EDUC 740 Final

White ≠ poor

-As a socially accepted target of prejudice, few groups in contemporary society elicit antipathy like poor White people -Many of the most negative attitudes toward poor Whites seem to come from racial ingroup members -Central to the current work is the prediction that Whites perceive low-SES White people as a threat to the racial ingroup's status and prestige -Whites are favored in social and professional contexts where White stereotypes communicate safety, expertise, and competence -Research on social class implies that as a high-status group, White people can also often count on their values, norms, and goals to be reflected in public spaces and social institutions

Embodied State

-Categorizes one's ways of being that are especially valued within a given context (ex: the way one speaks (accent, vocabulary, etc.) and the knowledge one has) -Elite culture in historical aristocracy: specific rituals of behavior (how one eats; ability to play the piano)

Working in the borderlands

-Consider the intersection of race, class, and gender -Institutional and individual racism and White privilege prevail in higher education as well as wider society -Identifying the borders: Universities are not traditionally places frequented by working-class people; Theme of 'belonging and fitting in' (emotional attachment, politics); It has been argued that working-class higher education students, in trying to 'belong' and 'fit in', suffer a sense of 'class betrayal' and disidentification -It has been argued that higher education continues to play a significant role in the re/production of social inequalities in terms of pedagogy, knowledge, and future opportunities

Active Cultivation

-'Active' because this strategy requires and stimulates participation from all involved; 'cultivation' because it aims to make the most of a child's life by fostering education and learning -We will argue that some working-class parents use their personal experiences to diverge from the traditional pattern of socialisation through accomplishment of natural growth -Instead, they create a family environment that actively and effectively supports children's well-being and academic achievement -Parents set and communicate clear goals directed towards academic socialization -Create a home environment to stimulate learning (provide resources/materials, positive attention to literacy, communicate with teachers, set routines, provide emotional support)

Empowering homeless mothers to support their children's daily literacy experiences

-A home environment plays a crucial role in fostering children's literacy development and exposure to print prior to starting school has an impact on their language and literacy skills (cognitive, language, social and emotional development, transition to school and school achievement) -Environmental factors that may contribute to a lack of exposure to literacy include socioeconomic disadvantage due to homelessness or lack of access to permanent housing -Studies have shown that homeless children are less likely to score at or above grade level in maths and reading and how they live may negatively influence their literacy development -Quality literacy activities are those that employ strategies such as shared book-reading, oral storytelling and talking about objects in the environment with children -Research indicates that when adults, particularly parents, take advantage of opportunities to engage in literacy activities with their preschool children, they are setting the foundation for their children's success in school -A child's home environment and family practices, such as less responsive parenting that often occurs within families who are homeless, may have an impact on children's transition to school and subsequent academic success -Literacy programs should aim to encourage and validate what parents are already doing to promote their children's literacy learning; acknowledging their social and cultural practices -Programs should extend and build on parents' knowledge by introducing various literacy strategies that families can implement with their children on a daily basis

Cultural capital, habitus, and educational outcomes

-Bourdieu's original conceptualization of cultural capital referred to the knowledge, tastes, and linguistic competencies of the dominant social class -Cultural capital is often known as reflecting the high-status culture -The broader definition of cultural capital that emphasizes legitimized knowledge present in a home environment -A number of studies have shown that this broader definition of cultural capital is related to students' academic outcomes

Habitus

-Bourdieu's term to describe the self-perceptions and beliefs that develop as part of one's social identity and shape one's conceptions of the world and where one fits in it -Students from less-advantaged family backgrounds benefit more from cultural capital than their advantaged counterparts (primarily in schools with high college-going culture) -Habitus is related to the transition into higher education regardless of the high school context and benefits all students equally

Economic disadvantage and math achievement

-Children growing up in poverty do consistently worse in school compared to their peers from middle- and high-income backgrounds -Achievement in mathematics courses during primary and secondary school is a predictor of college eligibility, enrollment, and attainment -In early adolescence, mathematics demands increase significantly, and students begin to show signs of devaluing mathematics achievement -Suggestions that children growing up in poverty have different cognitive evaluations about learning mathematics than children not exposed to economic adversity -Children who were eligible for free or reduced-price lunch at school reported higher perceived costs of learning math, which in turn predicted lower academic achievement in math -Children growing up in poverty make choices that are most beneficial to their immediate circumstances and short-term goals because of uncertainty of the future -Children growing up in poverty might recognize that getting an 'A' in school could have long-term benefits, such as getting into college but expending the effort to get an 'A' is perceived as costlier because their resources and energy might be better invested towards other pursuits that offer more immediate pay-offs -Economic disadvantage did not predict lower interest or perceived ability in mathematics either, suggesting that children growing up in poverty may evidence similar levels of interest and perceived ability in mathematics as their more economically advantaged peers, particularly after taking other factors (e.g., race, gender) into account

