EEB 109 FINAL

record scuba depth

320m (15 min descent, 12 hour ascend)

average slope of the continental slope

4 degrees

sea bird taxa

4 main seabird taxa - Penguins group; Pelicans, Cormorants, Frigatebirds, Boobies; Petrels & Albatross; Gulls, Terns, Auks

chemosynthesis

CO2 + H2O ---> carbohydrate + O2 + H2O reducing power in reaction comes from reduced inorganic compounds like H2S & NH3 -- H2S esp. common, in deep sea communities @ black smoker hydrothermal vents

Coccolithophores

CaCO3 skeleton, Important for global carbon cycling (carbon sink - carbonate fixing), Have massive blooms (causes increased albedo)

Highest heat capacity of common liquids

amount of heat energy required to raise a unit of matter a given unit of temp Creates temperature gradients in the ocean --> challenges in maintaining temperature homeostasis Water temp doesn't change as drastically as air temp, daily or seasonal basis --> marine environment has much more stable temperatures for organisms living in it

failing to maintain homeostasis

Reduced physiological performance, Lower survivorship, Lower reproduction, Lower population size

suspension feeder

Remove live or dead organic matter from water

Anguiliform

body like a snake, snakelike swimming, good for living in cracks & crevices of reef Ex: Moray eel

difference between N2 cycle & CO2 cycle

Unlike N2, CO2 is actually used by organisms when it's breathed in - no N2 respiration A lot of organic carbon = broken down thru metabolism, ultimately CO2 released back into environment

area increases

alpha diversity increases because higher species capacity & more likely to be hit by dispersing individuals + probability of extinction decreases on big islands (unlikely some local even will wipe out entire population)

stresses soft sediment

competition for food, predation, submergece/exposure, temperature, wave shock, salinity extremes from evaporation/precipitation, mobile sediments, anoxia down really deep/with fine sediment

how to determine dispersal barriers w/ seeing them

heritable mutations in genetic code in lines of population's geneology show barriers to dispersal

important pelagic species

herring, anchovy, anchoveta, tuna, mackerel, salmon

zoo

heterotrophic

Zooplankton

heterotrophic - protozooplankton (unicellular) & Metazooplankton (larval & adult crustaceans, larval fish, cnidarians...), Lots of diversity, Range of sizes, Very abundant Quite mobile

Longlines bycatch

hooks are baited that catch birds, turtles, sharks, and other unwanted fish

susceptibility to extinction

how big is area, how far away is source population

where salt marsh

in estuaries, protected shorelines throughout world

seabirds

in water column & flying thru water Active predators of the upper surface

homeotherm

maintain constant body temp via metabolic activity, constant, higher body temp allows biochemical rxns to occur @ relatively high rate

sea level changes

major glaciers build up during Pleistocene, sea levels dropped 130m during 15000 BP & exposed areas function as proper terrestrial environments - rivers flow through like rivers on land areas on shelf far from land now, might have been right along the coast next to rapidly moving rivers - which can transport much larger sediments

parasitic mates

male angler fish have strong olfactory organs, once matures = digestive organs start to break down -> have to find mate following the female's pheromones-> bites down -> digests part of face to fuse w/ female's flesh -> atrophies, losing digestive organs, brain, heart, eyes -> becomes shiny new pair of gonads for female when she reproduces

sirena

manatees, sea cows, dugongs - most closely related to elephants, very rare, live in shallow areas of coast where there is sea grass -- frequently in conflict w/ recreational boaters

gill nets

monofilament, very transparent net set like curtain in water -> animals ensnared in net by swimming through partway -> net catches on opercula - can't pull themselves out • Salmon, swordfish, cod, flounder • May be attached to to anchors/floats (drift nets)

anchiplanic

near wanderer, hour to days dispersal period, majority of corals settle 300m away from parent corals - density lowers after that Ex: tunicates, sponges, bryozoans, coral polychaetes

pelagic vs neritic

neritic more productive

Trawling bycatch

nets are indiscriminate, catching everything in their paths, including non-target species

rete mirabile

network of blood capillaries that act as heat exchanger using counter-current blood flow, bloodstrems w/in rete maintain temp/gas/solute gradient

ahermatypic

no zooxanthellae

aphotic zone

not enough light

disphotic

not enough light to be sufficient, light but no photosynthesis

lampreys

parasitic , jawless fish that is not very diverse - none fully marine, 9 species = anadromous (migrating up rivers from the sea to spawn, fresh & salt water) Freshwater forms believed to be derived from marine ancestors · Latch onto fish like leeches w/ mouths full of rows of teeth

nudibranch

part of of the gastropod class ("naked gill") - mollusks w/out shells (includes snails, slugs, etc.), it has few planktonic forms

estuary

partially enclosed body of water where freshwater from rivers & streams mix with salt water from oceans

stokes drift

particles move a little to left & right, water doesn't really MOVE

patchiness in nutrients

patchy resources - less nutrients in center of gyres supports less PP->deep sea

Warm/Cold Core

pockets of warm or cold water created by an eddie pinching off a pocket of wate

poikilotherm vs homeotherm

poikilotherms have higher food chain efficiency than homeotherms Poikilotherms have higher productivity at any given level of productivity Homeotherms lose most of energy to respiration instead of producing organic material Poikilotherms don't have to use active metabolism to maintain constant body temp & they need less food as they don't need large amounts of energy to maintain constant body temperature

Higher food conversion efficiencies come from

poikilotherms higher than homeotherms, uses less energy to capture prey, higher efficiency because it is lower on the food chain

places with more nutrients

polar regions, upwelling areas, bering sea area where thermohaline circulation brings up cold nutrient-rich water

seaweed

polyphyletic term that includes brown, red, & green algae

pinnepeds

sea lions, seals, walruses

viscous forces

sticky, keep fluid together & flowing in streamlines, keeps fluid from separating easily, object in liquid less able to move unless liquid is moving

Cruising Specialist

streamlined, bullet-shaped, smaller tail, rigid body - back moves a ton -- Don't want a lot of sideways motion b/c it would slow you down a ton thru drag Ex tuna

Salinity comes from

terrigenous input (rivers), hydrothermal vents, dissolving old sediment (evaporites)

Change habits

tertiary treatment, decreased fertilization, eating, decreased PCB use ▪ Reduced nutrient loading in Chesapeake Bay -> increase in seagrass ▪ Eat food that is sustainable

Zonation

the predictable distribution of taxa in different regions of a marine habitat resulting from gradients in variables such as oxygen, temp, wave shock, exposure, etc.

Scyphozoans

true jellyfish. Medusa is dominant form in life cycle & the thick, large central layer gives jelly texture

vent organisms grow at rapid rates

tube worms can grow up to 2m, mussels grow much larger than intertidal, chemosynthesis supports multiple trophc levels

Competitive Exclusion

two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist at constant population values, if other ecological factors remain constant Ex: Mussels = better competitor, can grow over barnacles & outcompete them for space

bacterial ectosymbionts

yeti crab bristles are covered in dense colonies of filamentous bacteria, which make them look hairy & crabs might cultivate & eat pompeii worms have fleece-like covering of bacteria on backs - provides insulation & possibly food source

metazooplankton

zooplankton that's larval & adult crustaceans, larval fish, cnidarians

O2 in water

depends on photosynthesis (production) & cell respiration (usage)

nutrients controlled by

depth (geology), distance from land (geology), physical oceanography (turbulence, langmuir circulation that concentrates plankton & nutrients), spinning of earth creates upwellings - drive up cold nutrient-rich water, biotic forces

Hinged jaws

ensures you can fit prey into mouth

bioluminescence

luciferin + O2 ---(luciferase)--> oxyluciferin +light

wind

air that moves from an area of higher pressure to less pressure

irregular

aka mixed tide - 2 high & low tides w/ semidiurnal/diurnal components

direct development

all development prior to hatching

turtle excluder devices

allow turtles to escape from trawls

highest surface tension

allows wind movement at surface to accelerate water below, creating currents

barrier reef

along edge of land - bigger mainland area

latitudinal gradients

biodiversity decreases towards poles (peaks in tropics) -- true for coasts, coastal shelf. abyssal plains, and pelagic diversity

desiccation

desiccation, struggle to breath, change in temperature

Trawling

destruction of environment from bottom trawling

2 kinds of pinnepeds

earless vs. eared seals

hermatypic

reef building corals grow faster zooxanthallae help

trophosome

"feeding body" that lacks a channel through which particulate materials from the outside world can enter CO2, O2, & H2S enter gills -> move down capillary next to trophosome cells filled with chemosynthetic bacteria -> bacteria reduce carbon compounds with these molecules, creating nutrients/sugars for the tube worm -> tube worm uses nutrients/sugars to grow

Reynolds Number

(velocity)(size)(density)/(dynamic viscocity), Estimate of the relative importance of viscous and inertial forces in a fluid

factors increasing biodiversity

* high stability (very stable in tropics, allows species to persist (constant temp, light, salinity) --> evolution likes stable, less variation = less room for extinction, * bigger area = more species, *more productivity = more species (# species in eutrophic > # species oligotrophic) *geology - ice ages wiped out species in upper latitudes

abyssal plains

4000-6000m, topographically varied

how many trophic levels

5-6 max --> one point, the food chain efficiency is so poor that it's not viable to have more

How much of earth is water? How much water in oceans?

70%, 97.5%

Catch used for

75% food, remainder used for fish meal & oil - meal & oil used to feed livestock & aquaculture species --> geographically disjunct but ecologically sensical food webs

great white teeth

Ambush predators, Big knife-like chunk out of prey - It bleeds out, they feast

clown fish & anemone

Anemone protects clown fish from predators ○ Nematocysts don't affect them Clown fish chase away butterfly fish trying to eat anemone & move to increase seawater circulation to help anemone respiration

main biological seawater gasses

CO2 & O2

where rocky intertidal

Anywhere with steep erosion - transported deep offshore, geologically newer areas, Western US

large plankton occur at lower densities

As size increases, density of those individuals decreases, space needed per organism increases

Problems with maximum sustainable yield

Assumes constant carrying capacity, constant population growth rate, recruitment = related to stock size, constant age structure (no good/bad recruitment years), no interspecies interactions, assumes single stock

water = universal solvent

Asymetrical charge enhances ability of water molecules to combine w/ ions -- allows ocean to contain diversity of dissolved solvents

How bacteria are important in deep sea

Bacteria are symbionts with deep sea organisms. These bacteria conduct chemosynthesis, providing the basis or primary production in deep sea communities. Bacteria are also important in creating the Hydrogen Sulfide. In both cold seeps and whale falls, bacteria produce the hydrogen sulfide that powers the chemosynthetic bacteria.

scraper feeding

Beak scrapes algae off dead coral

Big eyes

Better to see in dark

photosynthesis

CO2 + H2O ---> carbohydrate + O2 + H2O reducing power in reaction comes from light energy, method of PP that tends to dominate marine environments

Biodiversity and depth

Biodiversity for many benthic organisms peaks around 1500-2000m

mitigation of longline bycatch

Bird scaring devices, hook design to minimize damage, side setting

Peripheral Vasoconstriction

Blood shunted from periphery to minimize exposure to cold temperatures & maintain core temperature

Adjust physiology to handle low O2

Bohr effect changes O2 binding pigment in low O conditions O2 becomes rare --> CO2 increases -->pH drops --> increased dissociation between O2 & O2 binding pigment

Tropical rocky reefs

Boulder fields or rocky outcrops that are covered with corals and calcareous organisms

How cope with stress soft sediment

Burrowing reduces temperature, desiccation, competition, & predation stress, swash riding decreases desiccation stress & wave shock stress -> ride tide so always in moist, not too wave -swept environment

Slot limits

Can only catch fish in certain size range

Rapid prey specialist

Can't keep up with speed of prey Ex: Slingjaw wrasse lets mouth out real fast to capture prey

PCB toxic to humans

Carcinogen, developmental abnormalities, lower birth weight, endocrine disruption resulting in reduced sperm counts, altered sex organs, premature puberty, changed sex ratios of children 99% breast milk contaminated w/ PCBs

trophic cascade

Changes in food webs caused by alterations in predators/abiotic factors (top down control/bottom up control)

Black smokers

Chimney-like structures made up of sulfur-bearing minerals or sulfide a that come from beneath Earth's crust, black smoke is the metal precipitation of mineral-rich 350C water being rapidly cooled

Reasons why some waves big/small

Constructive interference creates larger waves when wave crests align, destructive interference creates smaller waves when wave crests & troughs align

How geological differences in lithospheres give rise to unique environments

Continental crust is less dense & floats higher on magma than denser, heavier ocean crust, creating shallower & deeper parts of the ocean basin

Ocean basin

Continental lithospheric plate is less dense, so it sits higher on the mantle than the denser, heavier oceanic lithospheric plate, creating shallower and deeper parts of the ocean basin - the depression created from the different plate densities creates the ocean basin

Eddies

Circular movements of water caused by turbulence

Ballast water

Coastal seawater taken into hull to stabilize ship, pumping in-out ballast water introduces larvae of invasive species -> develop without native predators or competitors - can outcompete native species

Vent communities

Communities extend ~100m around vents (as far as nutrients diffuse out to), supported by chemosynthesis, chemoautotrophs subsisting on H2S from vents: tube worms (grow 2m quickly in dense clusters), mussels

stresses rocky intertidal

Competition for space, predation stress from below, desiccation/exposure stress from above, temperature, wave shock, salinity extremes from evaporation/precipitation - esp in tide pools

algae & coral

Competitive Exclusion: algae are better competitor but eaten more by predators Fish, herbivores, low nutrients keep algae in check

formation of mud flat

Created by fine sediment that accumulates from accretion

formation of soft sediment

Created from erosion of mountains, volcanoes, coral reefs + inundation of foraminifera (foraminifera skeletons) mountains built up by subduction, etc -> ice/tree roots create fissures to break rock -> gravity transports sediments & sediment sorting occurs

Residual effects of oil spills

Decreased Spartina growth & mussel growth in areas w/ high residual total hydrocarbon levels, fiddler crabs avoid burrowing be into 40-yr-old contaminated sediments

How light varies

Decreases with increasing latitude, decreases with depth

If density were constant in all temperatures

Deep water circulation occurs because the density of water is highest around 4C. As water cools, it becomes denser, and sinks. This process fuels thermohaline circulation. If the density of water remains constant across temperatures, water would not sink, and thus thermohaline circulation would stop.

logistic growth eq.

