicals 9% sand Fracking fluids plus salty brines from the rocks flow back out of the wells Disposal of fluids: typically pumped into other deep wells, which causes small earthquakes (induced seismicity)

Which country would have the greatest impact on the success or failure of the Kimberley Process? A.A country that imports millions of carats of diamonds per year. B.A country that imports thousands of carats of diamonds per year. C.A country that mines and exports millions of carats of diamonds per year. D.A country that mines and exports thousands of carats of diamonds per year. E.Both A and C.

E.Both A and C. A country that imports millions of carats of diamonds per year. A country that mines and exports millions of carats of diamonds per year.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of both lode (gold) and porphyry (copper) deposits? A.Associated with felsic magma B.Formed by a hydrothermal ore-forming process C.Formed at oceanic-continental convergent boundaries D.Magmatic water is involved in the ore-forming process E.The ore minerals are disseminated in the host rock

E.The ore minerals are disseminated in the host rock

Which of the following is true regarding the Pink Panthers? A.Their heists are extremely violent and bystanders are often killed B.Their heists take several hours to complete C.All of their heists are modeled after the Pink Panther movies D.They are the most successful group of jewelry thieves in the world E.They are an all-male group

E.They are an all-male group

Summarize the significance of gold throughout history

Egyptians used it to represent the golden skin of gods, in greece they mined gold Brazil became the biggest producer after discovery in 1700 Discovered in US in 1799 causing gold rush in NC

two key factors about the Carboniferous period (the period of time that lasted 355-300 million years ago) that made it the perfect environment in which coal could form and why important

Factor 1: Plants, specifically lycopsids, thrived and (due to increased oxygen in the atmosphere) grew to very large sizes. This provided abundant organic matter for coal to form. Since lycopsids have a short life cycle, organic matter could accumulate very quickly. Factor 2: More of the continents were located near the equator. More landmass was in a tropical environment, the environment in which peat swamps occur and coal eventually forms.

describe how pegmatites form (summary)

Felsic magma chamber at a subduction zone with oceanic continental convergent boundary Chamber is cooling and fractional crystallization is occurring Crystallizes until no liquid left and breaks out of magma chamber and spits out pegmatites Pegmatites are magma

At which of the following plate boundary types could a felsic igneous rock be formed? At which of the following plate boundary types could a mafic igneous rock be formed?

Felsic: oceanic continental convergent Mafic: divergent

Briefly describe the process that form clastic sedimentary rocks

First, material is weathered from a pre-existing rock. This essentially means that the pre-existing larger rock is broken up into smaller pieces by a physical process like freezing and thawing, or a chemical process like reaction with rainwater. Then, the weathered sediment (small pieces of rocks) is eroded, i.e., moved, by some medium such as a river, the wind, or a flowing glacier. At some point, the energy of the moving medium will not be high enough to transport the sediment any further, and the sediment will be deposited, i.e., come to rest, in a location. Here, the loose sediment will be turned into a rock through compacting the sediment pieces together due to more sediment being put on top of it, and cementation of the sediment when a fluid moves through It and precipitates minerals that act as a cement and bond the sediment particles together.

Explain how volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are formed

Form at hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor at divergent boundaries 2,000-4,000 meters below surface Underwater hot spring Seawater (the fluid in this hydrothermal process) is drawn into the ocean floor, towards the magma at the divergent boundary The fluid picks up metals from the oceanic crust and from the mafic magma As the fluid gets closer to the surface and moves away from the magma it cools A "chimney" is formed when metal-bearing minerals are precipitated from the cooled hydrothermal fluid We mine the chimney and the rocks directly around the chimney

define fossil fuel

Fuel formed due to decomposition of dead organisms, including plants and animals Oil, natural gas, coals

What is the difference between fractional crystallization (FC) and gravity settling (GS)?

GS is the same as FC, but it involves the additional step of crystallized minerals forming layers at the bottom of the magma chamber.

describe magmatic fractional crystallization and gravity settling ore forming process

GS is the same as FC, but it involves the additional step of crystallized minerals forming layers at the bottom of the magma chamber.

list some examples of beryls different gemstone varieties.

Gemstone varieties = emerald, aquamarine, morganite, heliodor, and others *Note that emerald is not found in pegmatites, but it's the most well-known gemstone variety of beryl

describe market value related to ore deposits

How much the metal is worth. If the metal is worth more, then the other factors that make a deposit an ore deposit will fluctuate.

Explain how gold can have different colors

Gold can combine and be alloyed with other metals which causes intermediates in properties such as color and density

Provide examples of how diamonds have been marketed to the public.

Great Depression: diamond sales at an all time low 1938: N.W. Ayer ad agency hired by De Beers to create a campaign 1947: copywriter came up with the line "a diamond is forever", linking eternal romance and diamonds 1951: 8 out of 10 brides in the US had a diamond engagement ring One of the longest running and most successful ad campaigns in history Major brands have been part of motion pictures e.g., Tiffany & Co. Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961) Bride Wars (2009) Tiffany & Co. co-hosted the movie's premiere Tiffany Blue© colored 'red' carpet "Salt and pepper" diamonds→ very gray Visible inclusions of graphite Would be off the charts on the clarity scale and advertised by "...loved by women who want something that stands out from the crowd;" more like one that doesn't conform to the status quo, but rather bucks it" (Gem Rock Auction)

conclusion of what is causing issues with climate change

Greenhouse gases cause the largest changes in energy balance (producing net warming). Albedo changes (from deforestation, aerosols, & clouds) partially compensate for increased greenhouse effect. Solar changes have a small effect

Describe the physical properties of gold and its uses

High electrical conductivity, resistant to corrosion, malleable, can combine with other elements to form rare gold bearing minerals Used as jewelry and currency, used in dental work and electronics

What can you say about the relationship between coal rank and sulfur Content

High rank coals contain more sulfur than low rank

Carboniferous period characterized by

Higher atmospheric oxygen levels

Summarize the historical sources of diamonds prior to 1867, and the significance of the discovery of diamonds in South Africa in 1867.

