Ecology terms
hadal zone
deepest zone, below 6000m
stream orders
headwater stream is 1 prime, (2) 1 prime streams form a 2 prime stream, (2) 2 prime streams form a 3 prime stream, (2) 3 prime streams form a 4 prime stream, and so on.
lithosphere
the earth's crust and the upper mantle
marsh
wetland dominated by herbaceous vegetation, has high plant diversity, has standing water for part of year, macronutrient-rich, mineral- rich, well-oxygenated, black mucky soil
Palustrine systems
wetlands, water may or may not be flowing, saturated soil, 3 types are: marshes, peatlands, and swamps
arrangement of continents and global mean temp
when there is a large landmass at the equator, it prevents much water from being warmed there, and so the earth goes into a cool period. the earth also goes into a cool period if the polar waters are blocked by landmasses, and cannot interact easily with warm equatorial waters
ecotone
where ecological boundaries occur, often stressful for organisms who live there, good places for accelerated evolution to occur
reaction rates and temperature
For every 10 degree C increase in temp, the rate of chemical reactions doubles.
plankton
organisms floating in or on water. Two divisions are phytoplankton and zooplankton. Jellyfish, Sargassum, duckweed, cyanobacteria, crustaceans, fish, and many other organisms can be plankton They may be able to move, but they cannot resist a moderate current.
epibiota
organisms growing on other organisms
PAR
photosynthetically active radiation
topography and soil
positive features (hills, mountains, etc) often have poorer soil. alluvial soils develop quickly from erosion from upland areas.
fringing reefs
reefs that hug shore of continent or island
barrier reefs
reefs that occur some distance from shore and are separated by a lagoon
biome
region of planet governed by particular climate (temperature and precipitation) and characterized by a predominant vegetation type.
3 types of parent material
residual (formed in place from weathering of bedrock), transported (such as from glaciers, wind, water, or gravity), or organic (aquatic sediments and peat)
eutrophic lake
rich in nutrients, usually because of human influence
insect fauna v. stream size
small streams have shredders that eat leaves that fall into the water. medium streams/rivers have grazers, that eat the abundant algae. large streams/rivers have collectors that strain for food particles in the turbid water
soil in regions with year-round growing season
soil is depleted of nutrients because everything is growing all the time, temperature is conducive to quick bacterial decay
mesopelagic zone
some solar radiation can occur, but no photosynthesis. 200-1000m, temp b/t 68 and 39 degrees Fahrenheit
downrigger
stiff rod used to keep a fishing line down at a certain depth. can be used with plankton net to analyze plankton abundance at certain depths
ecology
study of the relationships between organisms and the relationship between organisms and their environments. term coined by Ernst Haeckel who derived it from the Greek word "oikos", meaning "house"
deep sea communities
sustained by marine snow and by chemoautotrophic bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide from "hot smokers"
ecosystem ecology
the study of physical and chemical factors influencing communities, including energy flow
Tectonic lake basins
these are extremely deep and extremely old. They are formed through tectonic upheaval (like Lake Victoria) or in rift valleys (like lake Tanganyika).
glaciers
they are formed when summers aren't hot or long enough to melt last season's ice; they press down crust, and the crust rebounds when the glaciers are gone; they carry debris w/ them and leave it where they melt; they carve out lakes, including great lakes; sometimes they got buried in till, and melted underground for up to 1,000 years; last glaciation was called the Wisconsin glaciation
spring tide
unusually high tide, occurs when the moon is full or new, and so the sun and the moon align with earth
neap tide
unusually low tide, occurs when the moon is in its first or third quarter, and so the sun and moon are not aligned with both each other and earth.
tropical dry rainforest
up to 90 in. prec. per year; 2 seasons (6-month wet and 6-months dry); occur b/t 10 and 25 degrees N and S of equator; avg temp is 74-84 degrees F; soils better than in tropical rainforest because seasonality allows soils to rest and there is less rain to wash away nutrients in the soil; if soils aren't protected, erosion will damage them; tree height varies w/ soil moisture; deciduous trees may live here; it is an endangered biome b/c it has a much higher human population than tropical rain forests (wet rain forests) and it is used much more for agriculture
epilimnion
upper layer of lake, warmer during the summer
neritic zone
zone where photosynthesis can occur on seafloor
epipelagic zone
zone where photosynthesis occurs. 0-200m, 69 degrees Fahrenheit average temp.
