Edus 301 Exam 1

Descriptive Research

Aims at observing and recording behavior and can reveal important information but cannot show cause-and-effect

Case Study

An in-depth look at a single individual.

Preterm Infants

An infant born 3 weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term

Small for Date Infants

Are those whose birth weight is below normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered. They weigh less than 90% of all babies of the same gestational age. May be preterm or full term.

Viable

As early as 6 months, the fetus for the first time has a chance of surviving outside of the womb

Consequences of Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants

Most are normal and healthy. More health and developmental problems Survival rates have risen. However, with this has come increases in rates of severe brain damage Increased risk for learning disability, ADHD, and/or breathing problems. 50% of all these children are enrolled in special education programs.

Childhood Sleep

Most sleep through the night and have one daytime nap. _____ with sleeping problems are more likely to use drugs and be depressed Helping them slow down before bedtime often contributes to less resistance in going to bed

Puberty

Not the same as adolescence and has ended long before adolescence is exited. The most important marker for the beginning of adolescence. o Rapid, physical development involving hormonal and body changes o Starting earlier and earlier

Culture

the behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation

Bonding

the formation of a close connection, especially a physical ___, between parents and their newborn in the period shortly after birth A special component of the parent-infant relationship Early close contact may establish a climate for improved interaction after the mother and infant leave the hospital Many hospitals now offer a rooming-in arrangement, in which the baby remains in the mother's room most of the time during its hospital stay

Dose

the greater the ___ of an agent, such as a drug, the greater the effect

Perception

the interpretation of sensation

Organogenesis

the name given to the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development.

Genetic Susceptibility

the type or severity of abnormalities caused by a teratogen is linked to the genotype of the pregnant woman and the genotype of the embryo or fetus

Social Cognitive Theory

the view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment and cognition as the key factors in development

Non-REM Sleep

this type of eye movement doesn't occur and sleep is quieter

Erikson's Strategies

Nurture infants and develop their trust, then encourage and monitor toddlers' autonomy. Encourage initiative in young children. Promote industry in elementary school children. Stimulate identity exploration in adolescence.

Research Methods

Observation -Laboratory -Naturalistic Survey/Interview Standardized Test Case Study Physiological Measures

Genetic Imprinting

Occurs when the expression of a gene has different effects depending on whether the mother or the father passed on the gene. A chemical process "silences" one member of the gene pair. Only a small percentage of human genes appear to undergo _____.

Survey/Interview

Often the best and quickest way to get information about people. Ask people questions directly through one-on-one coversation or questionnaires.

Socio-economic Status

categorization based on a person's occupational, educational, and economic characteristics Differences in the ability to control resources and to participate in society's rewards produce unequal opportunities

Cross-Cultural Studies

comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which children's development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and to the degree to which it is culture-specific

Hearing

waves of pulsating air are collect and transmitted through bones to auditory nerve

Ethnic Gloss

we shouldn't overgeneralize races/populations. Do a sample that is representative of the population to reduce _______. Use of an ethnic label in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is

Umbilical Cord

contains two arteries and one vein and connects the baby to the placenta.

Teratology

field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects

Plasticity

flexibility of the brain and the ability to change/learn different things. Brain is growing new connections or strengthening past connections that were already there. Your brain can adapt to concussions or brain injuries because of this

Vision

rays of light contact the eyes become focused on the retina and are transmitted by the optic nerve to visual centers of the brain

Sensation

reaction that occurs when information contacts sensory receptor - the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils and skin

Dishabituation

recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation

Context

settings, influenced by historical, economic, social and cultural factors, in which development occurs

Low Birth Weight Infants

Weigh less than 5 ½ pounds at birth

Brain

When born, babies have 100 billion neurons (nerve cells, which handle information processing at the cellular level in the brain). The basic architecture of the brain occurs during the first two trimesters of prenatal development. The third trimester of prenatal development and the first two years of postnatal life are characterized by connectivity and functioning of neurons. The nervous system begins forming as a long, hollow tube located on the embryo's back.

Standardized Test Problem

Not always predict behavior in non-test situations. Based on belief that person's behavior is consistent, where personality and intelligence can vary with the situation. Many psychological tests created in the West don't apply to other cultures as well.