Delta N/delta t =(r)(Nsub0)(1-N/K)

How dispersal distances can differ even with identical larval durations, spawned in exactly the same location and same time

Dispersal could be augmented/decreased due to swimming Dispersal could be modified by behaviors that limit dispersal to currents. Dispersal could be longer in one species because it didn't encounter the proper recruitment cues Dispersal could vary because of variability in water currents as larvae encounter different eddies

Loss of habitat in Chesapeake Bay

Due to eutrophication --> decline of bait fish, degradation of ecosystems & impacts up food web

food chain efficiency

E = amount of energy extracted from a tropic level / amount of energy supplied to that level - as little as 10%

Universal solvent

Easily dissolves nutrients essential for phytoplaknton

deposit feeders

Eat organic matter from sediment Ex: crab picks out good organic bits of sand & leaves little balls behind

bio-intermediate

Elements that are required for growth, may have patchy distributions, but are rarely if ever depleted, Ex: CO2

bio-limiting

Elements that become depleted in surface waters due to biological uptake

bio-inert

Elements that show no vertical gradients & don't vary because they aren't being affected by biological activity, Ex: Cl, Na, Mg, K

side setting

Hooks set from side of boat instead of stern - hooks waited to quickly sink, birds less likely to chase bait at surface because they associate back of boat w/ free food • Hawaii - side setting reduced seabird bycatch 67%

formation of estuary

Environment where river/pore water/ lots of runoff meets ocean - partially enclosed Succession: initial colonization of Spartina grasses, increases accretion & hydrodynamic influence, favoring recruitment, which increases accretion and makes habitat viable for new species (pioneer, intermediate, climax species)

pelagic zones

Epipelagic (1st 200m), Mesopelagic, Bathypelagic, Abyssopelagic, Hadalpelagic

Pacific Ocean has highest productivity of world's oceans

Esp. N Pacific (Nutrients coming up to surface b/c of thermohaline circulation) & eastern equator (Elevated nutrients b/c upwelling off S America) + Pacific is HUGE

Hydromechanical burrowing

Extends foot & uses hydrostatic pressure to use foot as an anchor & pull itself down Has Hydrostatic skeleton = flexible tube that can be stiffened by the injection of fluid -- turns foot into digging device for mollusks

Oxygen technique

Fill a bunch of bottles w/ seawater at surface, tie them to a line with a weight on the end and a buoy on the other (1 bottle at each depth = completely opaque, 1 = clear), it sit a while, pull line up & measure O2 in each bottle very quickly ○ Dark bottles, only respiration happens -- subtract light bottle O2 from dark bottle O2 @ each depth to get Net O2 □ Respiration of dark bottle = respiration of light bottle b/c volume = same Go back to chemical equation & use amount of O2 produced to determine the amount of carbon fixated using stoichiometry

carbon cycling

Fixation of atmospheric CO2 by primary producers ->Organic carbon is then incorporated into a variety of different organisms by organic C being eaten by a variety of different organisms ->Broken down by bacteria (Decay) -> loss to sediments as CaCO3 Ex: coccolithophores = important carbon sink

Calvin cycle with chemosynthesis

Found in both chemosynthesis & photosynthesis, same sequence of reactions using energy from splitting H2S or H2O to reduce carbon compounds, different intermediates

subduction volcanism

Friction due to the subduction causes heat, heat melts the rock, the magma finds its way to the surface, resulting in island/volcano formation This process is facilitated by the integration of water into the mantle, decreasing the melting point of the magma, resulting in lower density magma (flux melting)

salt marsh reproduction

Grass - asexual & sexual flowering reproduction

where sea grasses

Grow in shallow coastal areas only where light penetration is greatest & there is soft sediment for roots

Acid Rain

H20 + Co2 -> H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) which dissolves rock mineral into ions, which travel down river into the ocean, SO3 with water from volcanoes also REALLY dissolves rocks

Cold seeps differences from whale falls & hydrothermal vents

H2S is from bacteria feeding on methane, occurs in variety of depths

Hydrothermal vents differences from cold seeps & whale falls

H2S source from magma, occurs at mid ocean ridges

pteropods

Holoplanktonic snails (gastropod class, mollusk phylum) that swim using lateral projections of foot ex: Sea angels & sea butterflies Hit by ocean acidification - Calcium carbonate-based shells ® Much more groves & pock marks on surfaces of shells ◊ Shells dissolve in sea water because of lowered pH

barriers to dispersal in Coral Triangle

Halmahera Eddy cycles current off Papua New Guinea back towards Pacific Ocean away from Maluku Sea, limits W water movement across Maluku sea - creates barriers on opposite sides of Maluku sea Pleistocene Ice Age: glaciers form-> sea level drops 130m -> Sunda & Sahul shelves created -> dispersal barrier Indo-Pacific & Maluku Sea Divergence

Hard vs. soft corals

Hard corals produce a calcium carbonate skeleton, whereas soft corals don't

Red tides

Harmful algal blooms, noxious microalgae

sea turtles

Have interesting life history -- females always go back to the same beach to lay eggs --- Sea turtle born on certain beach -> period of time hatching & going across beach = imprint in terms of odor on that beach -> Females will go back to that beach in the future to lay eggs when they are sexually mature

Ekman transport

Have to integrate entire acceleration of several layers of water --> current moves 90* to wind direction

what properties of water affect temperature for organisms

High heat capacity & conductivity -- sucks heat out of individual

Oil spills

Hydrocarbons & other oil related compounds decrease biodiversity & biomass

Zooplankton density will parallel

Impacts on phytoplankton affect zooplankton for the most part

Why kelp forests & coral reefs occur in different places

Kelp largely occur in cool, nutrient rich waters --> Nutrient rich waters are required to support fast growth of kelp. Reef forming corals occur in warm, high salinity water, with low nutrients. --> Low temperature result in low coral growth and high nutrients result in competitive exclusion by algae.

How temperature varies

Lower towards poles & higher near the equator, highest at surface and decreases with depth

eutrophication

Land runoff puts nutrients in ocean, nutrients increase, algae increases, water clarity decreases, corals decrease Algal blooms block out sunlight & completely covers coral tissue Feedback loop: More algae -> less light -> less corals -> more algae can outcompete them

maximum substantial yield

Largest yield that can be taken over long periods, based on logistic growth - yield maximized at 1/2 K --> high spawning stock & resources not limiting

Biodiversity and latitude

Latitudinally, biodiversity peaks in the tropics. Latitidinal patterns are explained by stability of tropical habitats as well as by larger area of habitat.

biggest fishing area

NW Pacific - Pacific = biggest ocean, thermohaline circulation brings up nutrients to increase productivity in N Pacific

coral reef stresses

Light, temperature, sedimentation, eutrophication, too high nutrients, competition for space (need hard substrate), predation

Tsunami

Longer wavelength, shorter amplitude

where estuaries

Near mouths of rivers

aplanic

No dispersal phase, brooders, direct-developing larvae, don't go far, yet direct-developing fish have been able to colonize chunk of Indo-Pacific Ex: common in colonial cnidarians & some fish

Eckman transport in non-spinning world?

No. Eckman transport is the net movement of water 90 to the direction of the wind. This occurs because of the Coriolis Effect, which deflects everything 90 to left in S Hemisphere & right in N Hemisphere due to the spinning of the earth. Without spinning, there would be no coriolis effect, and thus no Eckman transport.

pursuit diving

Penguins = only ones who do this, Fly though water (same motion as flying w/ wings to propel themselves), Re is different in water than air

Plastic vs zooplankton

Plastic outnumbers zooplankton 6 to 1

Protection against recruitment overfishing

Protect larger fish, especially females (max size limit), long-lived, slow growing species most vulnerable (some rockfish live >100 yrs)

mangrove stresses

Salinity (saltier when tide goes out & roots exposed), anoxic sediment, tide submergence (beneficial - prevent soil salinities from reaching lethal levels + disperse mangrove propagules), inundation, soil instability, sedimentation

estuary stresses

Salinity fluctuations (mouth fully marine, much less salinity near head/source of freshwater)

rocky reef stresses

Scouring, predation, competition for space

Seagrass adaptation to mobile substrates

Sea grasses have roots that anchor themselves into substrate, stabilizing these mobile sediments. Rhizomes (or runners) allow sea grasses to expand their coverage of moving sediments. Once anchored, they increase the height of the boundary layer, reducing water flow over mobile sediments, reducing movement.

longlines & bycatch

Seabirds, sea turtles, sharks attracted to bait Alaska- declines in 20 seabird species linked to longlines Leatherback turtles feed on jellyfish -> attracted to bait in swordfish longlines

Why much less standing biomass in oceans, but equal primary production?

Several orders of magnitude difference of how quickly these organisms are turning over in ecosystem, highly efficient

shallow (far from shore) & deep waves

Shallow water extends drift to an elliptical motion

Center of Origin Theory

Species arise in center & then expand ranges away from center into Pacific & Indian Oceans -- supported by physical oceanography of region --> makes it difficult to cross between Pacific & Indian ocean (thanks to sea level changes & physical oceanography) -> creates allopatric speciation

Over-fishing

Stocks declining, bycatch (unneeded things being killed)

formation of rocky intertidal

Subduction zone/transform fault creates steep coastlines that don't trap sediment well, glacial retreat scrapes sediment off rock (glacial scouring), lava flows harden to create rocky shorelines

3 main factors of homeostasis

Temperature, Oxygen, Osmotic balance

external fertilization

free spawning, gametes released in water where fertilization occurs

Symbiosis with chemosynthetic bacteria

Tube worms, mussels, clams, vent shrimp obtain nutrients via symbioses with bacteria, sulfur bacteria are found in vent fluid as snow or attached to bottom substrates in mats

sea grass stresses

Turbidity/eutrophication/depth (less light), salinity, air exposure (dehydration reduced photosynthetic ability), predation, wave shock, scouring

bubble feeding

Whale takes in big breath of air, releases bubbles in a circle -> Bubbles create curtain that trap baitfish -> Whale comes up in between hole with bubbles & takes a big bite out of the group of small fish

Coral bleaching

When 20*C, corals expel zooxanthellae in hopes of replacing them with ones more adapted to warm water Occurring more often & lasting longer -- not enough time to recover from massive bleaching a every single year

Eolian sediments

Wind velocity can be high enough that it creates dust storms ->strong winds coming offshore winds blow big plumes of dust into atmosphere -> wind velocity slows, sediments fall out of suspension into the ocean -> once velocity of ocean slows, sediments will fall out of suspension & end up on bottom of ocean floor 3.3 gigatons of suspended (based on wind velocity) sediment per year

El Nino effect on kelp

Winter storms destroyed a lot from wave shock stress, reduced canopy size, clear waters - nutrients limiting low nutrients from high SST, depressed thermocline, high sea level --> photosynthesis decreases & kelp forms terminal blade too soon (before reaching canopy)

How cope with stress mud flat

Zonation, desiccation stress can lead to deeper burrow

How cope with stress rocky intertidal

Zonation, grow over each other - pop things off rock

Cephalopods

a carnivorous type of mollusk with adaptive camouflage & typically high fecundity that includes octopuses, squid, cuttlefish, etc. § Many are annual species - live fast die young · Very few live longer than 1, 2, 3 years (squid die after a year § Get quite big § Anatomy - Mantle, Head. Eye, Jaw - beak

beta diversity

a measure of biodiversity among regions or habitats where the number of taxa unique to each region are compared

Rugosity

a measure of small-scale variations or amplitude in the height of a surface

Bindin

a rapidly evolving surface binding protein on surface of sea urchin sperm that activates a receptor on the egg to ensure species-specific fertilization , each species has a specific protein sequence for bindin, allows species to spawn a same time & prevent interspecific fertilization, a lot of marine organisms have chemical recognition molecules on eggs & sperm

Chaetognaths

arrow worms = Predatory members of plankton community, have Nasty jaws to grab onto things & Grasping spines on head § Torpedo-shaped § Swim fast thru contractions of longitudinal trunk muscles § Some species produce deadly neurotoxin

Impact of ocean acidification on hard corals

as acifidification increases, it will become more difficult to precipitate the calcium carbonate skeleton. Without the skelton, the hard corals cannot grow and will die.

