EDPY 503 Exam 2
What are some important functions of sleep?
-Gives brain time to recuperate -Store memories -Growth hormones are released during sleep -Learn about body
What are the characteristics of high structural quality & high process quality child care?
-High structural quality: low child-adult ratio & better trained caregivers. -High process quality: sensitive, caring interactions w/ adults, rich conversations, stimulating materials & activities
What is No Child Left Behind?
A federal law that seeks to improve children's academic skills by holding schools accountable for student performance on standardized tests.
What defines a peer group in middle childhood?
A group of children who interact frequently & who see themselves, & are seen by others, as having a common identity.
What is dyslexia?
A learning disability characterized by difficulties w/ word recognition & by poor spelling & decoding skills, despite average or above average intelligence.
What factors are related to the development of effortful control?
Individual predispositions, temperament, & social experiences. Hostile & intrusive parenting strengthens the link between poor self-regulation, lack of effortful control, & externalizing behaviors.
How can sibling interactions affect the development of social competence?
Interactions w/ siblings provide foundation for theory of mind, social understanding, relations with friends, & siblings can be allies. Interactions with siblings are also opportunities to practice social skills.
What are externalizing problems?
Psychosocial problems that are manifested in outward symptoms such as aggression & noncompliance. Lack of effortful control is linked to externalizing problems.
What is self-care?
Refers to children who care for themselves without adult supervision.
During early childhood, relative sizes of brain structures change. What occurs during middle childhood?
Refinements of structure: -Growth is concentrated farther back in brain -White matter increases linearly -Gray matter growth: inverted U (competitive elimination) -Timetable of growth corresponds to developmental changes in specific cognitive abilities.
How do doctors measure normative physical growth?
Using growth curve tables
How do scientists study young children's memory strategies?
Using hiding/finding games in familiar or unfamiliar situations.
How does a child's language reflect experiences at home?
Vocabulary is linked to variations in families' amount of dinner table conversation, number of different words used by parents, etc.
What is prosocial behavior?
Voluntary behavior intended to benefit another person such as sharing, cooperating, helping, defending, & comforting; may be motivated by conscience (an internalized sense of right & wrong that may emerge as early as 33 months).
What tasks are used to study conservation & egocentrism in children?
-Conservation of volume task -Three mountain task
How can we promote children's sleep?
-Consistent bedtime routines -Consistent sleep schedule -Quiet time before lights out
What stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is associated with middle childhood?
-4th stage: Industry vs. Inferiority: children develop a view of themselves as industrious & worthy versus inferior when they get recognition for accomplishments.
What is ADHD & when is it usually diagnosed? What are the 3 subtypes?
-A condition, linked to brain functioning & development, in which children have difficulty getting organizing, focusing on a task, & thinking before acting. Children can't modulate emotions/energy to fit a situation. Diagnosed btwn ages 7-9. -Subtypes: Inattentive (IA), hyperactive-impulsive (HI), & combination (C)
What is a peer group? Why are they significant in early childhood?
-A group of peers that has an underlying structure in which some children are popular and others are not - a dominance hierarchy. -Significant because peer acceptance & rejection begins early & is stable over time.
What are gender identity and gender constancy?
-A person's sense of self as male or female. At beginning of early childhood, gender is skin-deep & just a label. -A concept that gender is permanent & immutable.
What are important emotional developments during early childhood?
-Advances in AWARENESS of their own & others' emotional states & the ability to REGULATE emotional expression. -SELF-CONSCIOUS/secondary emotions develop (pride, guilt, shame, embarrassment)
What age is the turning point in theory of mind? What task demonstrates this?
-Age 4 -False-belief task: Band-aid box with crayons inside. 3 year old thinks other child will guess crayons, while 4 year old thinks other child will guess band-aids. Similar across cultures. -The 4 year old understands that others can have false beliefs - that what is inside one's head is different from what is outside, that thoughts & beliefs are mental representations that can be wrong.
Define "peer." Why are peers important during early childhood?
-Age-mates who are equals in terms of skills & maturity. -Maintaining peer relationships encourages development of skills in negotiation, compromise, & management. -They provide unique opportunities for social growth that children can't get from parents or siblings: children get to assert themselves more, assert their own opinions, get to choose playmates, & have to work to maintain the relationship. -
How do sleep patterns change during early childhood?
-Ages 2-3, children sleep ~12-13 hours. -Ages 4-6, children sleep 10-11 hours & don't need to nap as much.
What is aggression? What are the forms of & reasons for aggression?
-Aggression: any action intended to harm or injure others. -Forms: physical (fighting or damaging someone's things), verbal (threatening someone), & relational (attempting to lower another child's social standing or relations with others) -Reasons: reactive, instrumental, & hostile
When do gender awareness, identity, and constancy develop?
-All 3 develop during (awareness: slightly before) early childhood. -Gender awareness develops by 2 years. -Children can label themselves & others by sex - the beginnings of gender identity. -Gender constancy develops by age 6-7; parallels development of conservation.
What are 4 elements identified as important for learning to read (by the national reading panel)?
-Alphabetic principle: knowing letters & that letters link to sounds -Phonemic awareness: being able to analyze the sound structure of spoken words -Oral Reading Fluency: being able to read aloud smoothly, accurately, & at a good speed -Vocabulary comprehension: understanding words & textual meaning
What is required for the development of secondary emotions (early childhood)?
-An objective sense of self as distinct from others -Awareness of standards for behavior -Evaluation of one's own performance in terms of standards -Sense of responsibility for success/failure
What are some ways to foster concrete operational thinking?
-Asking children to explain their thinking -Formal schooling
What are some chronic medical conditions that are significant during middle childhood?
-Asthma -Allergies -Diabetes: Type 1 (difficulty making insulin) & Type 2 (difficulty using insulin)
What is "attention" as defined in the information processing model? What brain structures are associated with improvements in attention?
-Attention refers to how we are able to focus on some information while ignoring other information. -Maturation of the PFC & basal ganglia
What are four types of parenting?
-Authoritative: high warmth, high control -Authoritarian: low warmth, high control -Permissive: high warmth, low control -Disengaged: low warmth, low control
How does each parenting style affect a child's social competence?