Bilingual Teaching Practices

-Codeswitching/use of nonstandard English and native languages among low SES linguistic minority students, including Latinos, have generally been recognized as a deficiency that needs to be repaired -It is crucial to help prospective bilingual teachers develop their ideological clarity in parallel with their pedagogical expertise (understand nonstandard language more accurately) -Effort must be made to prepare teachers, including those who speak their students' native languages/are members of the same cultural groups, to perceive potentially negative language ideologies more clearly and intervene more proactively to prevent the potential discriminatory manifestation of such ideologies -Teachers, in addition to developing humanistic bilingual pedagogical practices, must learn to identify hurtful dominant culture ideologies and their manifestation in the classroom so they can be prepared to intervene and create optimal learning condition for all their students

The Gifted Gap

-Community leaders advocate for increased access to advanced, college-preparatory courses at high schools serving large numbers of students experiencing poverty -Limited access to advanced academic opportunities and differentiated instruction prevents high-ability, low-income children from reaching their full potential -Gifted education programs in elementary and middle school play an important role preparing students for success in advanced courses in high school -Critical systems perspective (Theory) acknowledges individuals, schools, and urban communities as interdependent entities and incorporates the core values of critique, pluralism, emancipation, and social justice to address systemic inequities -A recent study of gifted education programs across three states revealed extensive within-district differences in identification for gifted education related to institutional level and student socioeconomic status -Lower SES students (who qualified for free/reduced lunch) were less likely to be identified for gifted programming -Black and Latinx students are routinely under referred for gifted education services by teachers who have limited training in gifted education and may act out of socioeconomic and racial bias -Participation in gifted education programs in elementary and middle school has a positive impact on student performance, motivation, self-efficacy, engagement, and self-concept -Lack of participation in gifted education programs during elementary school contributes to an AP gap that perpetuates inequities at the high school level

Technology and SES (STEM)

-Disproportionate access to technology -Low self-efficacy in technology -Computers are important, but low SES students are cautious with them -Negative perceptions of technology are due to lack of access and experience

Parenting Practices

-Empirical studies usually show patterns where families with low SES are less successful academically than their peers from families with more resources -Result in considerable differences in academic qualifications between children from middle-class and working-class families -Parents' SES and levels of education were significantly related to child outcomes -Socialization practices are important -Patterns of socialization aim to install very distinctive orientations about self and society in children: self-direction for children from middle-class families and conformity for children from working-class families

Qualitative dimension

-Environmental and social factors shape experiences in the social class and school -Attention devoted to quality of children's experiences, characteristics of their interactions, and process of identity construction

Exceptionality

-Exceptionality means significant differences from an established norm -Exceptional individuals appear at both ends of the learning spectrum (learning difficulties vs. excelling) -Many states use teacher referral as the first step toward qualification

Enabling exemplary teaching

-Fair Go Project: fair go means a call for justice and equity for all, regardless of social and cultural background (Australian term) -All students should have opportunities for educational success and that this success is strengthened by the pedagogies of their teachers -Historically, many students living in poverty develop a resistance to schooling, where they don't experience education as a positive part of their lives -Poor communities face multiple forms of disadvantage, including social issues, geographic isolation, financial hardship, unemployment, and housing challenges -Teaching practices that engage students can make a difference to the learning experiences of students in poverty -Critical to literacy learning and the success of using technology in schools in low SES location is that pedagogy is developed that addresses the literacy and technology needs of the learners in that community

Tracking

-Grouping students based on their achievement level -Linked to increased social inequalities -Should be described in terms of the degree of selection rather than a binary variable -Paradoxically perpetuates existing social class inequalities -School system is an active contributor to the social class achievement gap