blade
"leaf" for an algae
stipe
"stem" for a moss or an algae
layers of the tropical rainforest
(from top to bottom) emergent layer, canopy layer, understory layer, immature layer, herb layer
soil layers
(in order, from top to bottom): O horizon (large organic matter), A horizon (black, rich in decayed organic matter), E horizon (elluvial, zone of leaching), B horizon (illuvial, iron accumulates here), C horizon (broken parent material), R horizon (parent material)
geographic ecology
(landscape ecology) This focuses on long-term ecological processes in biomes and the biosphere.
holdfast
algae use this to cling to bottom surface
Abyssal zone
4000-6000m
tundra
55-70 degrees N of equator; avg annual temp is -71F; soils are peat-based (from un-decomposed remains of sphagnum moss and other bog plants); organic material doesn't rot because the coldness, low oxygen levels, and water don't help bacteria and fungi break it down; permafrost exists and causes water to collect above it during the summer; "drunken forests" are forests composed of dwarfed, stunted, leaning trees that grow where there is permafrost; tundra is world's youngest biome b/c they were covered by ice 10,000 years ago; vegetation dominated by grasses, sedges, mosses, and lichens; any trees that are present are dwarfed (birches and willows); large animals include caribou, musk oxen, bears, and wolves; fun fact: a frog (Rana sylvatica) lives in the tundra and it can survive being frozen!; if arctic warms, carbon sequestered in peat will be released as methane, and global warming will be greatly accelerated; methane is 23x stronger greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide; even today people are finding methane bubbles being released in many different localities; there is positive feedback b/t the methane and melting, b/c melting causes more methane to be released, which causes even more melting, and so on; 80 billion tons of methane lie underneath the ice
breakdown of global water:
97% in oceans, 3% freshwater(2% polar ice, .95% groundwater, .03% lakes, rivers, and streams, and .015% soil moisture)
soil
At the base of every biome is the soil. It is extremely complex, and has four main components: mineral matter, organic matter, water, and "air". Ideal ratio of matter (organic and mineral) to water and air is 50:25:25
suitability of Earth for life
Earth is a good place for life because of the effects of axial tilt, Jupiter, the Milankovitch cycle and Earth's large moon.
littoral zone
In freshwater ecosystems, from shore to the point on the bottom where PAR stops. In saltwater ecosystems, it is the area that is affected by the tides (supratidal fringe through upper subtidal)
N v. n
N=exact number of individuals n=sample that will get you a close estimation of N
intertidal zone
from the neap tide line (lowest) to the flood (spring) tide line (highest). Also includes normal high and normal low tide lines
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
a divergent boundary where geologists sent Alvin in the 1970's; discovered by depth-sounding equipment that was searching for the best telegraph route; new ecosystem discovered there at the bottom of the ocean
till
mineral debris deposited by glaciers
bog
a mineral-poor peatland
fen
a mineral-rich peatland (it has alkaline water)
peatland
a wetland dominated by herbaceous vegetation or dwarfed woody vegetation, peaty soils, low in oxygen, low in macronutrients, two types are: fens and bogs
swamp
a wetland that can have a variety of chemical features, dominated by woody vegetation, usually final stage in development of body of freshwater
supratidal zone
also known as supratidal fringe. Never submerged, but very affected by the ocean (ocean spray, etc.)
dysphotic zone
also known as the photolytic zone. This is where respiration exceeds photosynthesis
metalimnion
also known as the thermocline, it is where the change in temperature per meter of water depth is equal or greater than 1 degree Celsius
micronutrients
also known as trace elements. needed in small quantities by organisms, (like iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chromium) Sometimes iron is a limiting nutrient for phytoplankton in the ocean.
euphotic zone
also known as trophogenic zone. This is where photosynthesis exceeds respiration
difference b/t aquatic sediments and soil
aquatic sediments are built up in successive layers, and soils mostly develop within the bedrock, with little vertical build-up
natural hierarchy of life
atoms, molecules, subcellular structures, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, biospheres
Quaternary Period
beginning of the glacial age we are in right now. started 2mya.
mesotrophic lake
moderately rich in nutrients, best for biodiversity, common before Europeans arrived
hypolimion
bottom layer of lake, colder during the summer
plate tectonics
causes movement of biomes; earth's crust has faults in it which divides the earth into plates (6 major and 6 minor lithospheric plates); these plates collide at convergent boundaries and pull apart at divergent boundaries; near convergent boundaries, subduction, assimilation, orogenesis, and vulcanism occur; convection currents of earth's magma powers plate tectonics; w/o plate tectonics, land would erode and all land would be covered by a shallow sea;
5 factors that affect soil formation
climate, nature of parent material, organisms, topography, and time
atolls
coral islets that have built up from submerged oceanic islands and form a coral "ring" w/ a lagoon in the center.