-Authoritative: independent, self-controlled, cheerful, cooperative, popular child -Authoritarian: high levels of externalizing & internalizing behavior problems -Permissive: child is impulsive, lacks self-reliance & self control
How do boys & girls compare in behavior & abilities during middle childhood?
-Boys are more active, more physically aggressive, & have better spatial abilities & better large motor skills. -Girls have better verbal skills & are better at reading emotions. -Most differences are small & there is considerable overlap.
Major early childhood developments.
-Brain maturation & cognitive gains --> socioemotional development -Emerging sense of self (unrealistically positive) & self-concept -Self-conscious emotions -Gender identity -Beginnings of effortful control & emotional regulation -Emergence of aggression & prosocial behaviors (intentional behavior & motives) -Emergence of conscience -Socialization begins -Peer acceptance/rejection begins -Social pretend play develops -Language development -Memory development -Beginnings of Theory of Mind & Perspective-taking -Still confuse appearance & reality: Challenges remain in conservation, reversibility, animism, gender constancy, classification
What are the effects of exercise for school-age children?
-Build strong muscles/bones -Increase energy & alertness -Maintain healthy weight -Reduce stress -Stimulate brain growth & academic achievement
What is some evidence that drawing is hard-wired in our brains? How do cultures & experiences influence drawing?
-Children across cultures draw "tadpole-like" humans around 3 years of age. -Instruction: others point out forms, shapes, & provide guidance in drawing. -Early drawings are influenced by culture; In Western cultures, interest in drawing fades b/c representational art requires skill & practice.
What are some general changes that occur in the transition from infancy to early childhood?
-Children become more "themselves" w/ their own ideas (including gender stereotypes), likes, & dislikes. -Parents expect more obedience & cooperation -Socialization becomes more explicit -Spend more time w/ peers in preschool -Learn to get along w/ other children = more demands for emotional & social self-control.
During early childhood, how does emotional understanding change? Why is the development of emotional understanding important?
-Children can label their own & others' subjective feelings by age 2-3; -Gain more understanding of causes & consequences of emotion -It sets the stage for other areas of development: prosocial behaviors, conscience, & control of aggression.
Features of middle childhood.
-Children get taller & heavier -Out of school activities (e.g., sports, music, clubs, etc.) increase -Obesity is an issue -Changes in frontal lobes, PFC, temporal lobes, parietal lobes --> higher-order thinking & improved gross & fine motor skills -Overcome appearance-reality challenges -Cognitive development: acquire basic skills, use logical operations, develop strategies for analyzing problems & remembering chunks of information -Thinking is still limited to concrete objects & events (not abstract concepts) -School is more important -Conception of self: more realistic, integrated sense of self; industry vs. inferiority; gender; standing within peer group -Strategies for self-control -More advanced social skills -Verbal, social, & relational aggression replace physical, instrumental aggression -Bullying -Context: social horizons expand, more independence from adult supervision -More influences: after-school & weekend programs, neighborhood, mass media -Peers become more important -Improved working & long-term memory as the result of improvements in processing speed
Around academic performance/IQ, how do children in blended families compare to those in other two-parent families? How do adopted children compare to biological siblings? How do adopted children compare to siblings in adopted family?
-Children in blended families have slightly lower grades & achievement test scores, but there's a lot of overlap -Adopted children have higher IQ & school grades than their biological siblings who remain with biological parents -Adopted children have lower grades than those of their siblings in their adopted family.
What have studies shown about media influence children during middle childhood?
-Children who watch more violent media on a daily basis are more aggressive than other children -Children assimilate attitudes about gender, body image, & tolerance of others from the programs they see on TV
What are the hallmarks of Piaget's concrete operational period?
-Classification -Class inclusion -Seriation -Transitive inference -Reversibility
Under what conditions can technology support student learning?
-Computers & technology can support student learning if students are actively engaged, participate in groups, have frequent interaction & feedback from teachers, there are clear connections to real-world contexts, & there is systematic evaluation.
What are the major brain developments during middle childhood?
-Continued dendrite/axon growth, synaptogenesis, myelination -Competitive elimination: strengthening of synapses that are used regularly & pruning of unused ones to eliminate clutter; accelerates processing speed -Increased lateralization caused by synaptic pruning -Corpus callosum thickens -White matter increases linearly; gray matter increases, peaks, then decreases -Later peaks in gray matter = more advanced cognitive functions. -Changes in areas associated with higher-level information processing: frontal lobes, PFC, temporal lobes, parietal lobes
What are the forms of Long-term memory that improve during middle childhood? Which is most likely to be distorted by misinformation?
-DECLARATIVE: memories of facts -PROCEDURAL: memory of complex motor skills -GIST: general memory of common occurrences -Gist memory is most likely to be influenced by misinformation
What are the types of long-term memory associated with middle childhood?
-Declarative -Procedural -Verbatim -Gist
What are decoding and comprehension? What is the phonics approach & the whole language approach?
-Decoding: applying knowledge of letter-sound relationships to read written words -Comprehension: understanding what you have read -Phonics approach: emphasizes decoding in which readers match the printed alphabet to sounds -Whole language approach: emphasizes comprehension & context, & inferring what words mean from context.
Why is the development of fine motor skills important for children during early childhood?
-Development of fine motor skills is a source of pride for children & contributes to their sense of independence.
How can the chronic medical conditions of asthma & allergies affect quality of life?
-Difficulty concentrating in school (active symptoms, poor sleep, medication side effects) -Social limitations (e.g., not being able to do sports) -Medication use may be embarrassing for child -Acute attacks --> anxiety -Have to follow strict regimen every day
What were the disagreements involved in the "reading wars"? What has research ultimately revealed?
-Disagreements about whether a PHONICS or WHOLE-LANGUAGE approach is better for teaching reading. -Research shows that both competencies are necessary.
What are some of the leading causes of death in young children in the U.S.? Worldwide, what is the underlying cause of death of half of all children under 5?
-Drowning, car accidents, fires/burns, & airway obstructions. -Malnutrition
What long-term effects can abuse & neglect have for children, even after abuse stops?