Historically sources were extremely rare River gravel placer deposits in Golconda Region of India 18th C: diamonds discovered in Brazil, but only produced a max of 50,000 carats over several years 1867: diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes discovered in South Africa Diamonds became more common for royalty and the upper class With more mining, middle class also able to obtain diamonds fighting in SA over diamonds until De Beers Consolidated mines Ltd. was established in 1888 Single organization controlled the majority of diamond production and sales

describe size related to ore deposits

How big the deposit is. Usually measured in tonnes. Bigger deposits are worth more money because there is more rock that has metal in it.

describe depth related to ore deposits

How deep the deposit is located below the surface of the Earth. The deeper it is, the more costly it will be to mine since you have to remove the rock above it that is not ore and is not valuable.

at what depth do we transition from surface to underground mining

IF IT IS DEEPER THAN .5 MILES UNDERGROUND, IT IS UNDERGROUND MINING

Explain how color is used to value diamonds.

Ideal diamonds are colorless In reality almost all "colorless" diamonds have a yellow undertone Colors D-F (and possibly to I) will all appear colorless to the untrained eye I appears colorless D is the clearest Diamonds that go beyond Z on the color scale are termed "fancy" and have higher value yellow

describe how acid mine drainage occurs and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

If a rock contains sulfide minerals, water can react with them to create sulfuric acid. That acid can then react with rocks to leach the heavy metals from them and incorporate them into freshwater. The sulfuric acid can then react with the rock again or other rocks again and mobilize heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, mercury, iron, etc. into the water sources (rivers, streams, lakes, groundwater). Contamination of surface and groundwater due to the addition of heavy metals that have been mobilized from rocks.

Describe the general distribution of coal reserves in the US, both in terms of coal rank and sulfur content

In 2016, the United States was said to contain about 22% of the world's coal reserves. As of January 1, 2020, there is approximately 473 billion short tons of potential coal in the United States. Of the 473 billion short tons, there is around 252 billion short tons of recoverable coal in these mines, both underground and on the surface. This amount of coal can actually be accessed and retrieved using today's technology. The coal not included in the previous number cannot be mined due to circumstances involving environmental, physical, or land issues. Furthermore, the location of these reserves is mainly found in the far Western fields, Interior fields, and Appalachian fields ("Coal Explained"). There are four main types of coal found within the United States. They are ranked from highest to lowest starting with anthracite. This kind of coal is hard, brittle, and black. It is made up of a large amount of carbon and a small amount of volatile matter. Next is bituminous, which appears blocky, shiny, and smooth. Following bituminous is subbituminous. This type of coal is black and dull. Lastly, the lowest rank is lignite. It is brown and crumbly with the least amount of carbon and the lowest energy content. As pressure and heat increases, so does the rank ("1.1. Coal & Biomass - Coal Ranks"). All coal contains sulfur; however, the amount of sulfur is decided by the surroundings in which the coal was formed. Freshwater environments produce low sulfur coal deposits, and swampy and marine environments produce high sulfur coal deposits. Most eastern coal reserves have high levels of sulfur, whereas most western coal reserves have lower levels of sulfur. The correlation between sulfur levels and coal rank is positive. Higher rank coals mostly have more sulfur, and lower rank coals have less sulfur ("How Coal Works").

Describe how coal is formed

In a tropical peat swamp, plants die and fall to the floor of the swamp where they are covered with water. This creates an anoxic environment where the organic material can be partially preserved instead of completely decomposing. Natural sea level rise over hundreds of years eventually causes the environment to change from a tropical peat swamp to one in which clastic sedimentary rocks are formed. Clastic sediments (e.g., sand, silt, mud) are deposited on top of the plant material, creating a separated layer of plant material. Over time, more and more clastic sediments accumulate, burying the peat layer further and increases the temperature and pressure conditions in which it is under. The peat gradually transforms into coal as volatiles are driven out of the peat and its relatively carbon content increases.

incoming sunlight versus outgoing heat in regards to sun hitting earth

Incoming Sunlight shortwave radiation - visible light outgoing heat longwave radiation - infrared) Light energy (shortwave radiation) that gets absorbed by things is re-emitted as heat (longwave radiation)

issues with fracking

Induced seismicity, health effects, air quality and groundwater contamination

issues with fracking and explanation

Induced seismicity: Wastewater disposal wells inject water deep into the Earth and can cause earthquakes. Health effects: These have not yet been well established, but fracking may increase the incidence of certain diseases. It could also decrease the quality of people's lives because it results in changes the community (more people moving in, more traffic, etc.). Air quality : More diesel engines cause an increase in air pollution. Groundwater contamination: If wells leaks, natural gas can contaminate the groundwater / drinking water.

uses of pegmatites (not as a gemstone)

Industrial minerals: quartz, feldspar, micas e.g., high purity quartz (solar applications, fiber optics, lighting), ceramics, glassmaking, pigment, cosmetics Strategic rare metals: lithium (Li), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) e.g., batteries, jet engine components, superconducting magnets You can thank pegmatites for your long-lasting cell phone and laptop batteries

Beneficiation is the process through which

desired minerals are concentrated and undesirable minerals are removed

Explain how clarity is used to value diamonds.

Internal and external imperfections (or lack thereof) "Flawless" diamonds are extremely rare The flaws can provide geologists with information about how the diamond formed, but consumers generally don't like them Size of the cut gemstone is often sacrificed to improve clarity

Intrusive versus extrusive igneous rocks

Intrusive: magma cools very slowly beneath the surface Large crystals (visible to naked eye) Extrusive: lava cools quickly on the surface Small crystals (too small to see)

As peat is transformed to anthracite coal what happens to its rank, heating value, carbon content and volatile content

Its rank increases Its heating value increases Its carbon content increases Its volatile content increases

Explain what the Kimberley Process is and why it is effective in some countries and not in others.

Kimberley Process Certification Scheme: mandate to "address the development, implementation, and oversight of a tracking system for the export and import of rough diamonds to prevent the exploitation of diamonds for illicit purposes such as war and inhumane acts" Stable countries that produce conflict-free diamonds are endorsed Production includes mining, cutting, and/or polishing Diamonds are tracked and can only be sold to countries that are conflict-free All countries have strict regulations for exporting and importing diamonds An agreement between major diamond mining, exporting, and importing countries and companies Facilitates the trade of legitimate diamonds Diamonds are relatively easy to smuggle Some countries in the KP have imperfect track records of compliance (Cote d'Ivoire, Zimbabwe, Venezuela) e.g., Diamonds from Zimbabwe mined from the military-controlled Marange Region are not considered conflict diamonds by the KP KP is relatively good at monitoring large-scale production (e.g., kimberlite mines), but can have difficulty with artisanal-scale operations (e.g., placer)

Explain how layered mafic intrusions (LMIs) are formed

LMIs are the ore deposits for PGEsand are formed in sulfide rich magma at a hotspot under the crust which allows for extra hot melting formed by magmatic (fractional crystallization and gravity settling)

lava versus magma

Lava: melted rock at the surface Magma: melted rock below the surface

salt dome trap

Layers of salt will deform into a dome under pressure because they are more buoyant than other rocks. Other layers around it will bend upwards slightly. The salt is impermeable and along with another impermeable layer it can create an area surrounded by impermeable rocks.