Diel migration
daily movement of organisms to the top of the water column at night, and the bottom of the water column during the day
nekton
opposite of plankton; a mobile organism
3 factors of Milankovitch cycle
orbital ellipticity, obliquity of the ecliptic, precession of the equinoxes
deserts
defined by their low moisture content, not by temperature; occur within 30 degrees N or S of equator, or in dry continental interiors; cover 20% of Earth's land area; ex. of rainfall is Sonoran Desert, which receives 12 in/year, but most of that is lost through evaporation and transpiration; hot deserts avg temp 86 F; cold deserts avg temp -4 F; soils are usually lithisols or aridisols, and can be very salty; halophilic (salt-loving) crops are needed; some deserts have rainy seasons that occur sporadically, so plants have seeds that can wait for many years for these events; animals are frequently nocturnal; some animals have adaptations to reduce contact w/ hot sand or to get water; humans have created many deserts through bad management of non-desert land that is near desert(ex; Madagascar has lost 10% of its land to desertification, and a chunk of land the size of Nebraska is lost every year to desertification); agriculture is low to nonexistent
ovovivipary
eggs hatch inside mother, no placental exchange
autecology
evolution of the physiology and behavior of a particular species that is adapted to the environment.
hypereutrophic lake
extremely rich in nutrients, usually because of human influence
population ecology
factors influencing population structure and process, such as adaptation, extinction, distribution, abundance, population growth and regulation, and reproduction
lotic system
flowing water (rivers and streams), less nutrient limited than lentic systems.
grazer food chain
food chain in which photoautotrophs like phytoplankton or plants are at the bottom of the food chain The ocean is mostly a grazer food chain through phytoplankton
detritus food chain
food chain in which rotting organic material is at the bottom of the food chain. This material is broken down by worms, etc, which are eaten by other organisms. Macroalgae is part of the detritus food chain
seagrass beds
form in a tropical region with a soft bottom. Turtle grasses (Thallasia) are dominant species) They need a lot of light, and so pollution and turbulence make it difficult for them to grow. They collect sediments and nutrients, making water clearer. They provide shelter for many important fish, including commercially important species. Seagrasses are food for many animals, like conchs, manatees, and sea turtles.
oxbow ponds/lakes
formed when bends of a river are pinched off
tropical savannah
grass-dominated, like temperate grasslands, but warmer, and with more trees; in africa, elephants help to keep savannah clear of trees; occur north or south of tropical dry forest, within 10 or 20 degrees N or S of the equator; seasonal climate, with total of 29 in. max/year, but usually only 4 in. in dry season and 15-20 in. in wet season; fires also keep savannah clear of trees, and they are not very hot, b/c there isn't very much above-ground biomass for them to burn; avg temp is 77 F; soils usually have low permeability, with clay pans being common; animal populations dominated by migrating herbivores; significant human influences when previously nomadic people settle down to raise cattle and crops; poaching and habitat loss are other problems; elephants and white rhinos are poached, but sustainable hunting operations funding conservation may be an option
distribution of biomes
influenced by shape of continents, location of mountain ranges, so do not occur in equal bands
community ecology
interaction of species (predation, parasitism, commensalism, mutualism)
ocean zones
intertidal zone, neritic zone, epipelagic zone, mesopelagic zone, bathypelagic zone, abyssal zone, hadal zone
source of mineral matter
it comes from the parent material or from glaciers that transported it
caldera lakes
lakes formed inside volcano cones, tend to be nutrient-poor
Temperate Grasslands (Prairies)
largest biome in N. america; occur N and S of desert zones, above 30 degrees; temp ranges from -40F to 100F; 20-35 in. yearly rainfall; frequently experience droughts; soils are variable, some deep, some shallow, but N. american prairies have deep, rich soil; majority of biomass is underground; grasses create thick, impenetrable sod; sod first quickly broken up by steam tractors; dominated by herbaceous vegetation (grasses and forbs); unknown relationship b/t temperate grasslands and ice age megafauna; fire suppression main threat to prairies; prairies forever changed by loss of grazers such as buffalo; poor soil conservation practices lead to soil loss and nutrient depletion (ex: Dust Bowl); plants becoming rare in grasslands are often found in cemeteries, where the grass is mown, or by railroad tracks, where sparks sometimes cause fires