-During early childhood, the brain is very plastic. Early emotional experiences influence brain development. -Abused children are more sensitive to anger cues. While adaptive in an abusive environment, this is maladaptive in a caring one. The child perceives anger when it isn't there, ignores positive emotional cues, & may become aggressive in response. -Neglected children have difficulty identifying any emotions/linking facial expressions to happiness, fear, sadness, and anger.
What are emotional regulation and effortful control?
-Emotional regulation: the ability to inhibit, enhance, maintain, & modulate emotional arousal in order to accomplish a goal. -Effortful control: the ability to withhold a dominant response in order to make a non-dominant response, engage in planning, and regulate reactive tendencies. Effortful control is linked to emotional regulation and externalizing problems.
How are structural & process quality related?
-Fewer children in class --> less restrictive & more sensitive caregivers can be. -More training --> better able to organize material, more age appropriate activities, & richer interactions w/ children.
What is the corpus callosum and what are the effects of its abnormal development?
-Fibers that connect the hemispheres. Development --> quicker, smoother actions. -Abnormal development --> retardation, seizures, inability to initiate or control movements.
What are the frontal lobes, PFC, temporal, & parietal lobes related to in middle childhood?
-Frontal lobes: recognizing future consequences, overriding unacceptable social responses, remembering emotional experiences. Growth spurt btwn ages 6 & 8. -PFC: higher-order cognitive skills such as decision making & planning. PFC gray matter increases slowly until age 8, then rapid growth until age 14. -Temporal lobe: involved in speech, memory, hearing -Parietal lobe: associated w/ movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
What are criticisms of NCLB?
-Gains in reading & math achievement have slowed -Progress in narrowing the achievement gap has stopped -It places too much emphasis on test scores --> teachers spend too much time on drills & test preparation
What are the three types of long-term memory during early childhood? Describe each & at what age they begin.
-Generic Memory: a script or outline of how activities occur based on experience. Begins around age 2 & helps children know what to expect & how to behave. -Episodic Memory: Recall of a particular incident; begins around age 3. -Autobiographical memory: recall of individual episodes that are personally meaningful, beginning around age 4 & lasting for decades. These memories become part of a child's self-concept.
What is giftedness, and how is it different than IQ?
-Giftedness is indicated by extraordinary creativity or performance in music, sports, or art, as well as traditional academic subjects. -Definitions of giftedness include IQ scores as well as measures of commitment, motivation, achievement, curiosity, dedication to work, sustained diligence, & broad capacities. -Genes & enriched environments contribute to giftedness.
What are some basic, physical developments that occur in middle childhood?
-Girls become slightly taller than boys & have more body fat (earlier onset of puberty) -Growth occurs in spurts -Proportions change, flexibility increases -Lose primary teeth & have most permanent teeth by end of middle childhood -Eyes mature in structure & function; vision problems are diagnosed (primarily in affluent children)
What are gender differences in mathematics?
-Girls get better grades: put forth more effort & are less disruptive -Boys used to score better in science & math, but recent studies don't find differences. It may be that girls' wider participation in high level math has eliminated differences that previously favored boys.
How does early childhood play reflect the preoperational child's development?
-In general, how children play & behave reflects their current developmental tasks. -Measuring & pouring: conservation -Sorting objects & shapes: classification -Playing make-believe: appearance vs. reality -Drawing: fine motor skills -Playing with dolls: gender constancy, effects of actions, appearance-reality
What are the benefits & limitations of each type of child care?
-In home: familiar environment & individual attention; Caregivers usually aren't professionally trained & fewer opportunities for social interaction -Child-care home/day care: Home-like setting w/ maternal figure, provides individual attention & social interaction; caregiver might not have professional training -Child care center: age-appropriate activities directed by staff who are trained in early childhood development, opportunities for social interaction; in larger centers children receive less individual attention
How do individuals differ in language dominance?
-In right-handers, language is processed in L hemisphere. In left-handers, the R hemisphere dominates language processing. -Males: language development mostly in L hemisphere. Females: additional language processing in R hemisphere.
What are the three main types of child care? What are some of the ways in which they vary? What are the functions of child care?
-In-home care, child-care homes, & child-care centers -Vary in degree of individual attention, opportunities for social interaction, & professional caregivers. -Functions: promote cognitive skills, promote social skills, & provide supervision.
What is an internal working model, and what is the development of the internal working model associated with?
-Internal working model: the child's evaluation of his/her worth as a person. -Develops in conjunction with attachment relationships - grows out of attachment relationships.
What mathematical competencies are important in middle childhood?
-Knowing math facts & computational procedures -Using this knowledge to solve routine problems -Using reasoning & logic to solve more complex, non-routine problems -Being able to recognize whether answers are "in the ballpark" & reflect upon whether the answers make sense or not
What are two types of malnutrition and why does malnutrition have such a big effect on children?
-Kwashiorkor (adequate intake of calories but not enough protein) & Marasmus (not enough protein, not enough calories) -Malnutrition puts children at risk for disease. When ill, appetite is reduced & nutrients aren't absorbed as well, initiating a cycle of sickness & delayed growth. -Poverty --> malnutrition & illness, but also malnutrition and illness --> poverty
What are some barriers to immunizations in the U.S.?
-Lack of health insurance -Lack of a regular physician & check-ups -Belief that immunizations cause disease
What influences long-term memory in middle childhood?
-Length of time the information is actively attended to -Rehearsal or repetition -Written notes -Relating new information to prior information -Organizing information into meaningful categories
What are physiological indicators of stress?
-Levels of and changes in cortisol -People differ in their hormone responses (physiological coping mechanisms)
What factors are related to a child being at risk for reading problems?
-Low income -Parents w/ low literacy -Homes w/ few reading materials
What mathematical concepts develop in early childhood? What influences the development of mathematical thinking?
-Magnitude, numbers, counting, addition, subtraction -Some biological basis -Experience: everyday environment, almost all cultures have counting systems & games that promote mathematical thinking, math talk in preschool programs.
Gross motor development is a function of what two main factors?
-Maturation & context. -Context: learn skills in certain environments with distinct objects & opportunities. Environment + access to challenges depend on the cultural & historic context.
What supports an expanded working memory during development?