Vygotsky and Knowledge

**is situated and collaborative** is not generated from within the individual is constructed through interaction with other people and objects in the culture, such as books can best be advanced through interaction with others in cooperative activities

Parenting Adopted Children

-Be supportive and caring. -Be involved and monitor the child's behavior. -Be a good communicator. -Help the child to learn to develop self-control. -They need to recognize the differences involved in adoptive family life. -Communicate about these differences. -Show respect for the birth family. -Support the child's search for self and identity.

Increase in Low Birth Weight Infants

36% since 1980s The increase is likely due to: -Births to women 35 years and older -Multiple births -Management of maternal and fetal conditions -Increased substance abuse -Increased stress -Adolescent births -Poor nutrition -Reproductive technologies -Improved technology and prenatal care that result in more high-risk babies surviving

Middle and Late Childhood

6-11 -Slow, consistent growth averaging 2 to 3 inches a year. -Muscle mass and strength increase; "baby fat" decreases. Improved muscle tone. -Bones continue to harden. -Changes in proportions are among the most pronounced physical changes during this time -Head circumference, waist circumference, and leg length decrease in relation to body height

Neuronal Migration

6-24 weeks after conception Cells move outward from their point of origin to their appropriate locations and creating the different levels, structures, and regions of the brain Once a cell has migrated to its target destination, it must mature and develop a more complex structure.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

A condition that occurs when infants stop breathing, usually during the night, and die suddenly without an apparent cause. Remains the highest cause of infant death in the U. S.

Placenta

A disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join.

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fat cells Helps impulses travel faster along the axon

Cross-Sectional

A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time.

Longitudinal

A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. Expensive and time-consuming

Middle and Late Childhood Illness/Injury

A time of excellent health Disease and death are less prevalent in this period . The most common cause of severe injury and death is motor vehicle accidents, either as a pedestrian or as a passenger. Most accidents occur in or near home or school May also develop life-threatening diseases (cancer is second leading cause of death) Cardiovascular disease can be caused by environmental experiences and behavior during this time period

Infancy REM Sleep

About half of an their sleep is REM sleep. Often begin their sleep cycle with REM sleep rather than non-REM sleep. The large amount of REM sleep may provide ____ with added self-stimulation. REM sleep also might promote the brain's development during this time period

Body Image

Adolescents are preoccupied with their bodies and develop images of what their bodies are like Girls are less happy with their bodies and have more negative _____ than boys throughout puberty

Fetal Period

Between two months and birth. Growth and development continue. The fetus is more active. A grasping reflex is present and irregular breathing movements occur. During the last two months of prenatal development fatty tissues develop, and the functioning of various organ systems (heart and kidneys) steps up.

Infancy

Characterized by rapid growth during the first two years

Vygotsky

Children actively construct their knowledge. Gave social interaction and culture far more important roles in cognitive development than other cognitive psychologists did. Emphasized how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. Portrayed child's development as inseparable from social and cultural activities Development of memory, attention, and reasoning involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies. Children's social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is indispensable to their cognitive development

Maternal Nutrition

Children born to malnourished mothers are more likely than other children to be malformed. Being overweight before and during pregnancy can also put the embryo or fetus at risk. One aspect of ______ that is important for normal prenatal development is folic acid. Eating fish is often recommended as part of a healthy diet, but pollution has made many fish a risky choice for pregnant women.

Exercise

Children need daily exercise. Children are not getting nearly enough exercise Television watching is linked with low activity and obesity in children. A related concern is the dramatic increase in computer use by children. Routine physical activity should be a daily occurrence for young children

Nurturing Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants

Close physical contact with the parent provided by kangaroo care can help to stabilize the preterm infant's heartbeat, temperature, and breathing. Preterm infants who experience kangaroo care also gain more weight than their counterparts. A recent study also revealed that kangaroo care decreased pain responses in preterm infants Infants who were massaged with moderate pressure gained more weight, performed better on the orientation scale of the Brazelton, were less excitable and less depressed, and were less agitated during sleep

Neural Circuits

Clusters of neurons work together to handle particular types of information. The brain is organized into many of these. For example: Attention and working memory. This _____ uses the neurotransmitter dopamine and lies in the prefrontal cortex.