Which part of beneficiation poses the greatest risk for acid mine drainage?

Leaching

cap rock porosity, permeability, and organic content

low porosity, low permeability doesn't matter if its organic rich but most likely is not

Create a list of the layers of the Earth based on physical properties. For the two layers we learned about in class, write a brief description (2 sentences max) about what distinguishes that layer from others.

Lithosphere: strong and brittle, will break or bend when subject to stress and relatively cold temperatures Asthenosphere: weak and ductile (silly putty) and will slowly flow when subjected to stress, high temperature

Lode gold deposits are a type of ____ deposit while placer are a ____ deposit.

Lode gold deposits are a type of primary deposit while placer are a secondary deposit.

what are the 3 ore forming processes

Magmatic (both fractional crystallization alone and fractional crystallization combined with gravity settling) Hydrothermal Surficial

Describe the physical properties of copper and its uses

Malleability, ductility, conductivity Valuable but not a precious metal like gold and silver tarnishes resistant to corrosion once patina has developed so used for building construction used in electrical wires due to highest electrical conductivity of all non precious metals

describe how mercury accumulation occurs and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

Mercury released when coal is burned can enter the atmosphere and later our freshwater sources. Mercury bioaccumulates and biomagnifies so it can accumulate in organisms. To humans it has many adverse health effects such as

describe how land degradation occurs and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

Mining degrades the land by clearing the land, cutting down trees, removing topsoil and vegetation. Not only is it an eyesore, but coal mining can release toxins into the air and water such as crystalline silica and organic carbon. This may be linked to health issues such as cancer and lung disesase.

Describe the environmental hazards associated with each stage of the mining process.

Mining is very important to national and global economies and has many different steps. There are different types of mining including surface and underground. While mining is important financially, there are also environmental hazards and safety issues involved with different parts of the mining process. The major stages of the mining process are exploration, extraction, concentration, and cleanup (Unit 3 Reading). Exploration involves reviewing geological maps, visiting and studying potential sites, obtaining underground information, and drilling, which can harm the environment through disrupting ecosystems. For the extraction stage, one environmental issue is the release of toxic heap leaching fluids into the environment, which can affect the health of both the surrounding ecosystem and human populations. It is important during extraction to avoid the overflow of solutions with toxic concentrations of heavy metals that may occur due to heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt (Environmental Risks of Mining). Casings, pipelines, storage tanks involved with extraction can corrode, resulting in leaks and contamination (Environmental Risks of Mining). Concentration involves beneficiation, milling, and/or floatation (Unit 3 Reading). It is particularly damaging in open pit mining because more ore is needed to find strategic minerals only available in small concentrations. Open pit mining can also result in exposing radioactive elements into the atmosphere or into bedrock (Environmental Risks of Mining). One of the biggest environmental risks with the clean up stage involves mines that were close prior to the passing of environmental regulations in different areas. In the U.S. many mines closed before the 1970s caused acid mine drainage, which occurs when sulfides oxidize and creates acid. It is most common in metal mining and can cause toxic metals to enter water (Unit 3 Reading). Brown (2019) looked at many examples in the U.S. of pollution and environmental hazards throughout the country. Among them, he found that waterways could be devoid of life and elevated lead levels that persist in the blood of children despite a two-decade effort to clean up lead and zinc levels. He also found mining sites where untreated water harms the environment or threatens drinking water supplies in North and South Carolina, Vermont, Missouri, and Oregon.

List and briefly describe three changes that could potentially occur in this stage 2 country that would affect its growth rate and move it into later stages of the demographic transition.

Most likely, the changes will cause the birth rate to decrease instead of the death rate to decrease further. Factors that could decrease the birth rate are: 1. Increase in education, e.g., people learn about family planning 2. Elevate the status of women, e.g., women have more say in how many children the family has 3. Government family planning, e.g., some countries mandate how many children, particularly female children, each women is allowed to have

OPEC formed as a direct response to

Multinational oil companies decreasing oil prices and payments to Producers

Coalbed methane: is it an oil or natural gas? What type of rock (or material) is the hydrocarbon contained in? What are its unique properties? How would you extract the hydrocarbon

Natural gas The natural gas/hydrocarbon is in coal Drill a well into a coal layer and pump water out, which decreases the pressure and allows the natural gas to flow up the well.

Methane hydrates: is it an oil or natural gas? What type of rock (or material) is the hydrocarbon contained in? What are its unique properties? How would you extract the hydrocarbon

Natural gas Ice The natural gas is frozen in ice cant extract

environments where oil and natural gas can be formed

Natural gas can be formed by either thermogenic reactions at depth or biogenic processes near the surface. Natural gas forms in both marine and terrestrial environments Oil can only be formed by the thermogenic transformation of organic material. Oil forms exclusively from organic matter in marine sediments

differences in formation of oil and natural gas

Natural gas is formed at greater depths than oil (higher temperatures and pressures)

continental continental convergent boundaries (magma, volcanos, what rock formed, what ore forming processes happen)

No volcanoes, yes small and large earthquakes No magma

Which of the following is false regarding coal ash ponds?

Normally lined with an impermeable plastic

Briefly summarize the history of OPEC and how it influences oil imports and consumption in the US and other western countries.