ovipary
laying eggs externally
vivapary
live birth w/ placental exchange
species prospecting
looking for useful compounds that organisms produce
magnetosphere
magnetic field created by earth's core it aligns magnetic particles in molten rocks, so when the rocks cool, their particles retain their orientation, and so later a geologist can look at these particles to determine the location of the magnetic pole at the time that the rock was molten, and he can use that info to age the rock
tropical rainforests
mostly occur within 10 degrees N or S of equator; mean temp is 79 degrees Fahrenheit; annual precipitation is 80-160 in.; very acidic, thin, nutrient-poor soils; same temp. and prec. year round; agriculture is difficult b/c nutrients in soil get depleted and soil erodes; mostly evergreen trees; trees up to 120 ft tall; rainforest plants good at conserving nutrients; plants have extra ways of getting nutrients (carnivory and mycorhizal relationships); there are many epiphytes, such as bromeliads, which collect water in their leaves; plants have buttress roots to stabilize themselves in the thin soil; most biodiverse land ecosystem (for example, there are 300 tree species/hectare); many crops came from rainforest (corn (teosinte), rice, sugar cane); 25% of pharmaceuticals come from rainforest (pharmaceuticals are derived from plants' secondary metabolites that were used for defense or other non-vital uses); Earth's rainforest coverage declined from 14% to 6%, at current rate will be gone in 40 years, rainforests can take 1000 years to recover from damage
bathypelagic zone
no solar radiation reaches here. 1000-4000m, 39 degrees Fahrenheit
lentic system
non-flowing water
oligotrophic lake
nutrient -poor lake
macronutrients
nutrients needed in large amounts by organisms, (like nitrogen, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur) carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form about 96% of an organisms dry weight, and they are also macronutrients. Macronutrients are more likely to be limiting factors in ecosystems. N>P>K (We need more N than P than K) (also order of numbers on bags of plant fertilizer)
steps of scientific method
observation, question, hypothesis, investigation (descriptive research or experimental research), conclusion, theory
temperate deciduous forest
occur b/t 30 degrees and 55 degrees N and S of equator; annual rainfall b/t 30 and 60 in.; mean annual temp is 50F; soils are good for farming; lower biodiversity than rainforests but equal or greater biomass; prominent understory of herbaceous vegetation; deer overpopulation negatively affecting understory; human influences include deforestation, deer overpopulation, and poor forestry practices like clear-cutting w/o stopping erosion and high-grading (removing trees with a good bole (long, straight, trunk))
boreal forest/taiga
occur b/t 50 and 65 degrees N of equator, and at elevation @ other latitudes; cover 11% of earth's land surface; vegetation dominated by evergreen coniferous forest (exception: larches are deciduous); avg temp is below freezing for 6 month out of the year; winter temp ranges from -65F to 30F; summer temp ranges from 20F-70F; there are 50-100 frost-free days; prec. is from 12-33 in.; soils are poor, thin, and acidic; spruce, hemlock, fir, and pine dominate; animals like moose, caribou, wolves, and bears dominate; less human destruction compared to other biomes, but there is some deforestation, mining damage, and oil exploration damage
kelp forests
occur in subpolar regions with hard bottoms. as a community, structurally similar to forests (tiered). Temp. variation b/t 10 and 20 degrees Celsius. Tolerant of a variety of different salinities. Managed by large fish that eat sea urchins.
coral reefs
occur in tropical regions with hard bottoms. Pollution and salinity change threaten coral reefs. A salinity of less than 27% causes corals to die. Average coral temps. are from 23-25 degrees Celsius, and corals will die <20 degrees C and >29 degrees C.
lake turnover
occurs when water has the same temperature throughout its depth. It replenishes the epilimnion's nutrient levels.