ENHS final exam
SC Crops with high pesticide Use -
#10 Agricultural Commodity - Peaches** - $75.2Million (35 PAI pesticide/acre) and Tomatoes ($30 Million) (18 PAI/acre)= two highest agricultural pesticide use in SC.
EXXON VALDEZ Oil spill fine
$1.28 Billion
settlement cost Exxon Valdez oil spill
$1.28 billion
value of global pesticide sales in 2000 which have steadily increased from $2.5-3.0 billion in 1950
$32 billion
settlement cost Deepwater Horizon oil spill
$4 billion
the amount BP will pay as a result of the Trans Ocean settlement for the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
$4 billion, including $1.256 billion in criminal fines
estimate of foodborne illnesses health care costs in the US
$4.8-23 billion
percentage of total produced oil that enters the environment each year as petroleum pollution
0.06-0.16%
Pesticide Mortality Rate in Humans
0.65 deaths/million (Between 200-300 deaths/year in the US) and 100 nonfatal poisonings/fatal poisoning >20,000-50,000 non-fatal poisonings/year in the US)
gloves and pesticide exposure
2,4-D was measured in the urine of farmers who applied the herbicide by either boom spray or hand spray. Farmers who wore chemical-resistant gloves had about 70% less 2,4-D in their urine on average than those who did not wear gloves. (2) Captan - was measured from the hands of orchard farmers who had completed spraying the fungicide by airblast or hand spray. Farmers who wore chemical-resistant gloves had about 80% less captan on their hands on average than farmers who did not wear gloves. CONCLUSIONS: Gloves significantly reduce pesticide exposure
Lightly Oil Beaches
2.2 kg of /m2 on certain critical beach locations
Total Annual Global crude oil production in the world
3 billion Metric Tons per Year; approximately half of this total transported by sea
the proportion of total global pesticide manufactured products that are used in the US each year, more than any country
30%
Fish Kills in the US and SC
5 % of all US fish kills are caused by pesticides versus 56% in SC. Three pesticides were historically involved in state-wide fish kills in SC including endosulfan, azinphosmehtyl and fenvalerate used on tomato crops.
types of pesticides used in US
>960 (1,154) AI Pesticides Registered in US including (1)240 Herbicides; (2) 225 Insecticides; (3) 170 Fungicides & Nematicides; (4) 35 Rodenticides; and (5) 210 Disinfectants. These AI pesticides are sold in >25,000 formulations. This results in in the use of 4.4 lbs. of pesticide is used per person/year in the US.
Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference
????????
endosulfan
an organochlorine insecticide that caused more coastal fish kills than all other pesticides combined
Human Health Toxicity of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
(1) Acute Toxicity - 1 and 2 ring aromatics pose an acute toxicity hazard both via inhalation and dermal exposure - e.g. Benzene in gasoline; (2) Chronic Toxicity - 1 and 2 ring aromatics and PAHs pose chronic toxicity hazard by causing cancer- e.g. Benzo(A)Pyrene in cigarette smoke and charcoal broiled meats
Risk Assessment for Pesticides in Breast Milk
(1) DDT - 5 μg/kg/day [ADI= Safe Level for Human Consumption (Adults)] - Mean Concentrations in Breast Milk -13.80 μg/kg/day (2-3 times ADI) and Max. Conc = 38.4 μg/kg/day (5-6 times ADI)); (2) Dieldrin - 0.10[ADI= Safe Level for Human Consumption (Adults)] - Mean Concentrations in Breast Milk -0.92 μg/kg/day (9-10 times ADI) and Max. Conc = 73.8 μg/kg/day (>700 times ADI); and (3)Heptachlor epoxide - 0.50[ADI= Safe Level for Human Consumption (Adults)] - Mean Concentrations in Breast Milk -0.52 μg/kg/day (Mean Conc. At the ADI) and Max. Conc = 12.3 μg/kg/day (>24 times ADI)). CONCLUSISONS: POPs with high KOWs accumulate in breast milk and may pose risks.