Bacterio

bacteria

Bacterioplankton

bacteria - free living planktobacteria, epibacteria attached to larger particles

teleost

bony, ray-finned fish

Cubazoans

box jellies and sea wasps · Some of most toxic animals on planet · Eat fish □ Strong venom to subdue prey very quickly ® Neurotoxins that can work on humans (lethal) · Box jellies common in NE coast of Australia · Umbrella of cubazoan medusa = distinct cube shape & has 4 rubbery appendages to aid swimming

where mangroves

brackish water & intertidal regions - largely estuaries & protected regions due to shallow roots Only in tropics b/c need enough light year round to power salt filtration & excretion given salinity of environment More common on W side of oceans b/c trade winds

hinged mouth

can swallow different types of prey, even if much larger than themselves

Kelp on mobile sediments

cannot survive on mobile substrates. Kelp require hard substrates for holdfasts to attach to.

Cnidarians

carnivorous phylum that includes jellies, corals, anemones, and siphonophores & is characterized by its organisms' nematocysts has some of largest zooplankton (some benthic, some planktonic), less diverse than crustaceans

mussel beds

carry endosymbiotic bacteria that chemosynthesize & provide nutrients

Gill-nets bycatch

catch anything within a given head size range (since swim partway through & get operculum stuck in net), without respect to individual species

internal wave

caused by water masses slipping over each other due to stratification & differences in density

chromatophore

cells that open & close very quickly ® Sac of pigment expanded by complex array of muscles & nerves to push color to top & make color more visible

secondarily aquatic

cetaceans & sea grass - went from sea (evolving from green algae) to land (evolving from vascularized plants) and back to sea (return to sea ~100 MYA)

sequential hermaphrodites

change sex throughout life

Human impacts on ocean chemistry

changing ocean chemistry by adding CO2 into the atmosphere. This is making the ocean more acidic, which prevents mineralization of shells and coral skeletons. Reduction of corals reduce habitat for coral reef dwelling fish and inverts, reducing population sizes +phytoplankton productivity decreases, decreasing zooplankton, decreasing fish

actaeplanic

coastal wanderer, 1 week-2 months dispersal period, a couple of weeks in the plankton lead to 10-20 km away ex: 70% of temperate sublittoral species have dispersal periods that last 4-6 weeks Ex: clownfish

salt marsh

coastal wetlands found throughout world on protected shorelines and on edges of estuaries where freshwater & seawater mix

important demersal species

cod, pollock, halibut, flounder, other flatfish

surface tension highest for common liquids

cohesive forces between liquid molecules at the surface of a liquid, due to H bonding, difficult to break surface water

CO2 in water

combines with H2O to eventually make HCO3- which acts as a buffer to maintain ocean pH

Cold seeps

communities that occur where CH4, and other hydrocarbon-rich fluid seepage occurs, often in the form of a brine pool * form along active subduction zones & passive continental margins * faults, fractures, & fissures in rock -> natural gas seeps up onto sea floor -> microbial mat on methane, oils, sediments, & asphalt flows & chemosynthetic communities of mussels, soft corals, fish * sea water with dissolved sulfates diffuses into sediments, localized methane in sediments coming up from below -> methane oxidizing & sulfate reducing bacteria use energy in methane to process sulfates -> CH4 and SO4 are consumed, producing large amounts of H2S & CO2 -> H2S powers chemosynthesis in chemosynthetic bacteria (supports multiple trophic levels) * methane from sediment seeps up to surface, sulfate from water penetrates surface -> H2S is released by bacteria as they consume SO4 & CH4

change behaviors based on environmental stimulus when selecting site of attachment

contact with surface -> test surface -> contact with pits & grooves, substance from prey species, adults of same species (releasors) -> attachment Ex: prey on coral causes organism to recruit on coral

Convective heating

convective heating causes air to rise -> because air rises, atmospheric pressure differences develop -> because of atmospheric pressure differences, wind forms -> because of friction between moving air and water, water begins to move -> because water moves, currents form in the ocean

coral disease

coral-specific disease that kills coral tissue in banding pattern (white/black bands), more stress, increased susceptibility

barriers to dispersal

created by combined action of currents & gradients in ocean temp/salinity/nutrients/etc can create barriers for dispersal Ex: sharp genetic break in barnacles at Point Conception - adapted to different salinities

acanthaster

crown of thorns sea star - eats coral, overfishing frees it from predation

visual observation

crucial, submersibles (manned or unmanned)

friction+water=

current

demersal ovipary

lay eggs onto seafloor/other substrate ex: teleost fish

Cyanide fishing

cyanide binds with hemoglobin preferentially to oxygen -> suffocation Cyanide poisoning causes corals to bleach

Thixotropy

decreasing viscocity with increased shear rate

wind wave

determined by wind velocity, fetch, and duration

food web

diagram showing feeding relationships among organisms

Pyncnocline

differences in density creates gradient [from salinity, etc.]

oxygen gradient

diffusion in surface zone of sediment, but lack of wave energy -> no mixing -> oxygen gradient (anoxic versus stable salinity at lower depth)

trophic level

each link in foodchain

closed population

each population is its own island, characterized by "self-recruitment", little or no exchange with outside populations, no connectivity

Atmospheric Circulation

earth surface heated -> warm air expands and rises (low pressure zone [b/c density decreases {& pressure can be relieved thru movement}]) -> water vapor carried up in warm air -> air cools and sinks (high pressure b/c density increases)

formation of salt marsh

environment traps sediment to create land Succession: initial colonization of pioneer Spartina grasses, increases accretion & hydrodynamic influence, favoring recruitment, which increases accretion and makes habitat viable for new species (pioneer, intermediate, climax species)

stability of deep sea

environmental stability increases with depth & distance from land Cold, dark, saline o Temperature: colder and more stable with depth (2-4*C) o Light: light attenuates with depth & no light penetration below ~1000 m o Salinity: high salinity - denser, sinks to bottom, 33-35 psu o Resource limited: no light, no photosynthesis (no PP for majority of deep sea), food comes from above

Nitrogenase

enzyme used by some N2 fixing bacteria in rhizomes to turn N2 into ammonia

productive environments

estuaries, algal & coral reefs

Zonation of desiccation

estuaries, mangroves, intertidal. dessication increases in high intertidal because inundation is less and is less in low intertidal and that variation exists in the physiological tolerance of species in each location. tides change these regions.

Zonation of inundation

estuaries, mangroves, intertidal. dessication increases in high intertidal because it is covered with water only briefly and is less in low intertidal because it is inundated and that variation exists in the physiological tolerance of species in each location. tidal influence of this.

salinity controlled by

evaporation/precipitation balance (more evaporation than precipitation in midlatitudes)

Chemical cues & larval recruitment

exposed ceramic plates to oysters - plates+oyster water bath = higher levels of recruitment than virgin plates, ^ cocnc OBW, more settlement occurs (not same with increased ammonia), digested with lipases & carbohydrases & settlement continued -- stopped with protenase Cue = protein 500-1000 daltons, results from biomineralization of CaCO3 of oyster shells

backreef

exposed during low tide -> high variation in salinity, temp, exposure · Calm, reef crest takes blunt of waves · Heartier corals can handle some exposure

Heat Stress

extreme fluctuation in temperatures due to tides - Cell thermostability = amount of heat an animal can take before cells break down & animal starts to die

sea floor sediment

extremely thick soft sediment, ocean basins = 100s of millions/billions of years old - accumulating sediment for all of that time

teleplanic

far wanderer, planktonic periods of 2 months or more, high dispersal potential Ex: gastropods, bivalves, crustaceans

baleen

feeding structures in mysticetes made out of keratin used as big sieve to get small animals (like krill) out of water column

atoll

fringing reef forms around island, island sinks but surrounding coral reef remains · Process proposed by Darwin · Volcanic island emerges, over time slowly cools, condenses, sinks back down ○ Sinks all the way below the surface § Lagoon forms · Reef still built up ○ Left with reef areas

island biogeography

from MacArthur & Wilson in 1963 small islands have lower number of equilibrium species than larger islands b/c of the balance of immigration & extinction (low immigration high extinction on small islands)

tidal wave

from tidal bore

Myco

fungi

Mycoplankton

fungi

anatomical ways to stay warm

fur (drysuit), feathers (dry suit), blubber (wetsuit)

biomass varies with geography

further from shore, less biomass

poikilotherms in deep sea

have body that matches 2-4*C ocean temperature, use less energy

Ocean acidification

increase CO2 levels when ocean levels rise ▪ Too high pH -> biomineralization reaction is pH dependent & abnormal skeleton growth occurs ▪ Decreased primary production of plankton with calcarious skeletons & loss of coral reef -> less CO2 fixed in surface, biological pump slows down -> atmospheric carbon increase -> positive feedback loop toward higher CO2 levels

osmoconformers

jellyfish maintain density & solute conc equal to seawater

kelp

kelp is an order of brown algae

gulper eel

large mouth & teeth - huge mouth to body ratio

Mollusk

large phylum that includes gastropods, pteropods, cephalopods, and bivalves - most have a large calcareous shell

thermal intertia

large things tend to stay warm longer

sea bird adaptations

large wings for lift while soaring, webbed feet, bills to catch fish & withstand impact, serrated teeth pointing backward to prevent food escape

Reproduction over-fishing

largest more reproductively active individuals are removed, reducing the overall population fecundity -- bigger fish have higher fecundity

planktotrophic

larvae feed on external food source, many small larvae, spend weeks to months as plankton

metazooplankton

larval and adult crustaceans, larval fish, cnidarians, etc.

Why poles colder

light @ poles comes in at oblique angle, higher latitude is less hot because less irradience

thermocline

limits PP to upper 10s of m

Epifaunal

living on top surface of seabed

Eulerian

measuring fluid movement around a fixed point

Lagrangian

measuring fluid movement by following particles in the fluid

Mercury

mercury from industrial sources (esp coal-fired power plants), Mercury goes into air->rain-> water -> converted from inorganic to organic Mercury by bacteria -> fish -> humans

methane hydrates

methane gas stream contacts cold sea water & precipitates/crystallizes, creating a solid compound in which a large amount of methane is trapped within a crystal structure of water, forming a solid similar to ice

Coastal development

minimize coastal erosion, eutrophication, and tourism impacts

boundary layer effect on sediments

minimizes mixing of anoxic & oxic sediments Little water movement over surface of mudflat, no disturbance of surface layer to increase aeration

diversity of taxa

number of genera, families, orders, etc

alpha diversity

number of species in a given area, community, ecosystem, AKA species richness

species diversity

number of species within an area

Humans impacting food webs

nutrients changing ecosystems (bottom up), humans destroying breeding habitats disrupting links in the food chain, targeting apex predators (top down) with cascading effects throughout the food chain

Abiotic Factors affecting Organisms

ocean environment, depth, light, temperature, salinity, oxygen, pressure/buoyancy

ocean sequestration with rising CO2 levels

oceans can respond to some degree to rising CO2 levels (slightly higher levels of PP -- P, N, Fe, Si = bio-limiting, so extra CO2 doesn't add much for this), ocean stopped being able to sequester amount of CO2 in environment

2 types of whales

odontocetes (toothed whales) - sperm whales, beaked whales, dolphins & mysticetes (baleen whales)

langmuir circulation

onverging circulation cells due to wind at surface force water down

Bioerosion

organisms eating off reef - Predation on reef

light zones

photic, disphotic, aphotic

Phytoplankton

photosynthetic microalgae, cyanobacteria, and proclorophytes

allopatry

physical barrier to dispersal causes 2 populations to diverge enough to become 2 separate species, dominant mode of speciation, barriers are specific to species Ex: Kaibab & Albert's squirrel on either side of Grand Canyon - Grand Canyon doesn't affect hawk dispersal

fragmentation

physically separated part of organism becomes new individual Ex: sea stars, coral

Plankton Distribution

plankton distributions are patchy (areas of high & low density)

Feeding Hypothesis

planktonic dispersal evolved so that young could fuel their own development * Young feed themselves-> no requirement for provision of food resources -> small young can be produced (less resources to create) -> many young can be produced (don't have to worry about feeding them all) -> many wll be lost to predators/will be dispersed to unfavorable areas -> losses are sustainable because mother has such minute investment in each individual offspring

Ichthyo

planktonic fish (eggs & larval stages mostly)

Ichthyoplankton

planktonic fish (generally eggs & larval stages)