OPEC started in 1960 when Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela were under heavy stress from western countries to export more petroleum. These countries banded together and created OPEC in order to have "fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry" (Brief History). The organization has a total of 15 members today. All 15 members can be found either in the Middle East or Africa. This is due to the fact that the Middle East is the perfect place for oil formation because it is rich in organic material, has lots of porous and permeable carbonate rocks, has shale layers and contains salt domes to trap the oil reservoirs. From the image above it is shown that the majority of the imports of oil comes from OPEC countries. In fact the OPEC controls over 50% global oil supplies and 90% of oil reserves (Lioudis). OPEC is able to regulate how much oil a country reserves. Through this they are able to manipulate gas and oil prices within a country's economy. For example, during the climax of the covid-19, OPEC slowed down access to oil to save their reserves to meet the demand of the country. Because the loss of demand was so great, OPEC had to lower the price of their exports and in turn, gas prices dropped in the country (Lawler). OPEC is able to influence oil consumption in other countries due to the fact that they control the majority of the oil reserves in the world, and can decide who gets oil and who doesn't.

describe how coal fires occur and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

Often due to accidental fires that spread to a coal mine or a coal seam (an unmined layer of coal). Burning coal due to these fires accounts for 3% of annual global CO2 emissions and also releases on average 40 tons of mercury into the atmosphere. If enough coal burns, the land above it can subside.

describe surficial ore forming process

Often involves processes that also form sedimentary rocks Weathering, erosion, deposition These processes can concentrate elements making them economical to mine Weathering is the process of breaking down a rock by physical or chemical processes Physical weathering processes break down pre-existing rocks, forming loose grains Loose grains are sediments Big rocks become little rocks These rocks could contain an ore mineral Erosion and deposition Products of mechanical weathering may be eroded (picked up and carried) and deposited somewhere else These must also be resistant to chemical weathering

why is oil shale not extracted on production scale

Oil shale generates very low net energy Many experimental sites are trying to advance the extraction technology so that the cost of mining oil shale can become economic

why not mine oil shale

Oil shale is much more expensive to mine than pumping from conventional oil reservoirs. Oil shale mining, above-ground processing, and disposing of spent shale could cause significant environmental problems.

Explain what oil shale is and how it forms.

Oil shale: fine-grained sedimentary rock that contains kerogen Kerogen = solid, complex mixture of organic compounds Produces shale oil, not crude oil (produces kerogen) A precursor to oil did not get buried deep (to the oil window, ~1.5-3 km) enough to generate oil Hydrocarbons are still in the source rock

Describe what pegmatites are

Pegmatites can be enriched in incompatible elements, they are intrusive igneous rocks, they contain rare metal, they can be compositions other than felsic but most have a felsic composition Known for having large crystals, unique textures, and rare minerals

Explain the role that incompatible elements play in the formation of pegmatites and gemstones.

Pegmatites contain many incompatible elements such as boron (B), phosphorus (P), fluorine (F), and water (H2O) Act as fluxes when the pegmatite-forming magma is crystallizing Increase element diffusion rates Suppress crystal nucleation Number of competing crystal nuclei is reduced Small number of crystals grow to large sizes

Explain how coltan mining has affected the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Power struggles over these coltan reserves between states and rebel neighboring forces such as Rwanda and Uganda have been a core problem in causing the Congolese war (Totolo 2009). This war over resources has claimed over four million lives in the past decade due to the exploitation of workers, conflict over the reserves, and dangerous conditions of the mine. Due to the increased demand for coltan, mines have exploited children as young as seven to work for just one to two dollars a day (Olivier 2017)(Figure 1). These children are exposed to dangerous and unsanitary conditions allowing for fatal injuries and diseas In addition to the horrible working conditions and human rights issues from coltan mining in the DRC, the environmental effects are just as bad. Internal conflicts have posed a risk to the economy, natural security, and environment. The forest and wildlife of the DRC are under severe threat as uncontrolled, illegal mining increases commercial markets for wild-sourced meat. Forest elephants have experienced a 62% decline in population between 2002 and 2011 and the gorilla population has dropped by 77% making these animals now critically endangered (Ruggiero 2017). As miners must carry out intense physical labor, there is an increased demand for protein which can easily be provided through the hunting of these large animal

Distinguish between primary and secondary recovery.

Primary recovery: A well is drilled down into an oil reservoir and the oil is pumped up the well. Secondary recovery: An injection well is drilled down into the reservoir and steam is injected to heat up the oil. This reduces its viscosity and allows it to flow up the production well.

Explain how fracking can induce earthquakes.

Pumping wastewater into deeper wells is the primary cause of earthquakes associated with fracking Some earthquakes are caused by the fracking itself, but these are typically smaller and much fewer (1-2%) Wastewater disposal wells typically operate for longer durations and inject much more fluid than fracking (More likely to induce earthquakes) Wastewater is produced at all oil wells, not just fracking wells Seismicity can occur significant distances from the injection wells and at greater depths Most of these earthquakes are in the magnitude 3-4 range Large enough to have been felt by some people Small enough to rarely cause damage

the light that is absorbed by the atmosphere and surface is re-emitted in what form

Re-emitted in the form of infrared (long-wave)radiation Absorbed energy is re-emitted as heat and contributes heat to the planet

example of reclamation of open pit mine

Re-vegetate the land to bring in native plant species and also stabilize the slopes. If there is still liquid in the tailings ponds, drain them and treat the water. Some tailings ponds could be turned into wetlands with specific plants to remediate the water. Filling in an open pit mine is not a reasonable way to reclaim it because the hole is too large to fill.

Describe the significance of diamonds in pop culture.

Red carpet events are used as a stage to advertise jewelry brands and market specific commodities Brands want to loan jewelry for advertisement Most of the jewelry that stars are wearing is borrowed

regional metamorphic rocks

Regional is high pressure and high heat, need convergent, foliated Convergent boundary, also never melted Continental continental convergent , oceanic continental convergent, transform

Explain how silver veins are formed

Sheet like body of crystallized minerals Form via crystallization of hydrothermal fluid associated with a magma body that produces there fluids Single veins can be ore deposits if wide enough → several feet Thin veins are components of larger ore deposits Mining silver from veins is easier because the metal doesn't need to be processed

How do you calculate the concentration factor and what does a lower concentration factor mean

Required percentage of metal in rock (grade) to be an ore/ average concentration in earths crust When the concentration factor is lower it means that it is less rare because it needs to be concentrated to a higher degree to make it economic to mine

explain why Middle East was an ideal place for oil formation, storage (in reservoir rocks), and entrapment.