Shoreline Impacts of Major Oil Spills
(1) Deep Water Horizon - NOAA had surveyed 1,796 miles of Louisiana coast and found 221 miles of oiled shoreline including 35 miles of shoreline to be heavily oiled, 71 miles to be moderately oiled , and 115 miles to be lightly oiled; (2) EXXON VALDEZ spill contaminated 1,300 miles of shoreline, about 200 miles of it heavily or moderately oiled; and (3) Ixtoc - 162 miles of oiled shoreline in the U.S; larger amounts of impacts include offshore marine habitats
Annually World-Wide Inputs of petroleum as pollution are put at 2-5 million metric tons/year from
(1) Land Based Sources -56 %, Marine/Maritime Based Sources - 25%; Natural Sources - 15% Atmospheric Fallout - 4%.
Petroleum Interactions with Seawater and the Marine Environment
(1) Oil is lighter than water and thus floats on top of water; (2) Petroleum will physically coating/covering of petroleum will smother aquatic organism and cause death due to hypoxia not chemical toxicity per se; (3) Oiling of birds causes the feathers to loose their water proofing and results in drowning; (4) When physically disturbed due to wave and wind action oil will from an emulsion called Mousse than is 8 parts water and 1 part oil, thus 1 gallon of oil will produce 9 gallons of mousse that will coat/smother organism and will require increased amounts of clean-up; and (5) Heavier oil will sink and become entrained in sediments.
USGS: National Monitoring Results US
(1) p,p DDE - found at 99% of site *; (2) biphenyl- 94%*; (3)transnonachlor-77%*; (4)cis-chlordane -64*; (5) pentachloroanisole -64%; (6) trans-chlordane - 61%; (7) diedrin -60%*; (8) Alpha-BHC - 55%*; (9) 1,2,3 trichlorobenzene - 53%; and (10) Hexachlorobenzene -46% of sites* [* = Legacy Pesticides (High KOW) = Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)]
Cumulative Risk Reduction Strategy for Pesticides
- includes (1) Integrated Pest Management - where fields are scouted by entomologist so that pesticides are only applied when insect pests are present (60% reduction in the volume of pesticides applied - 25 application reduced to 10 applications/year; (2) Selection of Less Toxic Pesticides (Pesticides selected were 1-2million times less toxic = reduces the toxic potential of the pesticides applied); (3) Use of Best Management Practices such as plating of vegetative buffer strips = reduces the soil runoff and associate soil adsorbed pesticides; and (4) Retention Ponds - captures soil and pesticide runoff and results in a 90% reduction in in stream pesticide concentrations . This approach can be used in managing contaminant risk from any land-based activity.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- molecules are arranged with carbons in a 6 carbon ring and are very persistent, acutely and chronically toxic and have higher KOWs than Aliphatic or Alicyclic Compounds [Benzene (C6H6)]
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
- multiple (2 or more) 6 carbon rings are termed PAHs which are chronically toxic causing cancer , highly persistent and have very high KOWs (e.g. Benzo(A)pyrene)
Moderately Oiled Beaches
12.0 kg of oil/m2 on certain critical beach locations
Pesticide Regulations in the US
1906 - Pure Food Law; (2)1910 - Federal Insecticide Act; (3) 1938 - Amendments to the Federal Insecticide Act; (4) 1947 - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA); (5) 1954 - Miller Amendment to the Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act (1906, 1938); (6) 1958 - Food Additives Amendment to the Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act (Dulaney Clause); (7) 1959 - Amendments to FIFRA; (8) 1964 - Amendments to FIFRA; (9) 1970 - FDA passes authority to EPA; (10) 1972 - The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA=FIFRA amended); (11) 1975, 1978, 1980, 1981 - Amendments to FIFRA amended; (12) 1993 - Food Quality Protection Act
SC Pesticide Poisoning Statistics (Hospital Admissions)
1971-1973 (39 cases/yr) with Organochlorine insecticides versus 1979-1982 (79 cases/yr) with organophosphate insecticides; 1992-96 -16-31 cases/year with most cases in non-occupational exposures in the general public (children and container issues). Significant rise in intentional cases of poisoning (Suicides).