Dispersal Hypothesis

planktonic larvae evolve specifically for dispersal * Dispersal -> need long larval life to disperse over large distances -> high mortality from predators, failure to gain suitable habitat, etc. -> need lots of young produced -> need to be small in order to make a lot-> can't provide with much food because so many-> hatch at small size -> young need to fuel their own development

lecithotrophic

provisioned w/ nutrition from mother - yolk sac -- use that to develop as larvae, nutrition obtained from egg yolk during oogenisis (production & development of egg ), hatch out more developed -> less time as plankton, much fewer offspring

fishing gear types

purse seines, trawls, gillnets, longlines, trolling, pots/traps depends on region fishing in & target species

river

rain falls on land, dissolves rock (hydrologic cycle), water flows down hill and breaks/transports sediment. Fine silt and clay make it to the ocean, larger rocks stay in river beds (sediment sorting based on water velocity & grain size) Suspended sediment - small particles suspended in water that fall out of suspension once water velocity slows, sediments on abyssal plains = silt & clay - 118 gigatons per year Dissolved sediment - particles actually dissolved in water, contributes to salinity of ocean - 26 gigatons per year

biomass turnover rate

rate @ which biomass is depleted & replaced

productivity

rate of production of living material per unit time per unit area or volume

dinoflagellates

red tides, toxins, bioluminescence

laminar flow

regular, parallel lines describing water movement, Higher pressure, Flow held together strongly by viscosity

asexual reproduction

reproduction without the formation of gametes or zygotes, creates an exact genetic clone of the parent

speciation

requires barrier to dispersal to prevent gene flow

viscosity low for liquid, high for air

resistance to flow influences morphology of animals to reduce flow/turbulence in shape (esp. for faster-moving creatures w/ higher Re) Viscosity in wind & water creates friction when wind is blowing over water --> Minute differences in the body of water created ---> Ones that interact more with wind get bigger to create waves

patchiness from depth

results in sharply decreasing biomass with depth, decreasing density with depth

Rhizomes

rhizome system = subsurface system of runners that allow sea grasses/salt marsh plants to extend coverage of a plant over large areas by adding new shoots permits the transfer of nutrients to new areas where shoots can emerge at sediment surface, contain symbiotic bacteria that help fix nitrogen & allow them to use chemicals not normally usable in water column Thick rhizome mats of seagrasses/plants can also fragment, disperse, settle, reproduce asexually

lithosphere

rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle

hard bottom

rocky intertidal, rocky reef, kelp forest, coral reef

hard corals

secrete calcium carbonate skeletons

cosmogenous

sediments deposited from space - a lot of meteors used to hit the earth's surface - many are still part of sediments in the sea floor

terrigenous

sediments derived from terrestrial sources rivers, winds (eolian sediments), glaciers (ice-rafted debris), turbidites, sea level changes (Pleistocene relic sediments)

hydrogenous

sediments precipitated from sea water metalliferous sediments at spreading ridges, manganese nodules, evaporites - salt deposits

short lived vs long lived

short lived more efficient, consume less biomass over lifetime to create a lot of biomass

important crustacean species

shrimp, lobster, crab

Larvaceans

specialized planktonic gelatinous zooplankton · Enclosed/attached to a "house" a few cm long · Beats tail, generates current thru house, food trapped by fine fiber grid stretched across anterior opening of house

longitudinal gradients

species diversity increases W<-E as you get closer in Pacific to Coral Triangle

Opercula

suck water in toward mouth (otherwise food would get pushed away when they bite down) ○ Suction feeding requires tightly coordinated movements of several different bones in skull to rapidly increase the size of the mouth cavity & create a flow of water strong enough to pull prey into the mouth · short skulls, strong jaws, a well-developed hyoid bone on the floor of the mouth cavity, large opercula □ Lower jaw displaced first, then hyoid, then opercula --> Creates increasingly larger cavity that suctions food in ○ Opercula also good for O2 - open as the mouth closes, causing the pressure inside the fish to drop ->Water then flows towards the lower pressure across the fish's gill -> allows some oxygen to be absorbed from the water

light controlled by

sun, depth (geology), latitude

feeding in deep sea

the majority of organic matter supporting marine communities is derived from marine snow, almost exclusively dependent on PP from surface

gamma diversity

the sum of alpha and beta diversity

Bycatch

the unintended capture of organisms while targeting other fisheries species

hot spot

thermal plume & ocean plate movement -> Area of mantle hotter than rest, comes up to surface to form volcanic chain -> islands subside

loss of pigment

things that aren't transparent lose pigment

Blast fishing

throw bomb in water -> fish die and float to surface. Very unselective, lots of reef is destroyed ▪ Removal of reef -> decreased rugosity -> faster water movement -> hard for larvae to settle without being washed away ▪ Indonesians recover bombs dropped in ocean from US during world war two

tidal bore

tide moves up higher in tinier & tinier channel

coral spawning

timed with rising spring sea temp and lunar cycle -> each species has coordinated release of sperm and eggs ○ Some species have male and female colonies ○ Some release sperm + egg packets

Gross Primary Production

total carbon fixed during photosynthesis/chemosynthesis

Net Primary Production

total carbon fixed during photosynthesis/chemosynthesis - what is lost due to respiration

adaptations to deep sea

transparency, loss of pigment, bioluminescence, light gathering eyes, predation specializations (lures, big mouths, hinged jaws, big teeth, distensible stomach), parasitic mates

where coral reefs

tropics - sunlight, clear water, warm temperatures, hard substrate, constant salinity Coral Triangle in Indonesia = most diverse

counter-current heat exchange

warm outgoing blood heats up cool incoming blood, Limbs = principal sources of heat loss, Blood vessels fold back on each other, counter current heat exchange in limbs of mammals & gills of fish Sharks: heat created through muscle activity transported to gills w/ O2 depleted blood, cold oxygen-rich blood from the gills running in the opposite direction along heated vessels

hydrologic cycle

water evaporates at ocean -> wind blows -> rain -> groundwater/watershed flow into ocean Evaporation -> transportation -> condensation -> precipitation

sand ripples

water slows down due to rugosity -> sediment falls out -> accumulation of sediment in areas with high rugosity -> more rugosity in that area Water moves slower on the back side of the humps -> more sediment will accumulate there -> the sand ripples move over time

Internal Wave Banding

waves that travel between 2 density layers & occur within the water column, concentrate plankton into the troughs Any time there is a barrier between 2 water masses w/ different densities, these waves can occur (pycnoclines) · Present in ocean all the time, Nothing to do with wind-driven waves, Caused by tidal movement

biomass

weight of all living/recently living organisms

westerlies

west to east, ferrel cell

macrodetritus patchiness

whale falls, sudden huge food source

transpiration

when plants take in water thru roots, give off water vapor thru pores of leaves

Compensation depth

O2 respiration = primary production

High heat capacity

Water temperature is more stable than it would be otherwise

Phyto

autotrophs, photosynthetic

fetch

distance over which wind travels

autogamy

gametes from same individual

Density determined by

temperature, salinity, & pressure

N

used for building proteins (nitrates)

chambered nautilus

very old nekton taxa, cephalopods

most fish =

wild caught, increasing use of aquaculture

Upwelling

wind blowing along coast causing Ekman transport or River upwelling

assimilation (growth) efficiency

% of what is initially consumed that becomes incorporated into the consumer

Diel Vertical Migration

(Aka Diurnal Vertical Migration) (typically zooplankton) movement up & down in the water column on a 24-hr cycle § go down in water column just before dawn & feed at night · Common in coastal shallow waters + seen in depths of 1000+ m 1. Good way to avoid predation · Translucent organism in the dark is really hard to see · More visible in day -- so hang out in dark & go up to feed 2. Also - it's energetically advantageous to spend the day in cold, deep water where metabolic rate & energy needs are lower

average slope of continental shelf

1 degree

Diurnal

1 high & low tide every lunar day - approx equal

Prochlorophytes

1 of most abundant organisms on planet, Thought to be responsible for 1/2 net primary production in world's oceans (1/2 of OPP), immobile

Stresses of rocky intertidal

1) temperature changes, 2) changing salinities, 3) desiccation stress, 4) wave stress.

mitigating trawling habitat damage

1. Closing areas to trawling -> rotational closures Ex: in Atlantic scallop fishery 2. Gear to lift trawls off bottom

whale fall succession

1. Mobile Scavenger Stage - 4 months to >1.5 yrs, deep sea necrophages (hagfish, sleeper sharks, etc) remove most soft tissue --> 2. Enrichment Opportunist Stage- 1-2 yrs, surrounding sediments heavily colonized by polychaetes, cumaceans, juvenile gastropods, juvenile bivalves, skeleton = hard substrate for invertebrate colonization ---> 3. Sulfophilic (chemoautotrophic) Stage - lasts decades, sulfur reducing bacteria feed on oils & bones, turn SO4 into H2S (like at cold seeps), create material for chemosynthesis by chemoautotrophic bacteria, create sulfophilic community with >200 macrofaunal species (limpets, snails, crustaceans, polychaetes)

dynamics of phytoplankton bloom

1. Population increases (+r), 2. Nutrients decrease b/c biological uptake, 3. Population decreases (-r) & Nutrients all sequestered in biomass, Primary production continues after bio-limiting nutrients become depleted on surface B/C NUTRIENT CYCLING

big mouth

more readily catch prey when swimming around, can eat any size prey

Things to do to improve worlds oceans

1. Think about what you eat 2. Limit coastal development 3. Limit use of fertilizers 4. Reduce carbon footprint 5. Educate others about the oceans

How ocean basins formed

1. Uplift of a broad area as crust heated and expanded 2. Rift valleys formed 3. Oceanic crust & new ocean forms 4. erosion reduces height of flanking continent 5. Continental crust = thinned by erosion , cools, contracts, sinks beneath sea

abiotic transport processes

1. currents carry larvae-- stronger current, longer duration = more dispersal, 2. currents as barriers -- isolate regions of connectivity from one another -- can use physical oceanography models to create a predictive dispersal model, 3. island wakes = eddies forming behind islands, areas of turbulence where pelagic larvae can become entrained and get trapped beside island

Disadvantages of dispersal

1. disperse away from favorable adult habitat, 2. larvae may recruit in suboptimal habitat, 3. increased exposure to planktonic predators, 4. nutritional stress in biological deserts may increase mortality, 5. reduced juvenile fitness through delayed metamorphosis, 6. greater gene flow limits opportunity for local adaptation, 7. greater gene flow increases outbreeding depression - gene complexes adapted to local conditions are altered

productivity/m^2 highest

1. in inland waters - closest to nutrients, shallow (light able to pass thru most of water column & vertical mixing can reach seafloor) 2. in Mediterranean - Relatively small, relatively shallow (light), almost completely enclosed, high runoff/nutrients

Advantages of dispersal

1. lower energetic cost of reproduction, 2. reduces competition for food among siblings, 3. reduces competition between parent and young, 4. reduces susceptibility to benthic predators, 5. facilitates colonization or recolonization, 6. reduces inbreeding, 7. Greater Dispersal Potential, 8. expand geographic range, 9. lower risk of extinction, 10. increased genetic exchange (spread of favorable mutations)

influences on biogeographic patterns

1. temperature, 2. salinity, 3. currents, 4. physiological tolerance, 5. dispersal ability, 6. susceptibility to extinction, 7. opportinities for extinction

fish = major food source

16% global animal protein intake, fish consumption concentrated in certain geographic regions - Japan, China, USA, India, Indonesia (hard to get consistent data of consumption & selling from artisanal, small-scale markets where species being bought & sold without record)

HMS Challenger

1870s, 1st study of bathymetry w/ lead weights & ropes to measure sporadically off side of ship

Semidiurnal

2 high & 2 low tides every day - approx equal in height

continental slope

200-4000m

Sea level rise

20cm increase in sea level since 1900 -> increased erosion, in low laying areas like Bangladesh, extra 20cm of water does even more damage when natural disaster rolls in, island nations becoming climate refugees

Deep sea coral

2800m below surface, up to 5000 yrs old, represent 2/3 known coral species, get energy by filtering out organic material that falls from surface (no zooxanthellae), deep sea coral mining worldwide for jewelry items, figurines, etc

trophics of deep sea benthos

80% deposit feeders (mostly what's available - organic matter on the surface) - ex: spider crab, hagfish, marine isopods, 7% suspension feeders (mostly passive - don't want to expend energy capturing organic particles if they aren't there) trying to filter out suspended organic particles in water column - ex: sea pens, anemones, tube worms, rest = omnivores, scavengers, carnivores

average slope of the deep sea floor/abyssal plain

<1 degree

neritic

Above benthos, shallow part of the sea near a coast and overlying the continental shelf

Cruising specialist v.s. Acceleration specialist

Acceleration specialists have deep/long-slender streamlining versus cruising specialists have streamlined/fusiform streamlining Acceleration specialists have larger tails Acceleration specialists have larger mouths so that they can more easily eat & catch their large prey when they ambush them Acceleration specialist's whole body is flexible when swimming, while the cruising specialists' body is rigid, with just the tail moving

Nutrients positive effect on dinoflagellates

Additional bio-limiting nutrients can promote plankton blooms in planktonic dinoflagellates

Ocean acidification and temperature

Ocean acidification will be worse in cold waters because more CO2 will be in the water, dropping the pH lower, faster

trawls & habitat damage

Bottom trawls can cause extensive damage to sea floor -> removes benthic organisms, flattens rocky areas, removes biogenic habitat -> reduces habitat complexity -> increases turbidity -> increases disturbance Ex: trawls along sea grass beds = ripped up as trawling activity taking place -> damaging habitat of target species -> decreasing rugosity

temperate rocky reefs

Boulder fields or rocky outcrops covered w/ noncalcareous animals and plants (minimal build-up). Shallow water dominated by kelp/seaweed Deep water dominated by animals

Mammalian Diving Reflex

Bradychardia & peripheral vasoconstriction

How cope with stress sea grass

Broader leaf morphologies for decreased light environments + photosynthetic pigments are adapted to different light penetration long stalks & blades + attach to substrate well to give w/ water while still getting photosynthesis Grow while submerged, live in varied & high salinity, anchor system to w/stand moving water, competitive

calcareous oozes

Calcium carbonate skeletons of foraminifera (animals) & coccolithophores (microalgae), accumulation depends on the primary productivity of an area & the temp & pH (varies w/ depth) of the water whether calcareous oozes are able to be preserved

Gyres

Circular movements of water on the scale of entire ocean basins caused by geostrophic currents and the Coriolis effect

Ocean currents help larval dispersal

Ocean currents facilitate larval dispersal by transporting planktonic larvae from one region of the ocean to another.

copepod life cycle

Complex life cycles with many larval stages □ Egg hatches into Nauplii stages in multiple molts ® Larvae of copepods ® Uses head antennae for swimming ® Simple, unpaired eye □ Copepodid stages in more molts ® Same # of body segments & appendages across the board ◊ 2 pair unsegmented swimming appendages, unsegmented hind-body (thorax + abdomen) ◊ No molts after gonads develop