Rich in organic matter The Middle East was located near the equator and at the edge of a restricted ocean basin, allowing large amounts of organic matter and sediment to accumulate. Ocean currents would bring warm, nutrient-rich water into the restricted area where the Middle East was located and plankton could proliferate. Presence of lots of porous and permeable carbonate rocks Carbonate rocks have high porosity and permeability so they make great reservoir rock Presence of shale layers Shale layers are good cap rocks because they have low permeability Presence of salt domes and anticline folds Folding of shale layers created anticlines, which act as traps. Additionally, there were salt layers that were deformed and created salt domes, which can also form traps.

silver versus gold

Silver is less reactive, less valued and less dense than gold

re-emission of solar radiation (greenhouse effect)

Solar radiation absorbed by Earth re-emitted as infrared radiation Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere absorb infrared radiation and re-emit in all directions, including back towards Earth's surface Surface of the Earth emits more total radiation (396 W m-2) than it absorbs from the sun directly (161 W m-2)

describe how pegmatites form (detailed)

Some minerals crystallize before others When they crystallize, whatever elements they are composed of are removed from the magma e.g., Quartz crystallizes, SiO2 is removed Compatible elements (those that like to go into solid minerals) will become part of these minerals while incompatible elements stay in the liquid magma The residual magma that then crystallizes into a pegmatite is enriched in incompatible elements Pegmatites form from the last remaining part of a magma that is already enriched in incompatible elements This magma has already undergone fractional crystallization The pegmatite-forming magma then crystallizes, again undergoing fractional crystallization Incompatible elements become super concentrated

how would you mine coal seam and what is the reasoning

Strip or longwall (depending on depth of seams) Coal seams occur as horizontal layers. If they're close to or at the surface, you'd use strip. If they're deeper, you'd use longwall.

Explain why sulfur plays such an important role in the formation of LMI PGE deposits

Sulfide-rich magmas still contain silicate minerals, but have more sulfide minerals than normal PGEs bond more strongly with sulfide (S 2-) Therefore, a sulfide-rich magma will contain more PGEs than a normal silicate magma Sulfide minerals are harder to melt than silicate minerals Extra hot heat source needed to produce this magma

Compare and contrast surface and underground mining in general.

Surface Mining: lower grade ore, less expensive, safer, less regulations, more of an impact on communities because its more visible, more environmental impacts Always chosen unless deep Underground Mining: higher grade ore, more expensive, more dangerous, more regulations, less impact on community and environment

Current climate observations

Surface temperature is increasing Precipitation patterns are changing Glaciers are retreating/melting Sea ice is decreasing Sea level is rising Atmospheric composition is changing (increased CO2, CH4, N2O) Many of these observations can be linked to increasing surface temperature.

A hypothetical ore deposit begins at 5 ft below the surface and extends to a depth of 25 ft. The ore is concentrated in several thin layers (<1 ft each) that are approximately horizontal and extend laterally for up to 3 miles. Considering all these factors, which method would you choose to mine this deposit?

Surface: strip

Explain how tar sands are formed

Tar sands (also referred to as oil sands): a combination of clay, sand, water, and bitumen Bitumen: a sticky, black, and highly viscous crude oil with a consistency of cold molasses and is composed of heavier hydrocarbons than conventional oil Bacteria preferentially consume light hydrocarbons and leave the heavier behind Also more impurities, e.g., nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), heavy metals Very high viscosity Instead tar sand deposits are recovered by: Ex-situ methods: strip mining In-situ methods: heating and extracting

summary of why the Middle East has so much conventional oil.

The Middle East was an ideal place for oil formation, storage (in reservoir rocks), and entrapment. Rich in organic matter→ source rocks Lots of porous and permeable carbonate rocks→ reservoir rocks Shale layers → cap rocks Salt domes and anticline folds → traps

Based on what you have just learned about OPEC and the control of oil prices, which of the following statements is true?

The US is dependent to some degree on foreign oil and the price of oil in the US can fluctuate because of that.

What is bioaccumulation?

The accumulation of a substance in an organism.

describe by products related to ore deposits

The presence of more than one metal that can be mined. Sometimes the secondary metals can be sold to help finance the operation. Sometimes a deposit will not be considered an ore deposit based on the presence of a single metal, but will be if multiple metals are valuable and can be mined.

describe how mining subsidence occurs and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

The ground settles above where an underground ore body was mined out. If there is any infrastructure on this land (homes, other buildings, roads, pipelines, etc.) they can be damaged or destroyed.

physical properties of diamonds

The hardest natural material High dispersion (splits light into different colors) High thermal conductivity used as jewelry and a cutting tool because of durability

Briefly describe the Pebble Deposit and the controversy surrounding its development

The largest known undeveloped copper and gold ore body in the world... that also happens to be located near Bristol Bay: North America's most productive salmon ecosystem and home to hundreds of species of animals. Whether we should develop mineral/metal resources is not a clear- cut issue We aren't running out of copper There is an argument to produce more US-sourced copper Even "pro-mining / pro-energy" administrations can change their tune

describe grade related to ore deposits

The percentage of the ore that is metal. The higher the grade, the higher percentage of the ore is a metal and is the value commodity being targeted.

define reservoir rock

The rock that holds the oil / natural gas after it has migrated up and out of the source rock.

define cap rock

The rock that prevents the oil / natural gas from migrating any further (to the surface, potentially) so that the hydrocarbons can concentrate.

briefly explain what OPEC does to meet both their goals

They control the amount of oil they export to other countries. Since most conventional oil is found in OPEC countries, when they limit production, they affect the price (supply and demand). Saudi Arabia is sort of the "leader" of OPEC and will often control their own production even further if any country is not following the rules and exporting more than their quota, again all to keep control of the oil market.

Fold (Anticline) Trap

The up fold or anticline in earth's crust from the reservoir Compressional forces cause layers of rock to bend (fold). If the fold is oriented like an "A" (an anticline), oil/natural gas can accumulate below the impermeable layer. - Oil and gas formed in the source rock are pushed upward by the pressure of land fold. They are trapped by the cap rock above. Gas is the lightest so it lies on top, next is oil, and then H2O.

diamond placer formation

Things your mining have been transported by gravity to a different location Mountain erodes /weathers Snow, rain etc Now the gold is on top because the mountain top weathered away Then something like a river or gravity transports it to the base where the deposit is formed

determine the most likely location to find diamonds

Value diamonds can be found in upwards of 35 countries around the world They are mainly mined in South Africa, Russia, and Botswana However, the countries of Brazil, Canada, India, and China still mine for Diamonds as well

Describe how waste rock is produced and how it could potentially cause acid mine drainage.