Time Span of Research (Experimental)

Cross-Sectional Approach Longitudinal Approach

Experimental Research

Describes strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics

Correlational Research

Describes strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics Uses ______ coefficient

Research Designs

Descriptive Correlational Experimental

Infancy Brain

Development occurs extensively during the prenatal period. Development is also substantial during infancy and later. Their head should be protected from falls or other injuries and should never be shaken. _____ who grow up in a deprived environment may also have depressed brain activity. Demonstrates both flexibility and resilience. Neuroscientists believe that what wires it is repeated experience. The ______ is waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made

Early and Late Maturation

Early-maturing adolescents have more positive body image than late-maturing adolescents, but by their 30s, late-maturing boys have a more positive identity than early-maturing boys. Early-maturation increases girls' vulnerability to a number of problems (smoking, drinking, depression, sex)

Ecological

Emphasizes environmental factors

Information-Processing Theory

Emphasizes that individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize information Development is not stage-like Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills We think like a computer

Socio-cultural contexts and diversity

Everything is shaped by this Three Parts: Culture Ethnicity Socio-economic status

Physiological Measures

Ex. fMRI, EEG Assess the functioning of the central nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and endocrine system.

Bottle vs. Breast Feeding

For the first 4 to 6 months of life, human milk or an alternative formula is the baby's source of nutrients and energy. The growing consensus is that breast feeding is better for the baby's health -fewer gastrointestinal infections -fewer lower respiratory tract infections -protects against wheezing -decreases middle ear infections Mother's health -decreases chances of ovarian and breast cancer -reduction in type 2 diabetes

Psychoanalytic Theories

Freud Erikson

Four Lobes and Definition

Frontal lobes are involved in voluntary movement, thinking, personality, and intentionality or purpose. Occipital lobes function in vision. Temporal lobes have an active role in hearing, language processing, and memory. Parietal lobes play important roles in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control.

Neurogenesis

Generation of new neurons

Three Periods of Prenatal Development

Germinal Embryonic Fetal

Overweight Children

Has become a serious problem in early childhood and has increased dramatically in recent decades Increases chances of pulmonary problems like sleep apnea, diabetes, high blood pressure and cholesterol, depression and low self-esteem

Freud's Stages

He theorized that we proceed through five stages of psychosexual development: Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

Early Childhood Illness/Injury

In the U.S., motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death, followed by cancer and cardiovascular disease. Parental smoking is another major danger _____ exposed to tobacco smoke in the home are more likely to develop wheezing symptoms and asthma than those in nonsmoking homes Risk of lead poisoning which leads to lower intelligence, achievement and ADH

Infancy Nutrition

Individual differences among ____ in terms of their nutrient reserves, body composition, growth rates, and activity patterns make actual nutrient needs difficult Many U.S. parents aren't feeding them enough fruits and vegetables, but are feeding them too much junk food Poor dietary patterns early in development can result in more ____ being overweight

Adopted Children Development

Infancy -Few differences in the attachment that adopted and non-adopted infants form with their parents. Early Childhood -Many children begin to ask where they came from. Talk in simple ways to children about their adoption status. Secrecy may create psychological risks. Middle and Late Childhood -Children express more interest in their origins. They may become more ambivalent about being adopted. Adolescence -Search for an identity. May have difficulty incorporating their adopted status in positive ways to their identity.

Hormones

Influenced by environment Relationships, sexual activity and your environment can affect your ________

Anemia

Iron deficiency common in low-income families that results in chronic fatigue

Development

Is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Mostly involves growth, although it also includes decay.

Adoption

Is the social and legal process by which a parent-child relationship is established between persons unrelated at birth. o Most adopted children fare well with adopted parents. In modern times, we have the capacity to have older parents adopting children. Homosexual couples can adopt children and single parents can adopt. Adopting children of different ethnicities. o The younger you adopt the child, the more likely to have positive outcomes. Adopted children are more likely to experience psychological and school-related problems. More likely to engage in delinquent behavior but also more likely to be social.

SIDS Risk Factors

Less likely to occur in infants who use a pacifier when they go to sleep Low birth weight; Infants whose siblings have died of _____; sleep apnea, a temporary cessation of breathing in which the airway is completely blocked, usually for 10 seconds or longer; African American and Eskimo infants; More common in lower socioeconomic groups; Infants passively exposed to cigarette smoke; Soft bedding; Infants with abnormal brain stem functioning involving serotonin

Malnutrition in Infancy

Marasmus is caused by a severe protein-caloric deficiency and results in a wasting away of body tissues in the infant's first year. Infants with marasmus become grossly underweight and his/her muscles atrophy. Kwashiorkor, caused by severe protein deficiency, usually appears between 1 and 3 years of age. The child's abdomen and feet swell with water. The child's hair also becomes thin, brittle, colorless, and the child's behavior often becomes listless.