Ecosystem linkage effects

Degradation of one part of ecosystem has cascading effect Oil-> decreases mangrove -> erosion causes increased sediments on sea grasses -> sea grass loss destabilizes sediment -> effects coral reefs

Density varies with temperature, salinity, and pressure

Density properties of water allow thermahaline circulation, provide insulation under ice sheets, etc.

where soft sediment

Depositional environments, geologically older areas, Eastern US

Threats to ocean

Eutrophication, coastal development, sedimentation, over-fishing, ocean-acification, global warming

Ctenophores

Ex: cone jellies all planktonic · Just as old as Cnidarians (but lack their diversity) § Characterized by rows of cilia used for locomotion (instead of moving by rhythmically contracting bell) § 8 rows external rows of plates that move in sequence along body § Capture food w/ sticky cells vs. nematocysts - lack nematocysts = NOT a Cnidarian § Don't have a polyp stage § Iridescent and/or bioluminescent · Cilia beating on comb rows refract light --> iridescence

mechanical burrowing

Firm digging structures act as spades & are moved by muscular action · Ex: crustaceans dig w/ specialized digging limbs

Growth overfishing

Fish are harvested at too small a size to reproduce -> haven't reproduced as much, average yield/recruitment in a population declines Ex: swordfish (2/3 caught too small to reproduce)

Chinese fisheries

Fisheries data serve political purposes - pressures to increase fishing production, but world's fisheries stocks are declining -- fudged numbers

where kelp

Places with a lot of light, nutrients, hard substrate, cool temperatures -- cool, nutrient-rich water along coas

Ecosystem overfishing

Fishing alters food web, species interactions, & tropic interactions Fishing down the trophic levels -> alters ecosystem structure, ultimately unsustainable Ex: predator populations or competitor populations = reduced thru fishing Ex: shark finning leads to top down control

Overfishing

Fishing mortality is higher than stock replenishment, assumes mortality even across age, size, habitat

coral reef formation

Forms on rock, dead coral, coraline algae & reproduces sexually (budding) & asexually (spawning) fringing reef forms around island, island sinks but surrounding coral reef remains

Concentration of Plankton Along Front

Front = 2 different fluid masses meeting each other · Plume of low density warm, nutrient-poor water meets high density cold nutrient rich water 1. High density cold water sinks below 2. Plankton are moving with that sinking water, swim upward into the warm water plume to maintain depth 3. Creates high concentration along front (plankton already at that depth in the plume)

trawls

Funnel shaped net dragged behind boat, midwater trawls catch pollock, bottom trawls catch shrimp, cod, flatfish

gill nets & bycatch

Gear is non-selective, catches many non target organisms with similar head size -> sea turtles, marine mammals set near surface - seabirds dive down & get snagged Ex: California drift gillnet fishery for swordfish & thresher shark -- 89% things caught = bycatch: discarded sharks (42%), 5 species dolphin, elephant seals, pilot whales, sea turtles, sea birds

how sharks maintain buoyancy

Generate lift by swimming (pectoral fins --> lift) & have large, fatty, buoyant livers -- high lipid content, easier to float

plunge diving

Hit water @ super high speeds head first to catch prey Ex: gannet

Deep sea vs rocky intertidal

In deep sea, temperatures are stable (cold), salinities are uniform, and there is no desiccation or wave stress

where mud flat

In estuaries mostly, shallow areas w/ lots of sedimentation & little wave action

Zonation of salinity

In estuaries, mangroves, intertidal. Need to talk about how salanity increases in high intertidal because of evaporation and is less in low intertidal and that variation exists in the physiological tolerance of species in each location

productivity more seasonal with increasing latitude

In high latitude - 0 productivity in winter, more in fall, mostly summer --> highest level of productivity Only time of year where that part of ocean gets sunlight - 24 hr sunlight

streamlining

In order to decrease drag from increased Re from large size/fast speed thru fluid

Reasons for consistently big waves

Increased wind speed/velocity, increased fetch

Global warming

Increasing global ocean temperatures since 1900s, impacts climate & coral bleaching

ocean acidification

Increasing temp -> pH decrease -> saturations of aragonite & calcite decrease and aragonite/calcite structures become deformed

O2 & metabolism

Independent zone (Sufficient O2 for any activity), dependent zone (Can't do certain things b/c too energetically expensive), Lethal zone (asphyxial)

disjunct distributions

Indicate limited dispersal ex: differences in genetic pattern of population in Gulf of Mexico vs East coast

oceanic barriers

Isthmus of Panama rose from seafloor 3.1 mya -> different species evolved on either side of it

highest hvap of common liquids

LOTSA heat absorbed when vapor formed by evaporation -->heat gain -->ocean has very strong effect on atmosphere with oceanic/continental climates, needs a lot of energy to change ocean temp, ocean smooths out temperature variation

Chemosynthesis

Light attenuates with depth, no light to reduce carbon compounds & complete photosynthesis, bacteria use sulfide energy to reduce carbon compounds -> creates sugars CO2+H2O+H2S--> sugar+sulfur compounds

If oceans had uniform temp & salinity, how biodiversity change?

Likely biodiversity patterns would still be observed, but would be different -- patterns would not necessarily result from environmental gradients --- instead, they would most likely result from the size of habitats and distance from source populations as predicted in Island Biogeography.

mitigation of bycatch & ghost fishing in gill nets

Limiting time nets may be set, adjusting mesh size to increase selectivity, removal of lost & damaged nets, pingers to scare away marine mammals, regulation of where nets may be set

longlines

Line set with anchors and buoys -> baited hooks along line catch fish, lines left for hours to days, lines may be >1 mile long & have thousands of hooks Longlines used to fish swordfish, halibut, cod

Biodiversity and longitude

Longitudinally, Biodiversity peaks in SE Asia (Coral Triangle). Longitudinal patterns are explained by the large amount habitat (coral reefs) in SE Asia.

deeps sea food web

Main focus on deposit feeding & scavenging particles in seston being decomposed, a lot of deposit feeders & organic matter (including fecal waste) in sediment --> Deposit feeders feeding in sediments = re-suspending a lot of these organic particles back into water column

dynamic viscosity

Measure of the molecular "stickiness" between layers of fluid, Greater the dynamic viscosity, the more energy needed to move one part of the fluid past another part (Salt water has higher dynamic viscosity than fresh water b/c it has higher density)

Difference between dispersal & migration

Migration is typically done by adults, and is a regular cycle. Dispersal is most often done by larvae, and the movement from one location to another is permanent

neap tide

Moon & sun gravitation field = perpendicular, Absolute maximums & minimums = less, less of a change between high & low tide

Invasive species

Most from shipping/aquaculture Ex: lionfish introduced to Caribbean -> negative biodiversity impacts

future growth of fisheries

Most major stocks = either fully exploited, over-exploited, depleted, or recovering • Only underexploited & moderately exploited have potential to increase catch

Coral polyp specialist

Mouth tapered to fine mouth to get into coral skeleton to get polyp

ram feeders

Move forward & open jaws encounter prey directly

trolling

Multiple lines with baited hooks dragged behind boat, specificity from depth, bait, gear, area Targets salmon, swordfish, tuna Specificity on depth, bait, gear, area

Cyanobacteria

N2 fixers (inorganic to organic N), gas vacuoles, motile -- cilia over external surface, prokaryotic

exponential growth eq.

Ne^rt

effect of spread of O2

Niche partitioning by O2 levels

Eutrophication

Nitrates & phosphates from crops, animal farming, mining -> extra nutrients go into place that has evolved under certain level of nutrients Few places remove nitrates & phosphates from sewage treatment plants Ex: Chesapeake high nutrients Nutrient loading reduces sea grass beds & creates hypoxic water

How nutrients vary

Nutrients are more abundant near land & towards the poles (thermohaline circulation), nutrients are limited at surface and increase with depth

nutrient cycling phosphorus

Nutrients come from rock, incorporated into biological organisms --> Animals decomposed by bacteria ---> Bacteria release nutrients back into atmosphere, Cycling of nutrients w/in water column, Decompositon ---> Sediments, when disturbed make nutrients available again in water column

swim bladder

O2 accumulates inside of fish fixed bladder, Buoyancy is maintained by changing inflation of gas filled swim bladder

Oxygen dead zones

O2 used in decomposition & respiration of phytoplankton

Recruitment overfishing

Older, more fecund female fish removed from population --> recruitment declines more quickly than spawning stock size would predict (lots of fish but don't produce many young - bigger the fish, the more eggs --> biggest impact on health of stock)

Open vs. closed populations

Open populations are connected widely by larval dispersal and larvae are exchanged freely among many populations. Closed populations are largely self-recruiting, with locally produced larvae returning to their natal populations

How cope with stress estuary

Osmoregulate to maintain homeostasis (harder to do with large variations of salinity in middle)

turbidites

Over time (sometimes only a short period of time), accumulation of sediments on continental shelf/slope can build up to point where underwater slumping event occurs -> causes tsunami turbidity current = earthquake-triggered or geological shock-triggered submarine avalanches -> can travel long distances at ridiculously high speeds, allowing it to move a boulder several tons & have big impacts far away from the source high velocity erosive events - sediments from upper part of continental shelf will get transported a long way away in turbidite flow - transporting sediments further from land & further into abyssal plain region

key nutrients in seawater

P, N, Fe, Si

Toxins

PCB release in New Bedford Harbor, number of choke points -> high levels PCBs in headwaters Bioaccumulate

Pharmaceutical development

PCR enzymes developed from hydrothermal vent bacteria, sunscreen from corals, AZT antiretroviral drug to treat AIDS, anti-viral drugs, anti-cancer drugs developed from sponges

Shifting baselines

People of certain age remember what ecosystem used to be like - baselines for normal change -- problems don't appear are as big as they are

Why coastal marine environments are more productive than deep sea

Photic zone penetrates to bottom, Proximity to land and rivers increases nutrient levels, Shallow water increases mixing and recycling of nutrients, Upwellings occur along coastal zones.

Oxygen & depth

Photoinhibition, Light attenuating w/ depth, More O2 water near bottom b/c thermohaline circulation

phytoplankton

Photosynthetic microalgae, cyanobacteria, & prochlorophytes, account for 1/2 world's primary production

surface feeding

Pick off zooplankton from surface with feet Ex: terns

Predation Hypothesis

Plankton dispersal evolved specifically to evade predation on young * predation high in benthic environments -> produce many young -> young must be small to have so many -> young take time to develop -> feed in plankton to avoid benthic predators-> transport occurs while in plankton

pots & traps

Pot or trap left on bottom - target species usually alive when trap is retreived, reduces bycatch mortality Targets lobster, rockfish, prawns, crabs Issues = ghost fishing

Hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, whale falls at sulphophilic stage similarities

Powered by chemosynthesis & dependent on symbioses for nutrition

mud flat stresses

Predation in shallow sediment, submergence/desiccation upper intertidal, temperature, salinity, oxygen stress deep in sediment

fate of PP

Primary production material either eaten, respired, or the animals die and the material is transported to bottom of the ocean (biological pump)

energy available in highest trophic level

Production @ highest E lvl = (primary production) * (food chain efficiency) ^ (number of links between trophic levels

Protection against growth overfishing

Protect smaller, younger fish (minimum size limit), reduce fishing pressure (will increase yield)

Sulfophilic stage of whale falls differences from cold seeps & hydrothermal vents

Purely biotic source of H2S, also have additional communities not supported by chemosynthesis

spring tide

Real big high & low tides, Gravitational force by moon amplified by sun - opposite side pulls up b/c spinning of earth

bioturbation

Reworking of sediments thru biological activity - sediments SUPER fine in deep sea, can pack in VERY dense - water cannot pass thru it even when wet -> Bioturbation allows water & O2 to move thru sediments No bioturbation makes sediments very anoxic - water & O2 not moving into sediments § Very fine deep sea sediment excludes water -> very low O2. Without bioturbation there would be low interstitial life

relict terrestrial sediments

Rocks, sand, gravel than found in continental shelf, but not seen on other parts of the continental slope/abyssal plain - because was once part of land environment/next to fast flowing river where larger sediment types were deposited

How salinity varies

Salinity is highest in mid latitude ocean basins and lower near poles, salinity is lowest in surface waters and increases with depth

How cope with stress mangrove

Salt glands that excrete salt from leaves, Ultrafiltration in the roots (energetically costly to maintain osmotic balance), Excessive salt sequestered in bark, stem, root, negative hydrostatic pressure generated in mangrove through transpiration - enough to overcome negative osmotic pressure & exclude salt at root surface, Broad, shallow roots, pneumatophores & air projecting roots help mangrove get gas exchange it needs out of sediment Aerenchyma tissue (like marsh grass) in root system (including pneumatophores) & aerial roots - helps w/ gas exchange to the roots

current method measuring OPP

Satellite color scanners fly all over the world -> Look @ reflectance, absorbance, & transmission of light thru the water column -> Sunlight comes down, is reflected off phytoplankton, & that reflected light goes back off into space to be picked up by the satellite ->Crudely estimates relative standing stocks of phytoplankton -> Used w/ ocean surface data & productivity models to estimate changes in OPP

loss of seagrass

Seagrass wasting disease, less nutrient recycling & slower blade decomposition from less turtles, top predator loss allows W Indian sea egg to overgraze, invasive species of sea grass out-compete others, sea level rise increases erosion, seawater warming increases respiration

High heat conduction

Water pulls heat away from things inside it -- need for homeotherms to have anatomical and physiological adaptations to survive

biogenous sediments

Sediments of biological origins, AKA biogenic ooze, AKA marine snow, divided between calcareous oozes & siliceous oozes

Effects of shark finning

Sharks are top carnivores and as such often exert top-down control on the ecosystems they live in. Without this control, their prey can increase, decreasing the densities of other parts of the food web, resulting in a trophic cascade.