Waste rock is what is removed from an area so that the ore is able to be reached. This rock has no real value and is discarded after it is mined. The waste rock is usually discarded into large piles and heaps near the mine to minimize transport costs. The amount of waste rock that is produced depends on the location and size of the ore body, the mining method, and specifically what type of rock it is. Stripping ratio is the comparison between the amount of waste rock and how much of the ore is produced. Usually, open pit mines have a higher striping ratio compared to an underground mine (Lecture 4). Depending on what elements are within the waste rock can determine if toxic elements will be released into the environment. If specific toxic elements are present, those toxic elements and metals can seep into the ground. This happens when water and air break down the waste rock, which is called weathering. Waste rock that contains sulfide minerals are at a high risk of contaminating the environment because when sulfur and water mix, sulfuric acid is made This sulfide acidic water further speeds up the weathering of rocks due to its chemical composition which leads to acid mine drainage (Paktunc). Acid mine drainage is when there is a very high acid and toxic metal percentage in water that leads to further damage. This is not good for the environment because this acid water causes an increased rate of weathering, kills off aquatic life which disturbs the food chain, and can contaminate ground and surface water

what is methane gas hydrates

Water molecules freeze around a molecule of methane gas i.e., frozen water traps the methane inside Formation requires methane, water, elevated pressure and relatively low temperature Higher pressure means the temperature doesn't need to be as low, or vice versa Found mainly in ocean sediments (deeper than 300 m) or in Arctic permafrost When ice melts, the methane is released 1 m^3 gas hydrate = 164 m^3 methane gas

Explain some of the environmental issues associated with tar sands production.

Water recycled during the mining process, but oil companies aren't required to clean it before pumping it back into aquifers Risks to the Mackenzie River Basin: water pollution, wetlands destruction, changes in drainage patterns Land disruption Production of a fossil fuel Upgrading required (more energy) Spills: pipeline leaks and breaks, tailings ponds, leaks/breaks Specific to Canada: tanker traffic on Pacific coast Potential oil spills due to more tankers and collision Habitat of an endangered orca whale population

describe mineralogy related to ore deposits

What type of minerals (mineral class) the metal is part of. It is easier/harder to extract metals from certain types of minerals, e.g., it's very difficult and costly to process silicate (SiO42-) minerals, but native element minerals don't need to be processed to isolate the metal.

describe how acid rain occurs and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

When coal is burned sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released into the atmosphere. SO2 can combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to form sulfur trioxide, which can then react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). This lowers the pH of the rainwater (makes it more acidic). Acid rain has many potential effects such as decreasing the productivity of farms and forests because plants and trees have a harder time growing in acidic conditions. It can damage structures made out of certain types of rocks that will react to the acid. It also contributes to respiratory diseases, can leach heavy metals out of rock and cause them to enter waterways; decreases productivity of farms and fisheries

describe geographic location related to ore deposits

Where in the world the deposit is located. For example, if the deposit is in Alaska there is a limited season during which you could mine it, and you may need to build roads to access it (all costs money). In some countries there are less/more strict labor and environmental laws which will cost a mining company less/more money in operation costs.

oceanic continental convergent boundaries (magma, volcanos, what rock formed, what ore forming processes happen)

Yes volcanoes, yes small and large earthquakes both magmatic and hydrothermal ore forming processes can occur felsic magma can form Gold lode, copper porphyry, beryl pegmatites

Beryl related to pegmatities

a gemstone found in pegmatites

potential environmental impacts of mining coal

acid mine drainage land degradation mining subsidence coal fires global warming acid rain mercury accumulation water contamination

archean cratons and diamonds

all diamond deposits are in archean cratons Found in the middle of many continents Very, very old (> 2.5 billion years) Very thick (at least ~140 km = ~87 miles) Push a keel down into the upper mantle At the base of the keel is an environment suitable for diamond growth High pressure "Cool" temperature This environment is the "diamond window". Outside of it, pure carbon is graphite. Diamonds form at the base of Archean cratons, ~87 miles below the Earth's surface.

Identify the causes of different colors of diamonds.

alloying with other metals

4 main steps of beneficiation

crushing, milling, flotations

Describe the physical properties of silver and its uses

electrical and thermal conductivity, sensitivity and reflectance to light, malleability/ductility Contacts in electrical switches, radio frequency identification devices (RFID) Jewelry and silverware

what is solar radiation

energy from the sun

Summarize the significance of copper throughout history

first metal known to humans began alloying it with other metals around 3000 BC copper made the earliest tools and artifacts large scale mining began in US in late 1800s

Summarize the significance of silver throughout history

first mined in turkey mexico, peru, bolivia dominated production

define remediation

fixing environmental problem (ex: Treatment of contaminated groundwater)

basic formation of diamonds (deposit and magma)

form at the base of archean cratons kimberlite deposits, ultramafic magma (igneous rocks) ultramafic: Extremely low silicon (Si), very high magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe)

describe how pegmatites form (basics)

form by magmatic fractional crystallization (with no gravity settleign) form at oceanic continental convergent boundaries

Explain how porphyry deposits are formed

formation of copper deposits Most ore deposits from which silver is mined are not targeted for silver felsic magma at oceanic continental convergent boundarys, hydrothermal Deposits are mined for Zinc, copper, lead and silver is extracted because its there Ore minerals formed by hydrothermal fluids (magmatic + groundwater) Metal-rich fluids flow through overlying rock Movement of fluids disperse metals in surrounding rocks forming large sized deposits of disseminated (low grade) oreneed lots of rock to be mined

Describe why and how geologists explore for ore deposits.

geologists are always searching for more ore deposits to meet constant demand Geologists study the geology of a location based on its composition. They search for ore deposits based on which mineral they are primarily looking for. For example, if geologists are searching for a copper deposit, then they would base their searches on copper's association with volcanoes. After studying the geology of the environment, geologists travel to the area in order to test the chemistry and the physical properties of the soil and rocks surrounding the area. The purpose of this is to determine the proximity or location of the ore deposit.

earths climate is powered by

sun

reservoir rock porosity, permeability, and organic content

high porosity, high permeability, doesn't matter if its organic rich but most likely is not

Population pyramids with the highest growth rate are _______, population pyramids with a negative growth rate are ______

highest growth rate is biggest base, negative growth rate is base smaller than middle

why do we need oxygen deficiency in coal formation and how is it achieved

if oxygen was present the plant material would fully decompose and none would be left to form the coal get oxygen poor environment is achieved by water at bottom of swamp cuts off oxygen

diamond companies mine what type of diamond deposit

kimberlite

Describe how diamonds are brought from the mantle to the surface via kimberlite volcanoes.