Piaget's Two Processes

Organization and adaptation — underlie the four stages of development in ____'s theory We organize our experiences. We separate important ideas from less important ideas. We connect one idea to another. We adapt, adjusting to new environmental demands

Why is it important to study child development?

Perhaps you are or will be a parent or teacher, and responsibility for children is or will be a part of your everyday life. The more you learn about children and the way researchers study them, the better you can guide them. Perhaps you hope to gain an understanding of your own history—as an infant, as a child, and as an adolescent. The scientific method is used in child development research

Reciprocal Determinism

Person/Cognition (doesn't read well; believes he reads well and to prevent reading I have to behave poorly). Behavior (pinching kid next to him). Environment (pinching and going to counselor changes the environment he doesn't want to be in).

Cognitive Theories

Piaget Vygotsky Information-Processing

Equilibrium vs. Disequilibrium

Piaget you reach ____ when you've figured things out from a cognitive viewpoint. In math, you're learning addition/subtraction in the 2nd grade and you become comfortable. Then one day you start to learn multiplication and your knowledge is messed up. To resolve the _____ you have to become active in learning. As a result your math knowledge has gone up.

Nutrition Behavior

Poor nutrition as a result of unhealthy eating habits and being overweight threaten present and future health Eating behavior is strongly influenced by their caregivers' behavior Children's eating behavior improves when caregivers eat with children on a predictable schedule, model eating healthy food, make mealtimes pleasant occasions, and engage in certain feeding styles.

Childhood Nutrition

Poor nutrition in ____ can lead to a number of problems. Poor nutrition occurs more in low-income than higher income families A special concern is the increasing epidemic of overweight _______

Prenatal Development

Prenatal development begins with fertilization Ends with birth. Lasts between 266 and 280 days (from 38 to 40 weeks).

Neurons

Process information. An axon sends electrical signals away from the central part of the _____ At tiny gaps called synapses, the axon communicates with dendrites of other _____ which then pass the signals on. The communication in the synapse occurs through the release of chemical substances known as neurotransmitters.

Adolescence

Puberty - a period of rapid physical maturation. Hormonal and bodily changes take place during this time.

Shared Environmental Experiences

Siblings' common experiences Parents' personalities Intellectual orientation The family's socioeconomic status The neighborhood Accounts for little of the variation in children's personality or interests. Siblings are very different.

Behavioral Theories

Skinner Bandura Pavlov

Why We Sleep

Sleep restores, replenishes, and rebuilds our brains and bodies. Some neuroscientists believe that sleep gives neurons used while we are awake a chance to shut down and repair themselves

Resilience

Some children are confident in their abilities despite negative stereotypes about their gender or their ethnic group. Some children triumph over poverty or other adversities Ability to persevere despite the negative things that have happened to you. These children usually have certain factors - more likely to have a close relationship to a caring parent figure and bonds to caring adults outside of family, and good intellectual functioning.

Childhood Brain

Some of the brain's increase in size is due to myelination and some is due to an increase in the number and size of dendrites. Myelination is important in the maturation of a number of their abilities. The brain during this time is not growing as rapidly as in infancy. 3-6 years - planning and organizing new actions and attention to tasks 6-puberty - language and spatial relations

Lateralization

Specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other The type of information handled by neurons depends on whether they are in the left or right hemisphere of the cortex

Epigenetic View

States that development is the result of an ongoing, bi-directional interchange between heredity and the environment

Ethological

Stresses that behavior: -is strongly influenced by biology -is tied to evolution -is characterized by critical or sensitive periods

Germinal Period

Takes place in the first two weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the fertilized egg (zygote), cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. Rapid cell division continues throughout the period. Differentiation of cells takes place. Cells, now called the blastocyst, consists of an inner mass of cells that will eventually develop into the embryo. The trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. Implantation, the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall, takes place about 11 to 15 days after conception.

Time of Exposure

Teratogens do more damage when they occur at some points in development than at others As time goes on, less damage

Growth Hormone Deficiency

The absence or deficiency of growth hormone produced by the pituitary gland. -Can be treated with injections of growth hormone for several years.