-Maturation of the PFC & corpus callosum -Environment: warm, stimulating interactions
Fine motor development is a function of what three main factors?
-Maturation, coordination with the visual system, & culture/experience.
What does the continuous performance task measure? How?
-Measures attention and impulsivity -Child pushes a button when a specific object appears on the screen. Attention = how many times the child pushes the button when the correct object appears. Impulsivity = how often the child incorrectly pushes the button.
What defines the concrete operational period?
-Mental activities (operations) become more logical with respect to actual (concrete) objects & materials. -Ranges ~ages 7-12. -Hallmarks: 5 competencies/operations that underlie logical reasoning -Crowning achievement of the concrete operational period: understanding conservation. -Children don't apply logical reasoning to abstract concepts or things they don't directly experience yet.
What are memory strategies? What is the simplest one?
-Mental or behavioral activities that can improve recall & recognition of material. -Rehearsal or repetition
What are proven, cost-effective ways to improve child health & reduce child deaths worldwide?
-Oral rehydration therapy -Immunization -Mosquito nets w/ insecticide -Safe hygiene -Proper nutrition
What are the approaches to studying cognitive development in middle childhood?
-Piaget's theory: Concrete operational period -Information processing studies -Strategic thinking studies -Standardized tests (intelligence studies) -Erikson's theory: Industry vs. inferiority
What are some of the consequences of physical abuse & neglect?
-Poor peer relations -Low academic achievement -Substance abuse -Delinquency -Depression -Chronic health issues -Poor parenting as adults
How do self-concepts change from early to middle childhood? What are influences on self-concept during middle childhood?
-Self concepts become more balanced & nuanced during middle childhood. -They are influenced by parents, peers, & societal standards. Self-concepts reflect gender norms.
What are some ways in which adults & older children guide a child's participation? How does guided participation vary between cultures?
-Praise, shame, laugh about behavior guides participation by providing frame of how or how not to behave. -Guided participation varies in content & rules for participation. -Content: middle-class Euro-American families ask "known-answer questions" to prepare children for roles in school; Mayan children emulate adults making tortillas; in some cultures -Rules: Some cultures expect children to learn by listening & keep quiet, while others expect children to speak up.
What Piagetian stage dominates early childhood? What are the hallmarks of this stage?
-Preoperational period: 2nd stage of Piaget's theory from ages 2 to 7, during which children acquire a mental storehouse of images & symbols, especially spoken and written words. -Hallmarks: --Symbolic/mental representation --Language development --Pretend play --Symbolic thinking --Pre-logical thinking (no reversibility or classification)
How do children differ in their responses to parent's remarriage?
-Preschoolers adapt more readily than older children -Sons adjust more easily than daughters
Compare emotions between individualistic & collectivist cultures.
-Pride, shame, & emotional expressiveness are viewed differently. -Collectivist cultures: self is defined in terms of social relations & behavior; pride is negative, shame is positive. See emotions as disruptive. -Individualistic cultures: self is defined in terms of inner, personal traits; pride is positive, shame is negative. Encourage sharing of emotions.
How do researchers study processing speed in school-age children? Working memory? False memory?
-Processing speed: Visual matching task & cross out task. Improvements in processing speed are rapid in middle childhood & plateau in adolescence. -WM: Digit span task -False memory: Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Procedure - participants recall words they haven't heard b/c of conceptual commonalities (or for children 5-8, b/c of phonological and/or semantic commonalities)
What factors influence the quality & characteristics of early peer relationships?
-Quality of relationships with parents -Parenting styles & behaviors -Attachment security -Opportunities provided by parents: scaffolding & interaction with peers & advice about play strategies -Homophily: tendency to associate & bond with those who are similar to oneself
What are the major critiques of IQ tests?
-Questions about the meaning and nature of intelligence, How intelligence is manifested, & Whether intelligence can be modified -Some argue that IQ tests don't measure underlying abilities & are instead dependent on context & experience; that they favor white, middle-class children. -Scores are influenced by social context -IQ scores are more stable in middle childhood/adolescence: perhaps b/c tests are better or b/c intelligence has become less susceptible to environmental influence. -Intelligence might not be fixed
What are some ways to slow increases in BMI?
-Reduce soft drink consumption -Limit TV watching -Increase physical activity
What does semantics refer to? Why is learning semantics helpful for children?
-Refers to the meaning of words & sentences; the content of speech. -In learning semantics (what words mean), children learn how their culture uses concepts, which organizes their perceptions of the world & simplifies things in the environment.
What are the child's most important relationships during early childhood?
-Relationships with parents -Relationships with siblings: most enduring & intense -Relationships with peers/friends: Friends provide emotional support & act as secure bases.
What two logical operations did Piaget assert were absent during the preoperational period?
-Reversibility: the understanding that an item that has been changed can return to its original state by reversing the process. -Classification: the ability to divide or sort objects into sets & to consider their interrelationships.
What are the major features of language development during middle childhood?
-Root vocabularies expand rapidly: children add ~3 root words per day btwn ages 7 & 10. -Children become adept at code switching -Sentence structure becomes more complex
What are the three types of pretend play, as described by Carollee Howes?
-SIMPLE PRETEND PLAY: children play side-by-side without collaboration (similar to Parten's parallel play) -ASSOCIATIVE PRETEND PLAY: children create stories/scripts with meaningful sequences. -COOPERATIVE PRETEND PLAY: children not only develop scripts but also play reciprocal roles. Behavior is coordinated & works towards common goal.
How do families contribute to emotional socialization & intelligence?
-Scaffolding: children learn deeper meaning of emotion labels -Family conversations draw attention to emotions of child & others, increasing emotional understanding -Talking to parents about emotions introduces children to cultural expectations regarding emotions.
What are the Bayley scales? What are they useful for & what are they NOT useful for?
-Scales that are based on norms for motor development, body control, & coordination. They DO NOT predict future intellectual or physical achievements, but they DO provide warning signs for developmental problems.
How have others challenged/criticized Piaget's theory relating to preoperational thought & early childhood development?