Effects of Neighborhood Poverty

-Growing income segregation has placed recent groups of children in metropolitan environments that are highly stratified along spatial lines -Childhood residence neighborhoods with higher rates of poverty may show a downward effect on children's cognitive development -Lower quality schools, fewer health care clinics, fewer libraries, restricted access to information networks, increased net stress engagement through higher exposure to violence, housing instability, unemployment, and weakened family units

Higher Education

-Higher education has been proposed as a mechanism for opening doors to social equality -Inequalities: decision to attend college, job prospects after graduation -Lower-class parents often have not attended college and they are not familiar with the requirements for college admission -Life in college: Study habits and relationships with professors vary; May feel intimidated by the academic hierarchy -Life after college: Some people don't have the option to attend graduate school and enter the job market right after college; Connections from friends and family members often help higher-income students for success in post-graduation jobs; Lower SES students usually continue to feel financial stress even after college -Society vs. individual: Social structures tend to open doors for certain groups of people in society and close them for others

Literacy and Language

-Higher income, access to reading materials, higher parent education levels, and greater engagement in early literacy produces higher scores on standardized tests and positively influences reading achievement -SES influences vocabulary development (words known and growth rate) -Language development has been shown to associate with reading comprehension -Language development is influenced by ethnic, regional, and social-class differences

Mathematics and SES (STEM)

-Higher-income students earn better scores on mathematics assessments than lower-income students -Even when students have the same initial mathematics skill level, socioeconomically advantaged students persist in high school math at higher rates than their less advantaged peers -Students from socioeconomically disadvantaged families who have low math performance appear to benefit from having academic consultants for course work decisions -May not perceive themselves as capable of this work nor see it as important to their future -Teachers and school counselors may hold lower expectations of them and offer less support and encouragement -Lower-SES students are disproportionately overrepresented in low-level tracks, which can be disadvantageous settings with lower-quality instruction

Homework and Parental Involvement

-Homework is constant but often controversial -Findings showed that homework was viewed, shared, discussed, handled, and ultimately accomplished in ways which differed from established recommendations and mainstream teacher expectations -Implications: families held perceptions of the benefits, purposes, and effects of homework that had the potential to inform teachers in the design, implementation, and evaluation of meaningful, culturally responsive homework assignments

Teachers' perspectives on cultural and social class diversity

-In Australia (like the US and UK) a significant proportion of school-age students, whose ethnicity, language, and social class mark them as different from the dominant culture, continue to fail to achieve educational levels and outcomes that are equivalent to their peers from the mainstream -Research studies indicate that this failure to achieve academically is not a result of these students' lack of ability but rather due to how curricula, teaching, and assessment practices can work to marginalise particular groups of students -Researchers have argued that to help preservice teachers explore and understand how cultural and socioeconomic differences inform and are informed by educational experiences they should begin by reflecting on how their own ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and linguistic practices have shaped their sense of self -As teacher-educators, we recognise that by exploring sociocultural categories of difference, there is the potential for ethnic, cultural, linguistic, or gendered complexities to be reduced to simplistic and essentialist generalities

Bourdieu and 3 States

-In Bourdieu's view, a combination of all of these forms of capital and the value they have in a given societal context determine one's status -How one is perceived by others and how one perceives oneself.

Physical Activity and Sports

-In the US, white people are often more active than black and Hispanic people -Impoverished areas are less likely to have safe public recreation options available -Proper nutrition is important to support physical activity -Sports have a certain status in our culture that is important among young people and can positively impact self-esteem and teach a number of life skills -Playing organized sports requires financial resources -Separating students according to skill levels can exacerbate social-class differences in this arena -Children in higher-income schools often have more opportunity for physical activity during the school day

Science and SES (STEM)

-Low-income students are less likely to continue taking science courses beyond that which is required -Less likely to earn grades that are high enough to progress further in the study of science -Self-selection enrollment concerns: working part-time, lack of academic background -For many low SES students, the choice to study higher-level science is not available -Low-income schools are less likely to offer AP classes -Low SES students are often disproportionately placed on low-level tracks

'Hidden Processes' of Social Class Superiority

-Media: portrayal of poor people, frames (ways in which we see the world), benign metaframe (downplays class inequality), malevolent metaframe (highlights hardships), proportional representation, frames of class conditions (minimize poor and working-class hardships) -Schools: tracking (testing and assessments that put students into potentially biased groups), efficiency vs. equality, poverty is often masked under other categories (low achievers, under-performing students) -American Dream: Opportunities are available to everyone and individuals rise and fall through the class structure based on their hard work, morals, and willingness to "play by the rules", those who lack these traits will fall, framed as an open class structure, the media then focuses on individual characteristics while also downplaying structural factors that block opportunities for some and provide them for others, maintains that anyone can be socially mobile