Brain Physiology

The brain has two hemispheres. The forebrain, or top portion, is covered by a layer of cells called the cerebral cortex, which is critical in perception, thinking, language, and other important functions. Each hemisphere has four lobes

Non-Shared Environmental Experiences

The child's unique experiences within the family and outside the family

Teratogen Exposure (3 Terms)

The dose, genetic susceptibility, and the time of exposure influence both the severity of the damage to an embryo or fetus and the type of defect

Three Layers of Cells (Embryonic)

The endoderm produces internal body parts. The mesoderm produces parts that surround the internal areas. The ectoderm produces surface parts.

Proximodistal Pattern

The growth sequence that starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities

Developments in the Brain during Infancy

The myelin sheath (the layer of fat cells that speeds up the electrical impulse along the axon) Connections between dendrites.

Early Childhood

The percentage of increase in height and weight decreases each additional year Body fat declines slowly but steadily during the preschool years. Girls have more fatty tissue than boys; boys have more muscle tissue. Growth patterns vary individually Much of the variation is due to heredity and environmental experiences. Physical problems, growth hormone deficiency, or emotional difficulties may retard growth.

Cephalocaudal Pattern

The sequence in which the fastest growth occurs at the top — the head. Physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually works its way down from the top to the bottom.

Infancy Sleep

They sleep 16 to 17 hours a day. _____ might change from sleeping several long bouts of 7 or 8 hours to 3 or 4 shorter sessions only several hours in duration. By 6 months of age, they usually have moved closer to adult-like sleep patterns, spending the most time sleeping at night. The most common sleep-related problem reported by parents is night waking Cultural variations influence _____ sleeping patterns.

Adolescent Sleep

They sleep an average of 9 hours and 25 minutes when given the opportunity to sleep as long as they like. Most get considerably less sleep which creates sleep debt. Older are often more sleepy during the day than are younger. Their biological clocks undergo a hormonal phase shift as they get older. Older _____ are told to sleep an hour biologically later than younger _______.

Neural Tube

This pear-shaped _____, which forms at about 18- to 24-days after conception, develops out of the ectoderm. Two birth defects related to a failure of the ______ to close are anencephaly and spina bifida. In a normal pregnancy, once it's closed, a massive proliferation of new immature neurons begins to take place about the 5th week and continues throughout the remainder of the prenatal period.

Observation

Trained observers systematically gather, record, and communicate observations. Laboratory (see "drawbacks") Controlled setting with many of the complex factors of the "real world" removed Naturalistic observation Observing behavior in real-world settings

Standardized Test

Uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.

Prenatal Care

Varies enormously Involves a defined schedule of visits for medical care -Include screening for manageable conditions and treatable diseases that can affect the baby or the mother. Programs often include educational, social, and nutritional services. Important for women in poverty because it links them with other social services. Information about pregnancy, labor, delivery, and caring for the newborn can be especially valuable for first-time mothers

Scaffolding

Vygotsky put a label on something we do intuitively with children. Give a 4 year old a jigsaw puzzle. You demonstrate to the child how to do the puzzle. Help him find the corners and demonstrate how that has to fit into another piece, tells him to see if the colors match and see if they fit together. Look at the box to match the pieces. _____ is taking a child through the steps. Safety net through training wheels and when they don't need that help you take them away.

Freud

______ became convinced that patients' problems were the result of early experiences in life. ______ (1917) claimed that adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality.

Adolescent Brain

_______ undergo significant structural changes. The corpus callosum, where fibers connect the brain's left and right hemispheres, thickens and this improves _____'s ability to process information. The prefrontal cortex doesn't finish maturing until the emerging adult years, approximately 18 to 25 years of age. The amygdala - the seat of emotions such as anger - matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex.

Amnion

a bag or envelope containing a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats

Ethnicity

a characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion and language

Teratogen

any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes come from the Greek word meaning "monster"

Pruning

brain gets rid of things you no longer need. When it takes place it reassigns for ease of working those connections to other areas.

Nature vs. Nurture

debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. The "Nature" proponents claim biological inheritance is the most important influence on development; the "nurture" proponents claim that environmental experiences are the most important

Habituation

decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus

REM Sleep

eyes flutter beneath closed lids

How to Improve the Lives of Children

health & well-being parenting education socio-cultural contexts & diversity gender

Types of Teratogens

include drugs, incompatible blood types, environmental pollutants, infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies, maternal stress, advanced maternal and paternal age, and environmental pollutants

Endoderm

inner layer of cells, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems.