-Scientists now think of cognitive development as overlapping waves rather than Piaget's stages. -Just because children don't reason logically doesn't mean they don't reason correctly - their reasoning may be based on different representations of a problem. -Children understand more than Piaget credited them for. Performance on his tasks depends on how familiar the topic is, the situation, who asks the questions, & how they ask those questions. -Children aren't as deceived by appearances as Piaget believed (conservation tasks). -Many developmental scientists think that children are not egocentric. -Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory -Children's concepts are more advanced than Piaget thought - they grasp abstract concepts, not just concrete ones (dictated by appearance)
In what situations would a positive internal working model develop? A negative one?
-Sensitive, responsive, accepting parents --> secure attachment + internal working model of self as worthy of love. -Rejecting, remote, interfering parents --> insecure attachment & internal working model of self as unworthy, unloved, & incompetent.
What are the three steps of memory processing?
-Sensory memory: a subconscious process of picking up information from the environment -Working memory: conscious, short-term representation of what a person is actively thinking about at a given time. Depends on the child paying attention & encoding. -Long-term memory: the collection of information that is mentally encoded & stored. Long-term memory is a selective, constructive process.
During middle childhood, what are sex differences in brain development?
-Sex differences in order, timing, & rate of changes in gray & white matter. -During EARLY childhood, girls had faster development of networks involved in language & fine motor skills. During MIDDLE childhood, boys advance in these skills & girls advance more in spatial-visual discrimination & gross motor movement. -Boys' brains are ~10% larger.
Strategies to improve student learning & achievement in middle childhood.
-Smaller class sizes -More effective teachers -Longer school year -Longer school day -After-school programs -Reorganized curriculum -Early childhood educational programs -Increased family involvement
What brain differences are associated with ADHD?
-Some differences found in cerebellum, NTs, & brain metabolism - may be related to brain maturation. -ADHD children reach peak gray matter ~3 years later than non-ADHD children, with the largest difference being in the PFC (planning & emotional regulation). -ADHD children peak earlier in motor cortex.
What are two major intelligence tests?
-Stanford-Binet & Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III).
What factors promote the child's development of attention during early childhood? Why?
-Stimulating home + warm, responsive parents --> better control of attention. -Possibly there are more opportunities to observe & practice concentration & self-regulation.
What do children learn through family stories?
-Stories reinforce cultural norms & values & provide groundwork for child's self-concept within his/her culture. -Gain knowledge about culture: what is worth learning & remembering, what different events mean -Learn that experiences are both personal & shared, making them both individuals & members of a cultural community -Get messages about misbehavior
What characteristics describe neighborhoods as disadvantaged?
-Structural/demographic characteristics: percentages of low-income residents, female-headed households, unemployed men -Perceptions of safety & support
During early childhood, how do boys and girls differ behaviorally?
-Styles of play, preferred toys & activities. Girls vs. Boys differ in: -Group dynamics: cooperative vs. competitive -Physical aggression -# of playmates: 2-3 vs. large -Role playing: house/romance vs. heroes/combat -Toys: dolls, dress-up, kitchen sets vs. action figures, toy vehicles -Proximity to adults during play: close vs. far
What 3 factors during early childhood have been shown to be related to children's cortisol levels & changes in those levels?
-Temperament -Attachment security -Daycare quality
How does aggression vary with: temperament, gender, socialization, and child care?
-Temperament: children low in effortful control & emotional regulation have more reactive aggression -Gender: Boys engage in more physical aggression, girls in more relational aggression -Socialization: coercive, harsh parenting --> high levels of physical & verbal aggression -Child care: amount of time spent in child care & large group child care settings are linked to aggressive behavior
What is the "nation's report card"?
-The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) -Documents significant differences in scores of low-income, African-American, & Hispanic students versus middle-income, Caucasian, & Asian students (the achievement gap).
What is the information processing approach to cognitive development? What are the elements of information processing that change over the course of development?
-The approach that looks at how people acquire, encode, store, and use information. Information is used to cope with a situation or plan for the future (problem-solving). -Perception, attention, memory, & problem-solving.
What is microgenetic analysis, and what is it used to study?
-The close-up study of development across trials within a single session as well as performance across sessions -Mathematical reasoning, scientific thinking, & memory
What factors are associated with the development of conscience?
-The development of effortful control -Emotional regulation & prosocial behavior -Secure attachment relationships -Child care environment -Culture (individualistic vs. collectivist)
What is emergent literacy? What skills are associated with ages 3, 4, & 5 years of age (early childhood)? How can adults promote literacy?
-The foundations of literacy in early childhood. -3 years: can hold book, turn pages, listen when read to, understand pictures, name characters & features, recognize letters. -4 years: recite alphabet, recognize letters, relate stories to real life, enjoy rhymes & word play, may pretend-write in play. -5 years: track the print when being read a familiar book, spontaneously talk about content of story & information books, can ID & write letters, can recognize & spell some simple words (but spelling is often invented) -Promote literacy by reading to & with children
According to Piaget, what are some major gaps in preoperational thought?
-The inability to grasp CONSERVATION: some characteristics of objects don't change despite changes in form or appearance. Related to centration & inability to understand reversibility. Appearance trumps logic. -EGOCENTRISM: an inability to see other people's viewpoints -ANIMISM: believe that inanimate objects have thoughts, feelings, & motives like humans. Results from the inability to distinguish between human & non-human perspectives.
What is centration?
-The preoperational child's tendency to focus on one feature & ignore others
Why is it difficult to get children with type 2 diabetes to follow their treatment regimen?
-They may be in denial about their disease -They don't worry about what might happen in 30s & 40s b/c it seems like old age to them -Following diet & exercise regimen feels like punishment
What are the two main types of bullying victims?
-Those who are shy, anxious, & socially withdrawn -Those who are high in aggression & engage in irritating behavior that elicits aggression from others.
What are some of the important consequences of obesity during middle childhood?
-Type 2 diabetes, high BP, high cholesterol -Obese children are more likely to have asthma -Those who are overweight early on tend to stay overweight -Leads to social & emotional problems: teasing, less confidence, score lower on quality of life measures (physical, emotional, social, & school domains), prone to internalizing problems (depressive symptoms, negative self-images)
What are Mildred Parten's 6 types of play? What type of play is the real "hallmark" of early childhood ad why?