kimberlite magma can transport minerals that were formed in the mantle to the Earth's surface Magmas generated at the base of the craton Generated at depths of 125-185 miles Ascend to the surface extremely quickly (over 150 miles/hour) Pick up diamonds (and other rocks and minerals) that are in their path along the way Kimberlite eruptions are no longer occurring. The Earth is no longer hot enough to produce these extremely rapid eruptions. All the diamonds on the Earth's surface today are the only ones that we will ever have access to. Luckily for us, we still have lots. Kimberlite volcanoes are not associated with plate boundary

describe long wall mining and its advantages and disadvantages

layer, can be very laterally extensive, on the order of miles; Depth = the deepest underground mine goes to depths of ~2.4 miles - any deeper would not be accessible via any mining method Advantage: A safe underground mining method for mining horizontal deposits. Underground mines allow you to access deeper deposits that you wouldn't be able to using surface mining methods. Disadvantage: A more expensive mining method to use (expensive equipment, and the added expenses incurred from mining underground), so your profits are going to be less per unit of ore.

what is tight oil and how is it formed

light crude oil contained in shale (low porosity, low permeability) This is oil in a shale, but not oil shale This shale contains liquid crude oil Buried deep enough to produce oil (in the oil window), but oil has not migrated out of source rock

oceanic oceanic convergent boundaries (magma, volcanos, what rock formed, what ore forming processes happen)

magma produced on overriding (not subducting) plate theres magma, both magmatic and hydrothermal ore forming processes can occur Small and large earthquakes Volcanoes

which of the potential impacts of mining coal are caused by coal ash

mine subsidence. coal fires, acid rain, toxic accumulation of mercury, and water contamination

silver is mined exclusively in what form

mined exclusively as a by product

7 criteria to determine whether a mineral deposit is an ore deposit

mineralogy, grade, size, depth, location, market value of metal, by products

Describe the physical properties of PGEs and its uses

more durable than gold, high desnity more expensive than gold but doesnt tarnish used in jewelry catalysts because it catalyzes chemical reactions

describe strip mining and its advantages and disadvantages

must be a layer, close to the surface (closer than open pit), laterally extensive, shallow horizontal Advantage: Very effective for mining horizontal ore deposits. Again, it's a surface mining method in general so you can extract the ore faster and you can extract a greater quantity of ore than you could with underground. Disadvantage: Environmentally degrading. Very laterally extensive so a lot of land is disturbed. If we're specifically talking about mountain top removal mining, we have the additional issue of the waste rock being pushed into streams and rivers.

shale gas : is it an oil or natural gas? What type of rock (or material) is the hydrocarbon contained in? What are its unique properties? How would you extract the hydrocarbon

natural gas The source rock (organic-rich shale) The natural gas is still in the source rock Use fracking to increase the permeability of the shale and allow the natural gas to flow out and up the well.

The amount of oil versus natural gas produced depends on

temperature and depth of burial Temperature and pressure increase with depth

describe hydrothermal ore forming process

need fluids and heat Hot fluids flow through the subsurface Dissolve metals from rocks Metals are incompatible elements and prefer to stay in the liquid phase Transport metals to a new place Minerals (containing the metal) are crystallized when the fluid cools Metals are concentration and can form an ore deposit

are kimberlite deposits being formed still

no

Summarize the significance of platinum group elements throughout history

no early history, not recognized as a metal until mid 1700s discovered in south africa in 1925 and still dominates production

transform boundaries (magma, volcanos, what rock formed, what ore forming processes happen)

no magma, can only have surficial ore forming No magma or convergence, no volcanoes Only sedimentary rock formed Small and large earthquakes

At which of the following plate boundary types could you feasibly melt a rock by increasing its temperature without changing the pressure?

none

describe tunneling and its advantages and disadvantages

not a layer, more like vein, could be very large but most veins are smaller, say a few feet to 10s of feet in width and tens of feet to 100s of feet in length; Depth = the deepest underground mine goes to depths of ~2.4 miles - any deeper would not be accessible via any mining method Advantage: Can access ore deposits that are underground and not horizontal. Able to mine and follow the ore deposits such as veins so minimal waste rock created. Disadvantage: again, it's an underground method so it's going to be more expensive and dangerous for the workers. You'll need a high-grade ore to make it worth it to use this method.

describe open pit mining and its advantages and disadvantages

not a layer, needs some vertical component, can't be deeper 0.5 miles Advantage: You can extract a lot of ore quickly because you don't need to worry about things like the mine collapsing on your workers. Disadvantage: It's much harder to reclaim the land after the mine has closed because you've created a giant hole in the ground.

contact metamorphic rocks

occur when molten rock touches, or contacts, older, cooler rock. The older rock is changed along the contact zone. Contact needs high heat (source of magma needed) happen at the edges of a liquid magma chamber that acts as the heat source. Importantly, these rocks are never melted. Divergent

mafic minerals are more dense and abundant in what crust

oceanic

Oil shale: is it an oil or natural gas? What type of rock (or material) is the hydrocarbon contained in? What are its unique properties? How would you extract the hydrocarbon

oil oil shale is in the source rock (organic-rich shale) The hydrocarbon is kerogen (a solid, precursor to oil) Either mine it and then heat up the kerogen to produce oil, or heat the kerogen up in situ by burning the shale underground

tight oil: is it an oil or natural gas? What type of rock (or material) is the hydrocarbon contained in? What are its unique properties? How would you extract the hydrocarbon

oil contained in the source rock (organic rich shale) oil is still in the source rock Use fracking to increase the permeability of the shale and allow the oil to flow out and up the well.

define Unconventional oil (and gas)

oil (and gas) that can't be extracted using traditional methods (pumped to the surface using wells)

tar sands: is it an oil or natural gas? What type of rock (or material) is the hydrocarbon contained in? What are its unique properties? How would you extract the hydrocarbon

oil, contained in loose clay and sand The hydrocarbon has been degraded by bacteria, so it is enriched in heavier hydrocarbons Either mine it, separate the bitumen from the sand/clay, and upgrade the bitumen, or heat the bitumen in situ and extract it.

how would you mine diamond kimberlite and what is the reasoning

open pit Diamonds are essentially disseminated ore. You have to mine a relatively large amount of rock and then separate the diamonds out. They also don't form in horizontal layers (remember a kimberlite volcano essentially looks like a carrot) so strip wouldn't be appropriate.

how would you mine copper porphyry and what is the reasoning

open pit The ore is disseminated in the host rock so you'll need to mine a high tonnage of material. In addition, porphyries are characteristically high tonnage, low grade, meaning you have to mine a huge area - you can't do this using underground methods. VMSs are not horizontal deposits so strip wouldn't be appropriate either.

how would you mine silver VMS and what is the reasoning

open pit The ore is disseminated in the host rock so you'll need to mine a high tonnage of material. You can't do this using underground methods. VMSs are not horizontal deposits so strip wouldn't be appropriate either.