Thermocline

Sharp vertical change in temperature, Stratifies water column, Warm, less dense water at top & cooler, less dense water at bottom, midlatitudes have seasonal thermocline (surface much warmer than bottom in summer - stratification)

zooxanthellae

Single-celled, dinoflagellate photosynthetic algae that live intracellularly in the endodermal tissues of some corals, obligatory symbionts

sediment sorting

Smaller sediments on top more mobile, get deposited later as current slows · More energy to get bigger rocks to move -- near mountains --> steep mountains = fast moving water, have enough force to mobilize the sediments o Angle of land flattens out, slower water flow, sediment size that can be mobile in that water decreases

How cope with stress coral reef

Some corals produce mucus to slough off sediment --> also protects from UV rays adaptations BAD for temp = must be 18-29*C - less than that rate of CaCO3 deposition is less than rate of erosion, over 29 - coral bleaches competition for substrate - corals emit chemicals to digest competitors, exude guts to digest rivals alive, use sweeper tentacles (long & more densely packed nematocysts), algae superior competitors to coral, but low nutrients + fish/herbivores keep it in check

Center of Accumulation Theory

Species arise in isolated Indian & Pacific Islands, then expand ranges into center --- supported by genetic data that suggests certain species originated away from the Coral Triangle & immigrated there (most derived species determined by genotype analysis) Ex: Pomacentrus moluccensis originated in Fiji & spread into Coral Triangle

burrowing

To escape competition or predation - also used to lower desiccation & temperature stress in upper intertidal

Plastics

Tons of plastic produced yearly, only 7% recycled, Great Pacific Garbage Patch, turtles eat plastic bags, entrapment hazard, plastic breaks down to size of zooplankton, seabirds eat plastic & eat fish that eat plastic

photoinhibition

Too much light on plant makes photosynthesis inefficient

Destructive fishing

Trawling, cyanide fishing, blast fishing

trawls & bycatch

Trawls very nonselective - catch many non-target species -> fish brought from depth then dumped over side -> bycatch species returned to ocean have high mortality marine mammals & sea turtles caught in net Ex: Gulf Shrimp Fishery up to 90% of catch is bycatch - catch a lot of sea turtles

turbulence & patchiness

Turbulence creates concentration of particles -> small scale patchiness § Turbulent fronts concentrate plankton communities non-randomly w/in watercolumn § Particles are distributed in a criss cross shape due to the way turbulence is flowing

kelp reproduction

Undergo alternation of generations: Sporophyte has many sporangia (located in blade) -> thru meiosis sporangia release diploid spores -> spores grow into female & male gametophytes -> Gametophytes grow mitotically into gametes (sperm or egg) -> Males release sperm, find way to female by following pheromones -> Fertilization occurs to form zygote -> Through mitosis, zygote begins growth -> dispersed to place suitable for kelp growth

adaptive camouflage

Use chromatophores & can change the texture of skin to blend into environment

Economic stability

Value of ecosystem services of coral reefs much larger than tropical reefs or temperate forests, supports livelihoods of >120 million ppl Caribbean countries derive half GDP from tourism

Nematocyst

Venomous, pressure-sensitive harpoon coiled inside of cell Nematocyst fires -> harpoon goes into prey -> cnidarian pumps venom into prey

how oceans formed

Volcanoes release water vapor, ash, and CO2 and SO3->Ash increases Albedo which lowers temperature, and condenses water->Rain interacts with CO2 and SO3 to form Acidic Rain->Acid rain dissolves minerals->Rain runs downhill to ocean where evaporation concentrates minerals

What we can do

Watch what you eat, avoid disposable plastics, support growth of MPAs, reduce nutrient loading, reduce erosion from coastal development, be informed

kelp forest stresses

Wave action & surge, sedimentation (burial/scouring), low light, need for nutrients, adaptation to cool water, competition (inverts on vertical & microalgae on horizontal), predation

where rocky reefs

Where steep erosion/rocks are

Long Shore Drift

a ratcheting of sediments along a beach by swash & backwash - Wave hits at angle, pushes sediments, up, gravity pulls down - wave action and gravity pulls sediment in net parallel direction to shoreline

haplotype

a set of specific variations in alleles of DNA sequence that tend to be inherited together * movement of haplotype reveals dispersal : high dispersal -> equal haplotype frequencies (high gene flow) between both populations, low dispersal -> fixed haplotype frequencies (low gene flow, larvae aren't moving between populations

Bycatch

unwanted fish and other marine organisms that are caught in the process of fishing

Homeostasis

ability of a body or a cell to seek and maintain a condition of equilibrium or stability w/in its internal environment when dealing w/ external changes

dispersal ability

ability to get to a favorable habitat

genetic diversity

adaptive potential of populations needed for natural selection to work, total number of genetic characteristics in genetic makeup of a species/population

sediment succession

age of crust increases further you go from mid ocean ridge spreading center, older = more time to accumulate sediments from above as the crust moves further out, thickness of sediment reflects deposition rates - pelagic red clay accumulates below CCD, when it builds up to reach CCD biogenic ooze will accumulate (faster rate of accumulation)

Ahermatypic corals

ahermatypic corals don't tend to have zoozanthelle so growth is not dependent on light

turbidity current

an underwater current flowing swiftly downslope owing to the weight of sediment it carries.

largest fish capture

anchoveta - caught off upwelling sites in Peru/Chile, used to make fish meal & oil

Nekton

animals with sufficient swimming ability to overcome effects of ocean currents § Animals that can control where they are & where they want to go based on swimming, can OVERCOME movement of the ocean

Corals & dinoflagellates

are symbiotic dinoflagellates associated with many coral species - zooxanthellae

forereef

area in front of reef crest · Gradual slope, deeper & deeper · Strong variation in light, exposure to strong currents

Reef Flat

area of medium wave energy just behind reef crest · Reef crest has high wave energy, scouring

brine pool

area of supersaturated sea water, salinity 3-4 times greater than normal sea water, so dense it creates pool of water on sea floor

Marine protected areas

areas of marine environment that have laws to provide lasting protection ▪ MPA's increase biomass, size, and biodiversity of animals ▪ MPA's enhance adjacent regions

vents are ephemeral

arise & decline on decadal time scales based on tectonic activity

Ocean currents as barriers for larval dispersal

as currents pass by islands or other land masses, the friction of the current passing the land mass can create spinning bodies of water called eddies. If larvae become trapped in these eddies, they may spin around and around, but will not disperse very far.

pore water

as rain percolates through the sediments, it hits bedrock/some geological feature that prevents further flow through the sediments ○ Water slides downstream along bedrock & seeps through the sediments at certain parts of the estuary o Creates salinity gradient from underneath

ribbon reef

associated w/ sand bank or other geological structure forming band

mixotrophic

autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition Ex: some corals - 90% nutrition from symbiotic zooxanthellae that live inside tissues, Other 10% from actively feeding on organisms in plankton

recruitment varies on small spatial scales

barnacles recruit on crack on rock - easier to attach, less wave stress

opportunities for speciation

barrier to dispersal w/in geographic range

r and variables

based on how individual species respond to temp, different species have different temp/light/salinity/nutrient optima, so they'll have different growth rates at a given temp/light zone/salinity/nutrient lvl, doubling time differs

soft sediment

beach, estuary, mudflat, salt marsh, sea grass, mangrove

Bioluminescence

behavioral displays and for attracting food & startling predators

wave refraction

bending of wave as it enters shallow water (due to drag along bottom or differential speed along crest)

fish

biggest group of organisms in nekton, More of these organisms than all mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles · Half of all vertebrate species § Simplest and oldest of all vertebrates · 500 million years old · The extant "classes" of fishes include some lineages separated by ~400 my

Why biogenous sediments not seen as much on coasts as middle of ocean basins if so productive?

biogenic sedimentation occurs, but are overwhelmed by the large amount of terrestrial sediments that are deposited in coastal environments

lures

bioluminescent bacteria encased on lure on dorsal spine in angler fish

budding

body part buds off & becomes new individual Ex: Anemones

operculum

bony flap covering & protecting gills used in suction feeding □ open as the mouth closes, causing the pressure inside the fish to drop ® Water then flows towards the lower pressure across the fish's gill lamellae ◊ allows some oxygen to be absorbed from the water

wave shock stress

brasion by particles (waves mobilize rocks/sediment), hydrostatic pressure from breaking wave (high KE on organisms), drag from flowing water exerts additional force

planktonic free spawning

broadcast spawning, spawning aggregation, dart up to surface when releasing sperm & eggs to increase turbulence & increase chances of sperm & egg meeting

gills

counter current flow thru gills - (important in terms of max O absorption in gills) Oxygen flows over gill filaments past lamella - Oxygen-poor blood --> O2 rich blood □ If other way, O2 levels going back into body would be reduced because water passing by furthest capillary = already slightly deoxygenated

Plankton biomass decreases sharply beyond 200m

decreased phytoplankton due to □ decreased light with depth ® Less light (less primary production -> less primary consumers)

patchiness from biological activity

deep-sea cucumbers feeding in sediments - take in sediments to get whatever biological matter it can - pooping out what's left -- creates small areas of elevated organic matter that other organisms will be eating

pacific barreleye

deep-sea fish with a transparent head & tubular eyes, what looks like eyes = nostrils, big green orbs inside head = eyes

Land-sea interactions

deforestation increases sedimentation, roads increase freshwater input, pollution and nutrients transported into marine environments

connectivity

demographic and genetic exchange among populations facilitated by larval dispersal -- connectivity varies across taxa & across spatial scales: different types of organisms have different range of larval dispersal capabilities on same reef, disperses m to km--> influences how we think about/manage marine populations *function of larval dispersal+post larval survival

carbonate compensation depth

depth at which carbonate input from the surface waters is balanced by dissolution in corrosive deep waters, start to have balanced reaction between the dissociation of calcium carbonate into elemental parts & not, today it varies between 3-5km (polar vs. tropical) -> shallower carbonate compensation depth in the poles b/c cold water allows you to dissolve more gasses into it (CO2)

bioturbation

disturbance of sediment by biological activity (burrowing/disturbing sediments), helps aerate the sediments more & reduce the harsh O2 gradient Ex: Fiddler Crabs burrow in marsh grasses, create space for water to bring O2 down to roots for plants to metabolize

sea grass reproduction

do sexual reproduction by making little flowers fertilized sexually -- excreting pollen & turning flowers into seeds - sexual reproduction important after severe disturbances main mode of reproduction is asexual - thick rhizome mats of seagrasses/plants can also fragment, disperse, settle, reproduce asexually

Cetaceans

dolphins & whales, secondarily derived marine organisms most closely related to artiodactyls - many live in pods with tight social bonds

seamounts & patchiness

drive deep water currents & push them up to surface, creates regions of high PP in world's oceans higher PP & biomass surrounding seamounts, all leftovers reach bottom to support a lot of biomass around base of seamount

Melting & Boiling points unusually high

due to H-bonding, allows water under ice to be colder temps, allows ocean to smooth out temp variation

trade winds

east to west, Hadley cell

surface deposit feeders

eat organic matter from top of sediment Ex: goatfish

polypivore

eats coral polyps

Piscivore

eats fish - Big mouth sharp teeth, moves fast, needle-like teeth - Penetrates fish & scales

biodiversity patterns = a function of

ecology & physiology, physical environment, ocean currents, speciation, extinction

Be informed

education ▪ 31% of people think more than 20% of marine environments are protected. Actual figure is .01% of US oceans, 1% of all oceans

Ovoviparous

eggs laid into ovoduct where they devlop -> live birth, internal fertilization ex: coelacanths & some sharks

purse seines

encircle fish school (tuna, herring, anchoveta) with net, driving tender around it & back to ship -> bottom of net closes (pursed), trapping fish

autotrophy

endosymbionts that live within the larvae provide nutrition to larvae, nutrition obtained from photosynthesis, most common in Cnidarians, occurs thru symbiotic associations w/ photosynthetic zooxanthellae or chemoautotrophic bacteria

fate of consumer biomass

energy Ingested = energy Egested/Excreted + energy lost in Respiration + energy translated to Growth

Big jaws

ensures you can eat the prey that are available

Distensible stomachs

ensures you can fit prey into stomach

Parasitic mates

ensures you don't have to find a mate

Low metabolic rate

ensures you survive until next meal

fisheries

entities engaged in the raising/harvesting of fish defined by ppl involved, species/type of fish, area of water/seabed, method of fishing, class of boats, purpose of activities, combo of terms Ex: Swordfish fishery, longline swordfish fishery, swordfish harpoon fishery, recreational swordfish fishery

demersal spawning

female laying eggs on substrate, male fertilizes them

how fish handle osmotic balance

fish = osmoregulators most fish have much lower salt concentrations than surrounding water -> constantly drinking water (containing dissolved ions) and peeing (Na & Cl secreted from gills, Mg & SO4 in urine)

Growth overfishing

fish are removed at too small of a size before they can have a significant impact on reproduction and population growth