-UNOCCUPIED, SOLITARY, ONLOOKER (sets stage for associative & cooperative play), PARALLEL (more common in 2-year-olds), ASSOCIATIVE, & COOPERATIVE (more common in 5-6-year-olds) -Social pretend play is a hallmark of early childhood play. It provides opportunities to coordinate complex roles & practice regulating emotions in a non-threatening context.
What factors can influence whether an event is remembered? What, other than brain structure development, influences memory development?
-Uniqueness, personal participation, or talking to someone about the event. -Development is partly social & guided by others (e.g., parents asking about the school day) -Development of memory & language work hand-in-hand: language requires remembering words, & words make it easier to store & recall memories.
What types of skills do intelligence tests measure?
-Verbal reasoning -Quantitative reasoning -Abstract visual reasoning -Short-term memory
How does Vygotsky's sociocultural theory differ from Piaget's cognitive development theory?
-Vygotsky saw child as embedded in social context & cognitive development as the result of collaboration in a particular sociocultural setting. Piaget focused on what the child could do working alone. -Vygotsky measured child development in terms of his/her social roles & responsibilities. Piaget measured development in terms of use of logic. -Vygotsky saw development as continuous. Piaget saw it as occurring in distinct stages. -Vygotsky believed language and thought developed together. Piaget believed thought preceded language because one needed mental representations before language.
What 2 critical parenting dimensions that affect social competence did Baumrind identify? What are the main criticisms of Baumrind's work?
-Warmth/acceptance -Control -Critics: Baumrind didn't consider that different children may elicit different styles of parenting, & she only looked at one cultural group.
How much physical activity is recommended for school-age children?
1 hour of vigorous physical activity daily
How long do the negative effects of divorce usually last for school-age children?
1-2 years.
What are the 5 competencies that underlie logical reasoning and that are hallmarks of the concrete operational period?
1. CLASSIFICATION: the ability to divide/sort objects into sets & subsets, to consider their interrelationships, & to group them along multiple dimensions. 2. CLASS INCLUSION: a logical operation that recognizes that a class can be part of a larger group. (attribute blocks help children understand classification & class inclusion) 3. SERIATION: the ability to arrange items in a sequenced order according to particular properties. Preoperational children struggle w/ relational concepts. 4. TRANSITIVE INFERENCE: a logical operation that builds on an understanding of seriation. It requires that 2 operations are combined to derive a 3rd relation. Important for math. 5. REVERSIBILITY: a logical operation that requires an understanding that relations can be returned to their original state by reversing operations if nothing has been added or taken away. Key to understanding CONSERVATION.
What are the 3 steps of the information processing model?
1. Encoding: Acquire information through perception and attention. 2. Storage: Retain information 3. Retrieval: Memory
Sources of individual differences in BMI during early childhood
1. Heredity 2. Diet 3. Physical health 4. Exercise
Average growth patterns are consistent across countries IF...
If growth conditions are healthy in early life.
How can parents lower the risk of obesity in their children?
1. Providing healthy foods 2. Not using food to bribe or entertain children 3. Encouraging active play 4. Serving as good role models
How is child care quality measured?
2 ways: structural & process quality. -Structural quality: characteristics of child-care setting (group size, child/adult ratios, caregiver education, etc.) -Process quality: assessment of children's interactions & experiences in the setting.
What is a gender schema? When does gender stereotyping peak?
A mental network of beliefs & expectations about males versus females. Children use schemae to match behavior to what boys & girls are supposed to do in their culture. -Gender stereotyping peaks around age 5-6, slightly before gender constancy develops.
What is a concept?
A mental representation or category - a general notion that applies to many individual cases. They help children simplify, sort, & group things in the environment. Building concepts allows children to think, talk about, & remember things when they aren't present. Children's concepts are more advanced than Piaget thought they were, especially when knowledge of the subject is specialized.
Define self-esteem (as opposed to self-conception)
A more global assessment of self-worth. Reflected in behavior & seems to be unrelated to competence. Children high in self-esteem tend to be confident, curious, & independent.
What is a family system?
A system composed of interrelated subsystems (parent-child, parent-parent, & sibling relationships) that affect & are affected by other subsystems. Each subsystem also has its own features & implications for child development. Parent-child relationships are a two-way street - a transactional process that is more visible in middle childhood than it was during early childhood.
How can child abuse & neglect have long-term implications for a child's emotions?
Abused & neglected children have impaired emotional understanding & regulation. This affects the child's social experiences, which ultimately alter brain functioning.
What are the effects of ADHD for school-age children?
Children perform poorly in school; some are oppositional, noncompliant, disruptive, aggressive, provoke negative emotions in others.
What is the age range of early childhood?
Ages 2-6.
What ages are classified as middle childhood?
Ages 5-12
What is bullying? What characterizes bullying?
Aggression that is repeatedly directed from an individual to particular peers (victims). It is characterized by specificity and an imbalance of power between bully & victim.
According to Vygotsky, how does the function of language change over the course of childhood?
At first, language is used for social purposes: to elicit social interaction, placing the child in the ZPD. Around age 3-4, children use language as a tool to organize thoughts & actions with self-directed talk. This eventually becomes inner talk.
How is BMI measured? What does BMI index?
BMI = weight/(height^2). BMI is an index of whether a child's weight is appropriate for his/her height.
How are gross & fine motor skills linked to perception and cognition?
Balance & coordination depend on perception. Actions & movement lead to learning, which facilitates cognitive development.
For Piaget, why must thought precede language?
Because children have to be able to form mental representations before they attach names to things.
What are 3 major sources of the gender differences that emerge during early childhood?
Biological differences, socialization, & cognition. -Biological: androgens (testosterone), brain differences in white matter (boys have less), hypothalamus, amygdala, neuronal density & corpus callosum (girls have larger); areas linked to physical activity & self-regulation. Differential experiences influence brain development. -Socialization: Adults give children different messages; interactions w/ peers; differences in play; amount of time playing w/ same sex -Cognition: Children actively construct gender schema
How can moral development be measured?
By looking at prosocial behavior & the ability to control aggression.
What are the leading causes of unintentional injuries for school-age children?
Car accidents & drowning
What is code switching?
Changing speech to reflect the audience & situation. Develops during middle childhood.