Things you need to form coal

organic material Oxygen deficient tropical peat swamp Rapid burial by clastic sediments Increased heat and pressure

why do we need rapid burial in coal formation and how is it achieved

organic material is sealed off from environment (oxygen, weathering) swamps have lots of organic matter so the original plant material quickly gets covered and once sea level rises clastic sediment is put on top and seals the layer

coal ranks

peat, lignite, bituminous, subcutaneous, anthracite peat is the sediment that forms coal and the last is anthracite which is the highest rank

beryl deposits

pegmatites

Porosity versus Permeability

porosity (open space) and permeability (connectivity between open spaces)

source rock porosity, permeability, and organic content

porosity doesn't matter, permeability doesn't matter, must be organic rich

function of traps

prevent oil/natural gas from rising further in the Erath's subsurface and create an oil/natural gas reservoir

Explain how lode gold deposits form

primary deposit, quartz veins formed by hydrothermal ore forming process Felsic magma, oceanic continental convergent boundaries, hydrothermal ore Fluids take path of least resistance and fluids go through cracks in surrounding rocks and move away from heat and cool and crystallize (formation of minerals due to solidification of a liquid)

metamorphic rock types

regional and contact

At which type of plate boundary would you expect to find regionally metamorphosed rocks, but not contact metamorphosed rocks? At which type of plate boundary would you expect to find contact metamorphosed rocks, but not regionally metamorphosed rocks?

regionally metamorphic: continental continental convergent contact metamorphosis: divergent both can be at oceanic continental convergent

define reclamation

restoring the land to its original purpose or to new, useful purpose

types of underground mining

room and pillar, long wall, tunneling

types of traps

salt dome, fault, unconformity, fold (anticline)

Explain how placer gold deposits form

secondary deposit, ore was formed in different location, formed from ore that was weathered and eroded from primary place, formed by surficial ore forming Surficial ore forming, Gravity separation, dense minerals are separated by gravity

What type of unconventional oil/gas is formed when ocean sediments that are rich in plankton are buried to a depth of ~4 km and the hydrocarbons that are generated remain in the source rock?

shale gas

how would you mine gold placer deposit and what is the reasoning

surface (strip) For this one, all you need to know is that it's a surface method because placer deposits are formed by surficial processes and are not found underground.

Explain how solar radiation is absorbed, reflected, and re-emitted by the Earth.

solar radiation is reflected by atmosphere and surface Reflected energy does not contribute heat to the planet solar radiation that is absorbed by atmosphere and surface is Re-emitted in the form of infrared (long-wave)radiation Absorbed energy is re-emitted as heat and contributes heat to the planet

how would you mine PGE layered mafic intrusions and what is the reasoning

something like strip if on surface or underground It would depend on how deep the LMI is. If it's close to the surface, it would be a strip-like mine because the ore occurs in layers. If underground, it wouldn't be longwall because that method is used exclusively for coal. It would be some type of near-horizontal tunneling. Again, for this one it doesn't perfectly fit into one of the mining methods we talked about and is highly variable depending on other factors

describe crushing (beneficiation)

step 1 Large pieces of rock that are brought in from the mine are crushed into smaller pieces.

describe milling (beneficiation)

step 2 Those crushed pieces are put into a steel drum containing steel balls. The drum rotates and the balls mill the crushed rock into a fine-grained powder. Water is added to this powder (not actually part of the milling process, but required to move to the next step).

describe flotation (beneficiation)

step 3 The slurry of milled ore + water is put into a flotation vessel. A chemical is added that has been specifically selected to bind with the desired mineral (e.g., the mineral that contains copper). Bubbles form and the chemical plus the mineral float to the top of the vessel and that froth is skimmed off the top (this is what you want). The undesired components sink to the bottom of the vessel (these are tailings).

describe tailings (beneficiation)

step 4 Tailings are a slurry of undesired, milled rock material and water. They're pumped into a tailings pond. This pond, assuming it's modern, is lined with a thick plastic liner to try and prevent the tailings water from leaking into the groundwater.

What class of mineral do rocks need to contain to potentially generate acid mine drainage?

sulfide

divergent boundaries (magma, volcanos, what rock formed, what ore forming processes happen)

theres magma, both magmatic and hydrothermal ore forming processes can occur Small earthquakes and volcanoes Silver VMS (hydrothermal), mafic lava

how would you mine silver veins and what is the reasoning

tunneling High-grade deposits like silver veins have all been mined out on the surface so the only ones left are deep underground. Tunneling allows you to follow the veins, which will be non-horizontal, creating minimal waste rock.

how would you mine gold lode deposit and what is the reasoning

tunneling gold is a lode deposit is hosted in veins. High-grade deposits like gold veins have all been mined out on the surface so the only ones left are deep underground. Tunneling allows you to follow the veins, which will be non- horizontal, creating minimal waste rock.

composition of fracking fluids and issues/purposes of them

water Issues: Huge amounts of water need to be used to crack the shale and produce natural gas from a well and this can put strain on local water resources. The water isn't often treated and is just disposed of. sand Purpose : holds the cracks created by the high pressure fluids so the natural gas can escape (no issues), prevents the newly created fractures in the shale from closing. toxic chemicals Purpose: We're not entirely sure, but they probably help the natural gas bubbles merge so they can flow more easily up the well, and prevent bacteria from eating the natural gas so it's not degraded before we can use it. Issue: Toxic chemicals can contaminate the groundwater. The bigger issue is these chemicals are not disclosed to the public until after the well is closed, so it creates a lot of uncertainty.

composition of fracking fluid

water, sand, toxic chemicals

describe how coal mining is a contributor to global warming and describe the effect it could have on the environment.

when coal is burned carbon dioxide (CO2) is released into the atmosphere. CO2 is a greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming.

Define source rock

where hydrocarbons are generated It contains the organic material (phytoplankton) that will be transformed into oil / natural gas