Ecosystem over-fishing

fishing targets highest progressively lower trophic levels, resulting in ecosytem changes -- fishing down the tropic scale

biological pump

flux of biologically fixed carbon out of euphotic zone into aphotic deep ocean environments o inorganic carbon fixed in surface waters --> eventually converted into organic carbon --> lost into deep ocean sediments

inertial forces

forces relating to tendency of moving object to stay in motion, make fluid break up into turbulence

plankton

free floating animals whose movements are largely determined by water movement

plankton

free floating organisms whose movements are largely determined by water movement

number of species on an island increases

more crowded, less resources -> odds of being able to colonize successfully decreases, rate of extinction increases b/c more species you have, the greater the odds that one will go extinct

patchiness in deposition

further to travel -> more bacteria will decompose -> higher probability filter feeders filter them out of water -> fewer resources reach sea floor further from shore Continental shelf 2-5% organic matter, 30-50% surface production reaches bottom Abyssal plain beneath gyre centers <0.25% organic matter, 2-7% surface production reaches seafloor organic matter in continental shelf > open ocean > abyssal plain

internal fertilization

gamete unites with body cavity ex: sharks (claspers), cuttlefish (spermatophore), barnacles

allogamy

gametes come from 2 different individuals

Viviparous

gestate young with placenta and give live birth, internal fertilization ex: Requium sharks only

aerial roots

get gasses, moisture, potentially nutrients without being in water

external fertilization challenges

getting eggs & sperm to meet - sufficient density & population size ^es probability of fertilization success, sperm & egg release at same time (ex: corals release sperm & eggs 3 days after full moon in August in Caribbean), turbulence to facilitate meeting + getting the RIGHT sperm and eggs to meet (avoiding interspecific fertilization

ice-rafted debris

glaciers scrape away bedrock & incorporate a lot of sediment from terrestrial environment --> eventually river of ice makes it out into ocean -> glaciers calve off into ocean ->Icebergs go out to sea, traveling for 100s to 1000s of km -> icebergs melt as they travel, sediments trapped in ice fall out onto sea floor-> rocks, gravel, etc. over an abyssal plain almost exclusively comes from glaciers

Coral Triangle

global epicenter of biodiversity (highest biodiversity on planet) that contains countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste largest area of reef in world, large area -> many species can arise & survive, less extinction in large area

Food resources

globally 1/5 of protein consumed comes from marine environment, food for 1 billion ppl in Asia

sampling deep sea habitat

good sample should cover large area, be sampled from a uniform depth below sediment-water interface @ a defined area, come from different bottom substrates, come from a device that will not release any sample when it rises to the surface

recruitment varies in decadal patterns

good years, bad years, oscillations occurring on timescale of decades Ex: el nino-> spike in recruitment

big teeth

grab prey really easily & quickly, decreases likelihood of prey escape

sea grass

grass (not algae), vascular plants, underwater marine flowering plants -- polyphyletic group

geostrophic current

gravity-driven circulation, responsible for gyres

heterotrophic

growth depends on organic material

auxotroph

has physiological requirement for one or more organic compounds, but C is obtained autotrophically § __ algae require a few organically derived substances (like vitamins or fatty acids synthesized by other organisms) along w/ dissolved inorganic nutrients for photosynthesis

True hermaphrodite

have both male & female functional organs & can be male & female, but aren't self-fertile Ex: Hamlets

true hermaphrodites

have both male and female reproductive organs at the same time, limited number of cases of autogamy, can self-fertilize, but more often reproduce with other distinct organisms Ex: some nudibranchs go through the behavior of mating even if they don't exchange gametes

Maneuvering Specialist

have much larger fins other than dorsal (use to maneuver), rounder shape, smaller mouth - Can rotate any direction it wants at any time · Very precise in how it moves thru water column b/c of way fins are arranged around body type Ex: trigger fish

Highest heat conduction of common liquids (except mercury)

heat transfers thru water well -- allows for thermohaline circulation to occur, creates a challenge for animals since heat flows out of animal into water easily

distensible stomach

helps predator digest prey even if much larger than themselves, helps it eat anything

drop off

here the drop off is, high current and light variation stress · Erosion prevents gradual sloping · Vertical wall of coral

temperature on organisms

higher temp, bigger fish, more eggs

copepod

holoplanktonic crustacean, most abundant zooplankton by number

Human impacts on nutrients

humans introducing nutrients through fertilizers or sewage that creating changes in food webs through bottom up effects, cause the loss of coral reefs due to competition w/ algae, harmful algal blooms & dead zones from eutrophication

Hydrozoans

hydroids, siphonophores · Ex: portuguese man of war (colony of specialize polyps, not a medusa), fire coral, snail fur, freshwater hydra · Mostly small and colonial □ In colonies - polyps bud but stay attached & share continuous body layers ® Individual members of colony can perform different tasks (digestion, capturing prey, reproduction, etc.) · Many have distinctive medusa form as part of life cycle □ Smaller than syphozoans □ Vellum = shelf-like structure along inside edge of bell

inverted pyramid

in marine systems like English Channel or coral reefs, most of the biomass is locked in top level consumers ○ Phytoplankton have high turnover rate -- rapid population growth produce a lot of PP, but have little standing biomass because they die/get eaten so quickly ○ Top predators = more long-lived, store biomass produced over decade

plankton movement

more function of water movement than own, good swimmers (Butterfly fish larvae can swim up to 80 km nonstop til they can't swim anymore) but movement in ocean more controlled by ocean

benefits of sexual reproduction

increase diversity of combination of genes (constant shuffling of genetic diversity w/in gene pool allows for genes uniquely adapted to a certain set of conditions), spread advantageous genes, remove deleterious genes, DNA repair - crossing over during meiosis & shuffling of genes can get rid of errors in DNA replication

larval period

increases dispersal distance

Fe fertilization

increases rate of C sequestration

Salinity

increases with depth (cold water higher solubility) b/c it increases the density of water

seamounts

independent features that arise to at least 1000m above the seafloor, typically extinct volcanoes found at boundary of tectonic plates & hotspots, sources of hard substrate, shapes ocean currents & directs deep nutrient rich water upward --> makes nutrients available on top of seamounts, creates fertile habitats home to sponges, crabs, invertebrates, important fish, important fishing ground (80 fishery species) - sites for coral mining & fish trawling Can be oases in open ocean, highly productive ecoysystems Ex: Cortez Bank Most seamounts = outside of the 200 mi exclusive economic zone -- starting to see sharp declines in diversity & abundance due to overfishing

physiological tolerance

individual's ability to withstand stress

succession

initial colonization increases rugosity (which influences)increases accretion, favoring recruitment, which increases accretion and makes habitat viable for new species

Poikilotherm

internal temperatures vary, often matching the ambient temperature of the immediate environment

turbulent flow

irregular lines, Overall direction of flow only determined as aggregate of individual irregular motions, low pressure, Increased turbulent flow, increased drag

factors influencing larval dispersal

larval life history (planktotrophic, lecithotrophic, brooder/direct developer) & transport process (abiotic or biotic) function of transport+survival+spawning locations+settle location

deep sea environment

lat, covered with soft sediment, dark, cold, uniform, stable and slow processes o Geological processes create small patches of relief/rock/unique environment in an otherwise uniform monotonic world

oviparous

lay eggs (fertilization could be external or internal)

pelagic ovipary

lay eggs into water column ex: some condrichthyes

Aerenchymal tissue

like little straws in plant tissue, allowing air from O2 rich surface regions to reach roots to facilitate gass exchange (plants need O2 to metabolize), even when surrounded by anoxic soil

food chain

linear sequence showing which organisms consume which other organisms, making a series of trophic levels

krill

little shrimp-like crustaceans that are the most abundant animal on earth by weight (large biomass) & are preyed upon by fish, sea lions, whales

walruses

live in N pacific ice slabs, quite large, massive tusks used for mating rituals & for pulling themselves onto ice

Infaunal

living in sediments and being large enough to displace sedimentary grains

larval duration on barriers to dispersal

longer larval duration allows species to cross "barriers" & occupy larger geographic ranges

Political stability

loss of food -> political instability (ex Indonesia strong reliance on food from marine environment)

ghost fishing

lost/abandoned nets continue to catch organisms, may entangle on coral, rocks, other habitat, keep catching for 10s to 100s of yrs

oxygen on organisms

low O2, smaller cod growth

salinity on organisms

low salinity, bigger sturgeon, more eggs

bioluminescence

luciferin + O2 --(luciferase + shear force)--> oxyluciferin + light mechanically induced process (shear) -- burglar alarm hypothesis, can be used to study fluid mechanics, ~70% of mesopelagic organisms, photophores (glandular cells or culture contain light-emitting bacteria), angler fish lures bioluminesce

Atoll formation

magma travels to surface -> creates volcanoes over oceanic crusts -> islands form -> islands get large, begin to sink-> formation of islands provides substrate for coral larvae to recruit -> coral larvae form reefs around the island -> reefs can grow faster than the sinking island, an atoll is formed

dolphin safe

marine mammal bycatch used to be issue, now not as much - divers go into purse to get dolphins out before the purse goes on board

Seagrass wasting disease

mass mortalities in 1930s, late 1980s · Symptoms = small brown spots on leaves - expand & cover leaves very fast · Causes = likely pathogenic slime mold (Labyrinthula), but may also be due to high sea surface temp, high salinity, & rhizome hypoxia

biomass

mass of living material present at any time, expressed as weight per unit area or volume

disadvantages of sexual reproduction

mates may be rate, recombination can disrupt co-adapted gene complexes, big genetic cost: only half of genes are transmitted to next generation

pH varies w/ depth & latitude

more acidic as you go deeper & more polar (colder water allows you to dissolve CO2)

feeding mode

more complex feeding mode lengthens time to hatch but decreases planktonic larval dispersal time: planktotrophic< lecithrophic< direct development in time to hatch (because increasingly larger egg sizes) direct development< lecithrophic< planktotrophic in larval duration (planktotrophic takes longer because less larval provisioning)

biodiversity & distance from source populations

more immigration to islands closer to mainland b/c odds of dispersing animal finding it = higher

larval barrier

most oceanic organisms travel as larvae, not adults --> shorter larval period -> shorter dispersal distance ocean current = barrier to dispersal Problem = most larvae = rice-sized or smaller --> hard to see connectivity & where dispersal stops

World fisheries

most-traded food commodity, $102 billion industry in 2008, catch increased ~5x in 50 yrs -> leveled on for past 10 yrs

behavioral way to stay warm

move into sun, migrate

Hydrothermal vents

movement of earth's crust at spreading centers -> cold water seeps down tiny fissures inside rock caused by mid ocean ridge -> water channeling thru cracking in rocks picks up heat from magma & dissolves minerals from rocks -> hot water builds up pressure, forced through hydrothermal vents bringing H2S and other inorganic compound in melted superheated water(~350*C)

dispersal

movement of individual from parent site to somewhere else, permanent, usually happens when young

transport

movement of individual from place it's born to where it settles (function of abiotic & biotic processes

mud flat

muddy sediment intertidal environment created by fine sediment that accumulates from accretion, below salt grass -> lowest low tide

trawling

nets drag across ocean floor & tear up coral - not enough time for coral to recover

nutrient cycling nitrogen

nitrogen fixation --> nitrification --> consumption --> death---> decomposition --->nitrification ---> denitrification

Why deep sea is more challenging than rocky intertidal

no light, low availability of food, vast area with low biomass (e.g. hard to find mates/food etc)

autotrophs

no material of organic origin = required for growth & reproduction § photosynthetic organisms, inorganic to organic molecules converted by them

Tube worm feeding

no mouth or gut - hemoglobin-filled "gills" VERY effective at capturing dissolved O2, CO2, H2S well developed circulation system includes heart and capillaries blood volume 1/2 human's compounds taken in thru gills -> passes thru heart at some point -> trophosome

soft corals

no secretion of calcium carbonate skeletons, have CaCO3 microscopic structures within them (have hardish feeling, but don't form & build with that CaCO3

Oxygen dead zone

occur along shallow continental shelves and pycnoclines due to inability of vertical mixing, Algal bloom can also create dead zone by consuming oxygen, algae death -> microbes use up O2 to break down dead phytoplankton--> not enough O2 to sustain life

OMZ

ocean minimum zone - where O2 is the lowest

marine snow

organic and inorganic matter raining down from photic zone to sea floor

seston

organisms & non-living matter swimming/floating in water body

Meroplankton

organisms that spend only part of life as plankton (Temporary members of the plankton community) - things attached to benthos achieve movement through this developmental stage, ichthyoplankton = type of meroplankton

marine snow

particulate organic matter that falls from photic zone to aphotic zone. As part of the Biological Pump, marine snow transports carbon from surface waters to the depths of the ocean where it is sequestered.