Ectoderm

is the outermost layer, becomes the nervous system and brain, sensory receptors (ears, nose, and eyes), and skin parts (hair and nails).

Pavlov

learn through association • He was studying digestion and developed a theory based on his observations. • Unconditioned stimulus - seeing him made the dogs salivate in anticipation of the food. He concluded that some learning had to have taken place for them to associate the sight of him with food, which made that response. • Ex. Babies go to the doctor and don't mind. Then get a shot and don't want to go back to the doctor again • Classical conditioning - also the example of Little Albert and teaching him to be afraid • Stimulus Response Behavior Reinforcement Behavior that you want to get rid of punishment, negative reinforcement, ignore behavior, reinforcing behavior that is incompatible with what the child is doing

Skinner

learn through consequences of behavior •argued that a second type of conditioning (other than classical) accounts for the development of other types of behavior (operant). Through operant conditioning, the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence. Reward = increases behavior. Punishment = decreases behavior. Rewards and punishments shape development. Key aspect for development is behavior, not thoughts and feelings. Emphasized that development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments.

Mesoderm

middle layer, it becomes the circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system.

Sports

o If parents don't become overinvolved with sports participation, they can help children build physical skills and emotional maturity. Parents should monitor children as they participate in sports for stress. Make sports fun and be a positive role model for the child. Don't yell, point out the child's errors in front of others, condemn the child for poor play or make fun of the child.

Current Generations' Brain

o Our generation is a lot different in brain anatomy because we have a greater visual cortex than our parents. Changes in technology and we have more visual stimulation.

Piaget's Stages

o Sensorimotor - birth to 2 years old. Infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions o Pre-operational - represent the world with words and images. Symbolic thinking. o Concrete operational - child reasons logically and can classify objects o Formal operational - reasons in more abstract, idealistic and logical ways Each stage is age-related, consists of a distinct way of thinking and consists of a different way of understanding the world

Intermodal Perception

o The ability to relate and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing

Embryonic Period

occurs two to eight weeks after conception. During this period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear. the major organs are vulnerable to environmental changes. The blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall. Now called an embryo, and three layers of cells form. Life-support systems develop rapidly: Amnion and Umbilical cord. Placenta.

Myelination

process of encasing exons with a sheath that increases the speed of processing information. Also allows them to carry more information. It's affected by growth, experience and nutrition. If a child has nutrition problems it affects this process and can cause learning disabilities.

Erikson

• Eight stages of development unfold as we go through life. At each stage, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be results. This crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point marked by both increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more successfully an individual resolves the crises, the healthier development will be • Unlike Freud, who thought we develop in psychosexual stages, he thought we developed in psychosocial stages

Bandura

• Focused on observational learning (imitation and modeling). People acquire behavior through observing others' behavior and imitating it. People cognitively represent the behavior of others and sometimes adopt this behavior themselves • Reciprocal determinism

Piaget

• He believed that children actively engage in learning and actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development. We organize our experiences. Children have to mess with things to learn them. The contributions are incredible through his stages thinking about the way kids think and the quality of their thinking. A 7 year old really does think differently than a 3 year old. • Children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development. Two processes: organization and adaptation.

Bandura Example

• Johnny throws a spitball the first day of class. You punish him and tell him/his peers why. By that one example and by being open through your discipline the other kids will think that they don't want to get punished so they won't throw spitballs. Observational learning

Erikson's Stages

• Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1) • Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3) o They want to learn how to do things themselves. They can talk and will tell you they can do anything they want to do. • Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5) o Love to show what they can do and take the initiative. o Not living up to parents' expectations, parent punishes child without telling them that it's the action, not the child that's bad • Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11/puberty) o Thrown into school and ability to display what you can do, make products, etc. Doing things for praise. o If child is bad at certain subjects they may feel inferior to their peers. Around 9 or 10, you can compartmentalize and balance out their strengths/weaknesses. • Identity vs. Identity Confusion (10-20) o Trying to find out who they are and need a positive path to follow in order to not be confused with one's identity • Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s, 30s) o Ability to share yourself with another person. When folks pair off there is the emotional sharing that comes first • Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s, 50s) o Contributing to your society and family. Being able to go along and not being stuck in one place. Have you given anything to the next generation? o People who are just kind of there with other people but don't interact. • Integrity vs. Despair (60s and above) o Happy with your life. Feel like they spent their life well and they're happy with the goals they achieve. Okay with the future o Bitter about life, should've done this and that