SES and Special Education

-Minority groups are actually overrepresented in special education -Lower SES students show weaker educational performance/outcomes, fewer materials at home, fewer educational opportunities, and lower basic needs (health care, nutrition, sleep) -Students of lower socioeconomic status tend to be overrepresented in the classifications of mildly mentally retarded (MMR), emotionally disturbed (ED), and learning disabled (LD) -Exists as early as preschool (more likely to exhibit behavior problems than higher SES students -Low SES students are less likely to attend a school with inclusion practices

Intersecting perceptions of racial minority status and social class

-Names are a marker of socioeconomic factors other than race that cause discrimination -Race signaling of names may also be confounded with the commonness of names because names that signal racial minority status are less commonly given in the U.S. population than names that do not signal minority status -Given that race is confounded with both poverty and educational achievement, it is a reasonable conclusion that race is confounded with SES in general, no matter what markers are used for SES -Intersectionality is the idea that overlapping axes of oppression and privilege, such as race, gender, and social status, cannot be separated from each other but rather are inextricably interactive

Exploring student teachers' perceptions of poverty and disadvantage using visual pedagogy

-Pre-service cohorts in England still tend to be dominated by students from more socioeconomically advantaged households and geographical areas and from the 'white British'/Caucasian ethnic majority; this demographic suggests that few student-teachers will have sustained personal experience of living in poverty, or other types of disadvantage

Cultural Reproduction

-Provides an important framework for understanding social inequality in educational outcomes. -How cultural capital contributes to inequality in academic achievement between children from different socioeconomic backgrounds -Bourdieu argued that schools reproduce inequality by rewarding the cultural capital of the dominant social class (challenging the notion that the school system is meritocratic)

Research Dimensions

-Quantitative dimension: statistical measurements of achievement, graduation rates, standardized test scores (Oikonomidoy & Wiest, 2020) -Qualitative dimension: environmental and social factors shape experiences in the social class and school (Oikonomidoy & Wiest, 2020) -Ideological dimension: social inequality in education and how the process is achieved at a societal and an individual level (Oikonomidoy & Wiest, 2020)

Parental Contributions

-Requesting voluntary fees from parents is a form of structural inequality -Public schools with a more disadvantaged cohort should theoretically receive more funding -However, researchers argue that the current funding arrangements benefit and over-invest in schools which serve more advantaged students

Time and money explain social class differences in students' social integration at university

-Research conducted in the USA and Australia has found that working-class students tend to be less socially integrated at university than middle-class students -Working-class students often participate in fewer formal activities as well as fewer informal social activities -Social class difference in social integration at university is important because it relates to social class differences academic outcomes -A potentially important means of improving working-class students' academic outcomes is to increase their social integration at university

Neighborhood Characteristics

-Residential segregation is more visible in modern cities -Higher social-class neighborhoods are usually located on the outskirts of cities (spatial organization; sparsely populated) -Lower social-class neighborhoods are usually located closer to downtown areas (overcrowded and dense; potential for more violence) -Experiences in these different neighborhood are qualitatively different

STEM success with elementary students of color in a low-income community

-School can be a place of continued marginalization in low-income communities of color -We need social justice to cultivate an educational system that benefits all students -STEM developed to address the growing concern that the US is failing to prepare individuals to compete with their international counterparts in the 21st-century global market -Create a learning space that promotes collaboration -Collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking -Issues of equity and access were important lenses to consider

Intersections with other social identities

-Social class rarely exists in the absence of surrounding social forces of marginalization or privilege -The impact of social class is mediated by forces such as race, gender, and immigration status (McDowell, 2008) -These factors intersect to influence people's positions in society and are often actualized in social interactions -We recognize not only the role of the structural forces in shaping people's lives but also the role of individuals in the complex social world

Ideological dimension

-Social inequality in education and how the process is achieved at a societal and an individual level -Internalization of one's advantage/disadvantage

Selection for SPED Services

-Special education (SE) is the most important support system for enhancing the learning and development of students who require extra support and services to succeed academically. -Previous research indicates that boys, students growing up in poverty, and those who are ethnic minorities are disproportionately represented in SE -Children with poor school achievement receive SE considerably more often than their better-performing peers -Teachers with limited self-efficacy are more likely to make referrals to SE