Annual recruitment patterns

periods of spawning & larval recruitment in spring correlated w/ NE winds

keystone species

plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether w/out them o affect community structure disproportionately to their abundance

Human impacts on coral reefs

poisoning reefs, blowing up reefs, killing reefs with nutrients, killing reefs with sedimentation and coastal development. Less reef, less fish and inverts, less food, less tourism, less protection from waves

logistic growth

population grows until it reaches carrying capacity, at middle of logistic curve is highest growth rate -> population grows as fast as possible -> we can harvest as much as possible * dn/dt = rN (1-N/K) Rate of change = growth rate x population size (1 - population size/carrying capacity)

open population

populations without barriers to dispersal, larvae travel broadly over large geographic distances

life in intersitial

pore spaces in sedimentary grains -- meiofauna/infauna live in spaces between sand

habitat & larval recruitment

positive influence of kelp on sea bass recruitment, eventually larval supply becomes limiting even with increasing kelp density - limited number of resources limits larvae, kelp density too high, number of bass would decline because amount of space isn't favorable

salt marsh stresses

predation from above, salinity, submergence, temperature stress, anoxic sediment (decreasing O2 & increasing H2S deep in sediment due to microbial decomposition)

larval recruitment

process by which a marine organism settles in its adult habitat if larvae is low on energy supplies, it will be less picky in finding a good spot to settle

Nutrients negative effects on corals

promotes macro algal growth on coral reefs. Macro algae grow faster than corals, resulting in shading of corals, which can ultimately result in the death of the corals

fringing reef

reef all around islands

asthenosphere

upper layer mantle below lithosphere - low resistance to plastic flow, where convection thought to occur

biogeographic provinces

regions with similar compositions of species, defined by physical environment - environmental gradients (salinity, temperature, light, nutrients) create unique set of species that can live in that environment based on individual species ability to adapt/maintain homeostasis, species ranges are shaped by ocean currents through their effect on dispersal patterns

Migration

regular, cyclical movement of a species thru its environment, most often associated with movements between breeding and feeding grounds, usually when adult Ex: sea turtle hatches & imprints on beach as walks to ocean, when grows up, female uses magnetic fields to return to same beach to lay eggs Ex: whales feed in the poles b/c of thermohaline circulation bringing up nutrients for increased PP & krill, have calves in equatorial regions

rov

remotely operated vehicles, unmanned submarines, tethered to ship, deep sea currents can push vehicles away from target destination, navigation team should be moving the ship to follow the ROV to prevent this, super expensive

passive suspension feeder

remove live/dead organic matter from water by collecting food by means of morphological structures that protrude into the flow and capture particles o Ex: stalked tunicate bends in current to funnel water & particles through body

active suspension feeder

remove live/dead organic matter from water by generating their own water currents to channel and ingest particles o Barnacles extend cirri to catch suspended particles Clams siphon water in thru body & digestive system out to filter out particles & consume things

accumulation rates for oozes is highly variable, spatial variation

reproduction of planktonic organisms varies (with light, nutrients, salinity, temperature), silica dissolves very slowly & is preserved everywhere, but CaCO3 depends on T & pH & varies w/ depth, rates of sedimentation are small and variable (<1 to 15mm/1000 yr) even in area w/ high productivity & conditions that favor preservation

manganese nodule

rock concretions on the sea bottom formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core. The core may be microscopically small and is sometimes completely transformed into manganese minerals by crystallization ex: shell of foraminifera/radiolarian, phosphatized shark tooth, basalt debris, parts of earlier manganese nodules

patchiness in geology

rock near junction of ridge = young, not a lot of time to accumulate a lot of biological material, Chemosynthetic PP occurring at hydrothermal vents seamounts = sources of higher PP & biomass

Pneumatophores

roots growing up out of sediment to help with gas exchange in anoxic sediment ○ Snorkel bringing down O2 in super fine H2S sediment

factors that effect phytoplankton

salinity, temp, light, nutrients

Mangroves

salt-tolerant inshore woody trees and shrubs that grow in brackish water and intertidal regions in tropical and subtropical latitudes

Zonation of light

sea grass, corals, potentially kelp. light penetration decreases with depth and different species are able to tolerate/require different light intensities.

gonochoristic

separate male & female sexes

gonochronistic

separate sexes that never change

bony fishes

separated into lobe-finned (coelacanth) & ray-finned fish (teleost fish part of this group)

protogyny

sequential hermaphrodite, start as female, switch to male Ex: blue headed wrasse dominant male keeps females female thru agonistic interactions

Protandry

sequential hermaphrodite, start as male, switch to female Ex: In clownfish, dominant female keeps all other clownfish on anemone male thru agonistic interactions

coral reproduction

sexual reproduction => transfer of zooxanthellae Asexual = new clonal polyps bud off parent polyps to expand or begin new colonies Sexual reproduction => acquisition of zooxanthellae from environment polyps release egg & sperm ○ Gametes sometimes clustered -> Break apart -> Larvae that can swim thu water column ->Some behavior deciding where settles -> Juvenile polyp - get zooxanthellae

patch reef

shallow coastal ecosystems, reef in patches

predators

shallow coastal environments towards outer edge of continental shelf predominated by predators, predators decrease w/ depth -- energetically expensive, hard t support down there, shift from predation @ surface to deposit feeding & omnivores @ depth

big eyes

shaped in way to collect light from different sources - nearby & far away

Chondrichthyes

sharks, skates, rays - cartilaginous fish - all but 25 are marine - lack swim bladders, have cartilaginous skeleton, have exposed, visible gill slits (no opercula)

regime shift

shift from one state of an ecosystem to another Alternative stable states Ex: Kaneohe Bay- Low water circulation thru N & S channels pop increase -> sewage increase with lots of nutrients -> eutrophication -> algae ecosystem dominates preexisting coral ecosystem

siliceous oozes

silicate skeletons, SiO2, radiolaria (animals), diatoms (phytoplankton), SiO2 is preserved everywhere b/c it's not reactive w/ acid & dissolves very slowly, accumulation depends on PP (reproduction of planktonic organisms)

algae

simple, autotrophic, very diverse polyphyletic & paraphyletic group that includes red, brown, green algae + dinoflagellates and diatoms

decreased metabolic rate

slow metabolic rate - respire less because they metabolize less - O2 = ultimate electron receptor in our metabolism (good for limited food)

Bradychardia

slowing of the heart rate, part of mammalian diving reflex

immigration to small islands

small islands less likely to be hit by dispersing individual & hold less habitat - smaller immigration rate & number of species than large island

extinction rates on big & small islands

smaller the island, smaller the populations, smaller area & less resources, higher the risk of extinction than big islands w/ more species b/c more habitat

downwelling

solely caused by ekman transport

Thaliacea/Salps

specialized for free-swimming planktonic existence · Incurrent & excurrent siphons @ opposite ends of body □ In colony, intake siphons on outside, exit siphon in central cavity · Some barrel-shaped & solitary, some colonial & shaped like cylinder closed at one end · Colonial salp = multiple individuals in colonial community □ Reach over 2m · Strain particulate matter & phytoplankton on ciliary mucus net - ingested

Holoplankton

spend entire life as plankton

Monthly/Lunar recruitment patterns

spike in recruitment a few days after new moon

types of waves

spillers (__), plungers (/ less steep), surgers (/ more steep)

diatoms

spring blooms, toxins, have SiO2 cell wall, important in paleo-oceanography

important mollusk species

squid, scallops, clams, oysters

protogyny

start female, switch to male Ex: blue-headed wrasse, females smaller, dominant male

bipartite life cycle

start in planktonic larval phase, movement (pelagic), metamorphosis & settlement -> adult, reproductive phase, adults can't/don't move (benthic)

protandry

start male, switch to female Ex: clown fish, males small, dominant female

Acceleration Specialist

streamlined, long, has large caudal fin, moves entire body (little movement in front half, lots of movement in back half), large mouth Ex mako shark

bleaching

stress (high temp, reduced temp, reduced salinity [near freshwater input], microbial infection, toxins like cyanide from live fish trade) -> zooxanthellae leaves coral

biogeography

study of geographic distribution of populations, species, or biomes Organismal distributions are effected by variation in environmental conditions (temp, salinity, productivity). geography, geologic history, etc. Ex: Kelp forest distribution along nutrient-rich mid-latitudes with hard substrate

formation of rocky reef

submerged land rock along CA coast, glaciation deposits leftover from Pleistocene in Northwest Atlantic

formation of mangrove

succession: initial colonization from propagule dispersal increases accretion, and increases salinity gradient favoring recruitment of more mangroves (other species of plants can't handle such intense salinity), which increases accretion and makes habitat viable for new species

formation of sea grass

succession: unicellular algae -> increased rugosity, increased accretion -> rhizophytic algae -> pioneer sea grass -> intermediate -> climax

recolonization of hydrothermal vents

sulphophilic communities at whale falls can be used as stepping stones to allow for recolonization of newly forming hydrothermal vents

temperature controlled by

sun (heat), depth (geology), latitude, properties of water (heat capacity)

ecosystem energy flow

sun -> producers -> consumers -> decomposers (carbohydrates/chemical energy passed on)

benthic zones

supralittoral (above water line), littoral (intertidal zone), sublittoral (lowest low tide to continental shelf), bathyal (continental shelf to abyssal plain), abyssal, hadal

biotic transport processes

swimming - larvae can hear the sound of the reef & smell reef swim toward it/away from it using cilia in straight direction -- most larvae can't swim against current -> swim vertically to get into current moving different directions (ex: estuarine species) Ex: swim up on ebb tide & down on flood tide (toward boundary layer along bottom - slow turbulent flow with less effect on larvae) to get out of estuary (opposite to go in estuary when older) Ex: upwelling pushes larvae offshore, swim down at night & get pushed back toward shore

transparency

takes energy to make pigment, pigment makes you visible (no reason if no light), also helps avoid predation

Why deep sea less challenging than rocky intertidal

temperature is constant, salinity is constant, no competition for space, etc.

Phytoplankton abundance controlled by

temperature, light, salinity, nutrients, competition from other species, predation

Shark finning

the practice of catching sharks and cutting their fins off, for sale in markets, most often returning the shark back to the water alive

biodiversity distribution across depth, latitude, & longitude

unequal - higher biodiversity @ equator, in Indo-West Pacific, shallower latitude

protozooplankton

unicellular

protozooplankton

unicellular zooplankton

sexual reproduction

uniting male & female gametes to form zygote

properties of water

universal solvent, highest heat capacity for l, high melting & boiling point, highest heat conduction of l, viscosity low for liquid & high for air, highest hvap of l, density determined by salinity+temp+pressure, surface tension highest of l,

how zooxanthellae help with CaCO3 formation

uptake CO2 in photosynthesis -> increases pH -> shifts the carbonate-bicarbonate -carbon dioxide interactions -> causes favorable conditions for calcium carbornate secretion (Increasing light, faster calcification)

Si

used by diatoms for making skeletons

Fe

used by photoautothrophs to synthesize electron transporter molecules (ferredoxin) used in redox reactions - Electron transport chains

P

used for building nucleic acids and chemical energy intermediaries (ATP) (phosphates)

ecosystem diversity

variation among ecosystems, communities, landscapes

recruitment varies over space & time

varies among islands of Great Barrier Reef, varies among sites of one island of Great Barrier Reef - South Flat consistently gets more recruits than North Reef Wall

boundary layer

velocity declines approximately w/ decreasing distance to bottom surface (more turbulent flow), Outside boundary layer, velocity increases asymptotically toward mainstream flow, w/in boundary layer, Thickness of boundary layer decreases w/ increasing Re

parthenogenesis

vertebrate spontaneously giving birth without mating ex: some fish

crustaceans

very diverse >500my old Sub-phylum of arthropods with 3 body segments (Head, thorax, abdomen) + exoskeleton made of chiton & Ca that is molted ○ Only some planktonic ○ Some meroplankton, some holoplankton

Virioplankton

virus

Virio

viruses

Relatively low viscosity

viscosity is challenge for organsisms moving through water - especially dynamic viscosity with regards to Re & drag

mangrove reproduction

vivipary - reproduction & growth while still attached to plant Flowering, fertilization, seeds germinate while still on tree -> start growing & matures to a propagule -> drops into water & floats away to disperse to some other shallow place OR drops into mud directly below ○ Dispersal depends on tides, predation, water currents, & canopy cover

whale fall

whale falls to ocean floor-> creates food source for community that can last 50+ years massive amounts of carbon, high quality nutrition (blubber, protein, oily bones), typically sink to nutrient-deprived region of sea floor, creating biological oasis in biological desert (concentration of whale falls around migratory paths of whales)

whale strandings

whale/pod of whales stuck on area too shallow issue = skeletal structure isn't designed to be in an environment where the medium (fluid) they're in has a density that's 1/800th of seawater & Don't have the ability to cool themselves (don't sweat) -- Often go hypothermic or suffocate under own weight - can no longer effectively breathe

How cope with stress rocky reef

zonation based on light/space - Vertical walls = diverse sessile inverts, moderately vertical areas = calcareous algae/turf, Horizontal flats = kelp + other seaweed

How cope with stress salt marsh

zonation based on submergence, salinity, etc. Spartina can handle more submergence - lower zone, deep sediment has more stable salinity but less O2, bioturbation reduces harsh O2 gradient as does aerenchyma tissue

How cope with stress kelp

zonation, shallow limit depends on surge - holfasts help as best they can, zonation (upper limit from surge, lower limit from light), canopy shades bottom once big enough

Chordates

zooplankton - larvaceans, pyrosomes, salps, doliolids (class Thaliacea)

succession of bioturbation

§ Bioturbation a little bit at surface-> oxygenated sediment at surface-> more animals can accumulate ex: worms-> more bioturbation and O2 deeper and deeper into sediment Creates environments that are more favorable for organisms that cannot deal w/ anoxic conditions

areas of biogenous vs terrigenous sediment

· Even though there is high levels of PP and low acidity close to shore, the amount of terrigenous sediment far outweighs biogenic -> sediment from rivers & terrigenous outputs deposit at faster rates than plankton communities = Too much terrestrial sediment going into these environments for there to be a distinct biogenic sediment layer · Deep sea areas at the center of ocean basins can be classified as biogenous because there is less terrigenous sediment (most of fine clay/silt particles deposited into ocean from land already sunk to bottom)

anatomy of fish

· fin shape is based on their life history · Caudal Fin: at the very back · Pectoral Fin: on the side (like arm) · Mandible: jaw · Pelvic fin: below pectoral fin · Anal fin · Spiny ray · Caudal peduncle