Why do prosocial behaviors increase from early to middle childhood? What factors influence prosocial behaviors?
Children become better at reading others' emotional cues & regulating their own emotions. Prosocial behaviors reflect cultural values & biological factors.
What two changes in eating patterns occur during early childhood?
Children have less of an appetite & stop eating baby food.
Describe language development during early childhood.
Children progress from telegraphic speech (18-36 months) to simple sentences to complex grammatical forms & rich vocabulary. Vocabularies begin expanding rapidly around age 2 as the result of fast mapping.
How is child care quality linked to children's cognitive development?
Children who attend high-quality child care (in which caregivers are sensitive & stimulating) have higher scores on tests of memory, vocabulary, & math development, & better language comprehension. This persists into elementary school.
How can parents best provide scaffolding in their conversations with their children to facilitate language development?
Children whose parents talk WITH them advance faster than children whose parents talk AT them - follow the child's interests.
How does growth of gray matter correlate with intelligence?
Children with superior intelligence show more rapid growth of gray matter during middle childhood & more rapid pruning of gray matter during adolescence.
What are self-conceptions?
Children's evaluative judgments about specific areas (e.g., sports, physical appearance, cognitive ability). A cognitive construction that reflects the child's mental development, as well as a social construction that reflects the child's interactions & experiences with others.
What are coaching & parent characteristics that lead children to enjoy their sport/coach more?
Coaches who are positive & give technical instruction rather than general comments. Parents who are supportive & enthusiastic without being pushy.
What causes children to develop a theory of mind?
Cognitive & language abilities, as well as experiences with adults & older children (e.g., Dunn: children understand what their mother & siblings know/don't know & what they will/won't tolerate)
How does the brain change during early childhood?
Connections within the brain & between the brain and nervous system are formed & fine-tuned. -Grow axons & dendrites (new connections), continue to form synapses (synaptogenesis; peaks at age 1 but continues in early childhood). -Synaptic pruning -Myelination continues. During infancy, areas involved w/ vision & movement were myelinated. During early childhood, fibers connecting the cerebellum and cerebral cortex grow & myelinate, improving balance & coordination. Begin myelinating frontal lobes. -Size of brain doesn't change much, but relative sizes of structures do. Prefrontal cortex develops more. -LATERALIZATION occurs. -CORPUS CALLOSUM rapidly develops. -FRONTAL LOBES develop rapidly. -LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: sensitive period during early childhood. -Areas associated with MOTOR DEVELOPMENT develop rapidly.
What are two fundamental features of reading?
Decoding & comprehension
What brain differences are correlated with differences in intelligence?
Differences NOT in absolute size but in pattern of change over time and in thickness of cerebral cortex. Superior intelligence = thinner cerebral cortex, rapid growth of gray matter during middle childhood, & rapid pruning of gray matter in adolescence. RATE OF CHANGE rather than absolute degree is the difference-maker.
What is horizontal decalage?
Differences in performance on conceptually related Piagetian tasks; once a child learns a certain function, he or she does not have the capability to immediately apply the learned function to all problems.
What is initiative versus guilt? In what situation would a child develop initiative?
Erikson's 3rd stage in which mastery of new skills is the primary challenge. Child develops initiative when parents accept & encourage efforts w/out being pushy or interfering. Occurs during early childhood.
How do family stories impact self-concept?
Family stories contribute to child's developing sense of self through the construction of autobiographical memories. The child develops a narrative, & memories anchor & enrich the child's self-concept.
What characteristics define friendships of middle childhood?
Friendships are defined by reciprocity in which each child counts the other as a friend. Friendships deepen toward the end of middle childhood as shared values & social understandings become more important. Friends are usually similar in sex, age, ethnicity, academic performance, interests, sociability, & popularity.
What are the benefits of friendships in early childhood?
Friendships provide more interactions & complex play, as well as more conflict & negotiated solutions. Provide emotional support & secure bases. Children with friends have more cognitive improvement & adjust to school more easily.
What are the two fronts of motor development during early childhood?
Gross motor skills & fine motor skills.
What does the development of both gross and fine motor skills in early childhood depend on?
Gross motor skills reflect maturation, cultural context, & opportunities. Fine motor skills reflect culture & experience & brain development.
What is Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning?
His theory assesses moral reasoning by examining responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas. He ID'ed three main levels of moral reasoning: -Preconventional: moral decisions are based on rewards & punishments associated w/ an action/behavior -Conventional: Morality is judged by whether behavior conforms to social rules & whether it will be approved of by others. -Postconventional: societal rules are considered relative; principles such as justice, fairness, & sanctity of life guide decisions about moral behavior.
What is the operationalized definition of mental retardation?
IQ below 70-75 and deficits relative to children of the same age.
What are the implications of illness and malnutrition during early childhood?
Illness & malnutrition lead to reduced motivation, curiosity, exploration, & playing, which slows cognitive & socioemotional development.
What are important motor developments in middle childhood?
Improved muscle strength, hand-eye coordination, stamina, gross- & fine-motor skills. Children develop "motor skills programs" that are stored in LTM. Middle childhood is, to some extent, a sensitive period for motor development. -Obesity --> deficits in gross motor skills
What are the major characteristics of the child's self-conception in early childhood?
In young children, self-conceptions are primarily based on concrete, observable characteristics & tend to be unrealistically positive.
What is lateralization, and what functions are localized where?
Lateralization: the phenomenon in which each brain hemisphere specializes in certain functions. Results in handedness, which emerges by age 5. -Left side: time & sequences, processes speech, register external stimuli. VERY ACTIVE in early childhood during LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT. -Right side: Patterns & images, processes body language & emotions, registers internal stimuli, mostly active 8-10 years of age when spatial skills improve
Which hemisphere of the brain is particularly active in early childhood, and what functional changes does this correspond to? What other part of the brain develops rapidly during early childhood?
Left hemisphere. Corresponds to changes in language development. Corpus callosum also develops rapidly.
What are Howard Gardner's 8 forms of intelligence?
Linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, & naturalistic.
How does learning affect memory strategies and/or performance on microgenetic analysis tasks?