Quantitative dimension

-Statistical measurements of achievement, graduation rates, standardized test scores -Poverty can be masked under different categories -Parental income, parental education, availability of educational materials

Pierre Bourdieu

-Studied the ways in which people's interactions are shaped (and shape) the social terrain in the two societies of France and Algeria -Studied how certain state functions (ex: public education) provide mechanisms that reproduce the existing stratified social order -Found that hidden ideological and pragmatic obstacles hinder individuals' access and progress within educational systems

SES and Gifted Education

-Teachers refer students for screening -Low SES students are significantly less likely to be referred -We should encourage teachers to nominate students from special populations; provide professional development to staff; use multiple assessments -Low SES students are less likely to attend schools that offer gifted and talented programs -Gifted programs must be designed with the needs, strengths, and the current achievement level of those students in mind

Teachers' Perspectives and Instructional Practices

-Teachers' expectations for students' academic performance creates a self-fulfilling prophecy in which students carry out their "assigned" roles -Research shows that teachers perceive and teach students differently according to social class -Perceptions and stereotypes can lead to differential expectations (requiring different levels of thinking; providing different career encouragement and information) -Teachers tend to have lower educational and occupational expectations for students of lower social classes, such as working-class students and those pursuing vocational fields of study

Parental Involvement

-The impact of parental involvement has been reviewed throughout the span of an individual's childhood and into early adulthood -Foundational research and more recent studies show a variation in early literacy practices at home and differences in communication styles (cultural capital) for people of different social classes -Been proposed that these differences impact transition into formal education -Assumption of positive effects of parent involvement can lead to unwanted stereotypes and misunderstandings -Teachers sometimes blame the parents for the student's academic challenges -We need to recognize both strengths and cultural capital gaps that students may come to school with -Find ways to capitalize on the strengths and counteract the gaps

Social Capital

-The networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively. -Bourdieu considered aspects of the social world to function as markets -Social capital refers to whom one knows (adult and peer networks can provide resources to students) -Social capital is trusting relationships that allow you to support one another

Social Mobility/Social Reproduction

-The role of habitus in facilitating social mobility or social reproduction has received less attention, although a few recent quantitative studies indicate that habitus benefits students from different social class backgrounds equally -Schools reproduce social inequality by expecting and rewarding cultural capital of the dominant social class -Expectations reproduce inequalities -Schools will expect and reward middle-class cultural capital and habitus

Poverty and Gifted Students

-The underrepresentation of low-income students in gifted education is a persistent problem -Gifted programs commonly utilize a referral-based system of student nomination that may be biased against low-income students -Low-income students tend to have fewer opportunities to learn when compared with their higher income peers, which may explain disproportionately low rates of identification for low-income students -School with greater poverty often have lower teacher expectations and mundane curriculum -Some researchers suggest that high poverty schools' limited resources are a function of inequitable distribution practices at the district level due, in part, to the dependence of school funding on local tax revenue -Inequitable school funding can also affect the availability of gifted programming

Conceptual tools: hybridity, habitus, and agency

-Utilise the concept of hybridity in relation to the development of identity and the generation of habitus and to illuminate a fluidity and coalescence of experiences in the formation of new or adapted dispositions -Hybridity is part of a process of intersections and the cross-cutting of boundaries which are also contextualised -Fusion of experiences, values, and 'cultures'

Educational Debt

-We are unable to provide all students with equal opportunities for education due to cultural capital that has set people back -Poverty is influenced by race -Video: How American Public Schools Keep Kids in Poverty

Social-class disparities

Common denominator of social inequality around the world

Objectified State

Includes the cultural goods that one possesses (number of books, instruments, or machines)

Institutionalized State

One's educational qualifications, awards, degrees, etc. -Importance of post-secondary education

Cultural Capital

The symbolic and interactional resources that people use to their advantage in various situations

The Media and Framing

Ways of "selecting and highlighting some elements of reality and suppressing others, in a way that constructs a story about a social problem, its causes, its moral nature and its possible remedies"

Natural Familiarity

While working-class children may acquire some of the cultural knowledge necessary to do well in school, they are not likely to learn as quickly as middle-class children or acquire the 'natural familiarity' with schooling practices and thus not likely to reap the same rewards.