Microgenetic studies show that children's memory strategies (mental/behavioral activities that improve recall & recognition of material) are variable, & most variable during period of rapid learning. Older children learn more quickly & use more appropriate generalizations than younger children do. -In middle childhood, children can be taught to use strategies. In preschool, recall isn't improved by teaching strategy. -Development of strategy isn't slow, steady growth - most children make big jumps, consistent with a qualitative shift in thought.
What is overregulation, and what is it a sign of?
Overregulation occurs when children mistakenly apply regular grammatical rules to irregular cases. A sign that children are learning the underlying structure of language rather than just mimicking what they hear. Children are learning exceptions to the rules by age 5-6.
How do normative and individual growth patterns compare?
Normative (average) growth is continuous. Individual growth is episodic.
What are some positive associations with organized activities for school-age children?
Participation in organized activities is linked to improvements in test scores & better emotional adjustment. Children whose families have higher incomes, more parental education, & 2 parents are more likely to participate in organized activities.
How does physical development during early childhood differ from that during infancy?
Physical development slows.
What are the frontal lobes, which develop rapidly between ages 3 & 6, primarily responsible for?
Planning & organizing actions, problem-solving, regulating emotions, focusing attention. Rapid growth --> more focused, planful, goal-oriented behaviors.
What are correlations associated with spending time with unsupervised peers?
Poor grades, misconduct, externalizing behavior problems. Extensive & extended sibling care is also linked to participation in risky behaviors.
How did Barbara Rogoff expand Vygotsky's idea of the ZPD?
She expanded it to include GUIDED PARTICIPATION: the ways children learn their society's values and practices through pariticipation in family & community activities. Goes beyond instruction & includes watching & listening to adults, joining in cultural rituals, listening to family stories, etc.
How do children of same-sex parents compare to those of opposite-sex parents?
Similar in self-concepts, playmate preferences, social competence, school grades, & quality of family relationships
What is gender socialization?
Social norms conveyed to children that concern characteristics associated w/ being male or female
What is used to assess peer group status?
Sociometric nominations: children identify peers they like & do not like --> 5 types of peer group status: popular, rejected, controversial, neglected, and average.
What are sensitive periods?
Stages during which the brain is more sensitive to experiences (more plastic). How experiences impact the brain's development during these periods depend on the maturity of the brain at the time. Language development has a sensitive period during early childhood.
What does the information processing perspective of understanding middle childhood development study?
Studies how children ATTEND to relevant information, REMEMBER it, & use that information to reason & SOLVE PROBLEMS. Children's attention, memory, & problem-solving abilities improve in middle childhood, resulting in reasoning & strategic thinking.
What types of tasks are used to assess conscience?
Tasks that assess guilt, empathy, & compliance/internalization
What are some influences on how children respond to the new demands of early childhood?
Temperament, cognitive competencies, cultural values, & social experiences w/ parents, sibs, & peers
What did the Romanian adoptee and NC early intervention programs demonstrate about intelligence?
That early environments, both profound & enriched, can have profound effects on intelligence.
What is Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence?
That intelligence has 3 independent, broad components: analytical, creative, & practical abilities.
What is the Walter Mischel experiment?
The Marshmallow Experiment. Children waited 15 minutes; those who immediately ate marshmallow were impulsive & wanted instant gratification. Mischel said that impulsive children probably had behavioral issues, had trouble maintaining friendships, & struggled in stressful situations. Children who controlled their impulses would have more successful futures.
What is the center of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory?
The Zone of Proximal Development: the gap between what a child can do alone & what the child can do with assistance. The understandings, skills, and ideas the child is beginning to perform and can do with assistance.
What is theory of mind?
The ability to attribute mental states to oneself & others, & to understand that others have mental states different from one's own.
What is emotional intelligence?
The ability to monitor one's own & others' feelings & to use that information to guide thinking & action.
What is the best way to combat obesity? What is the evidence for this?
The best way to combat obesity is to prevent weight gain in the first place. In a study, 60% of children who were overweight in preschool were overweight at age 12. None who were below the 50th percentile in preschool were overweight at age 12.
What did Piaget mean by "mental representation"? What are some examples of symbolic representation that emerge during early childhood?
The capacity to think about objects & events that aren't present. Develops during early childhood/preoperational period. -Language development -Pretend play
What is brain plasticity?
The degree to which the brain can be altered by experience. Experience sculpts architecture of the brain as changes in the brain affect the child's behavior.
What is socialization?
The process of developing cultural values & rules for behavior. Becomes more explicit during early childhood.
What is Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?
The theory that intelligence has 8 distinct forms that are independent & associated with different areas of the brain.
What is Robert Sternberg's theory of intelligence?
The triarchic theory of intelligence. It posits 3 separate components of intelligence: analytical, creative, & practical.
What is "household structure"?
The types and numbers of individuals who live in a household. E.g., single-parent, two-parent households, multigenerational families
What is some evidence that young children aren't egocentric?
They talk differently to a baby than they do to others, recognizing that babies don't understand speech the way that they & adults do. They can also distinguish between real & pretend events. False belief task.
According to Piaget, how do children develop logical thinking?
Through everyday, independent discovery; believed adults' efforts to teach logical operations would be pointless. Believed that interactions with other children, as opposed to adults, could promote cognitive development by forcing accommodation.
How does aggression change in early childhood?
Toddlers: aggression is usually instrumental. Ages 2-4: physical aggression decreases & verbal aggression increases. Reasons for conflict change (start to revolve around differences of opinion). Relational aggression is more common in older children.
Compare two-parent & one-parent households.
Two-parent households: higher income, more education, more stable jobs, more stable living arrangements, mothers have less depression & anxiety, more likely to use authoritative parenting, children have higher grades & fewer behavior problems
What are cliques?
Voluntary, friendship-based peer groups. Tend to be similar in attributes, attitudes, & behaviors. Tend to reinforce their own mini-cultures. Some reinforce academic achievement, involvement in music or sports, or particular hairstyles or clothes; others reward one another for aggression or antisocial behavior.
When are after-school programs most likely to have positive effects on social competencies & academic achievement?
When the interactions between staff & students are emotionally supportive, when activities are engaging & interesting, & when students attend 3-4 days a week.