generations of insecticides
1st - organochlorines - DDT; 2nd - organophosphates - malathion, clopyrifos and carbamates; 3rd - pyrethroids - -insect growth regulators and microbials
microbial insecticides
3rd generation insecticides derived from bacterial toxins which target specific insect species without harm to non target species
insect growth regulators
3rd generation insecticides that mimic insect hormones that control development and growth and are invertebrate endocrine disruptors
Pesticide Use Statistics for the US
Agricultural Use - 77%; Industry and Government - 16%; & Home and Garden - 7%
Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill Offshore Impacts
Amphipod (Leptocheirus plumulosus) Bioassays of offshore sediments indicated that toxicity was only observed within a 3 sq. mile areas around the wellhead. Endpoints - mortality and growth. There was toxicity observed at two other more distant sites but levels of PAHs/Petroleum Concentrations were low and it was determined that the toxicity observed at those 2 sites was related to other factors (contaminants from drilling muds around other abandoned wells).BP has reached a tentative settlement with the federal government for damages
Pesticides in Breast Millk Epidemiology Studies
Dr. Michael Rogan - NIEHS has conducted a long term study and has followed Long Term Cohort of Children in NC who were either bottle fed or breast fed for > 30 years. Conclusions of Study (Children in mid-late 30's now): (1)No increased rate of death or increased rates of cancer (Rates in Breast Fed = Rates in Bottle Fed); (2) Breast fed children missed fewer days of schools (Positive Benefits of Breast Feeding); and (3) Breast fed children scored higher on Standardized Tests and had higher rates of academic achievement(Positive Benefits of Breast Feeding). Bottom line is through > 30 years post exposure breast fed children do not have increased risk of cancer and there were clear benefits gleamed from breast feeding.
Pesticides and Hypothyroidism
Dr. Whitney Goldner of the University of Nebraska Medical Center, Agriculture & Health Study researchers examined the possible link between thyroid disease and pesticide use among 16,529 female spouses of licensed pesticide applicators. RESULTS: (1) The team found that women who used the organochlorine insecticides lindane or chlordane were 20 to 30% more likely to have an underactive thyroid. (2) Women using the herbicide paraquat was associated with an 80% increase in risk of a hypo-active thyroid.(3) Women who used the fungicides benomyl or maneb/mancozeb were more than twice as likely to have an underactive thyroid.
HAACCP
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point; primary control mechanism used by the FDA to regulate the food industry; uses a number of critical control points to monitor each of the above factors to maintain the safety of food; ex - time, temperature, food industry workers
Grass Shrimp Effects form Urban PAH Exposure
High levels of PAHs (> 4,000 ppb in sediments) are only acutely toxic at hot spots of PAH pollution such as near marinas, roadways and industrial discharges/superfund sites. (2)At other locations (sediment levels < 4,000 ppb) PAHs are not acutely toxic to grass shrimp but may be chonically toxic by adversely affecting late season reproduction in females due to the interactions of the PAHs and ultraviolet light , which cause photo-toxicity, which enhances the toxicity of the PAHs. This results in a 90% reduction in annual grass shrimp production when compared to North Inlet.
Toxicity of Petroleum Hydrocarbons to Marine Organisms
Hydrocarbon acute toxicity tends to increase along the series from the alipahtics, alicyclics, and aromatics. Thus Aromatics are more toxic than > Alicyclic > Aliphatics . Increased hydrogen-carbon substitution on the carbon rings or chain increases acute toxicity. PAHs are more a chronic toxicity hazard.
Stone et all 2014
In a recent NAWQA report (Stone et al., 2014) assessing the 2002-2011 time period, only one stream assessed throughout the US had an annual mean pesticide concentration that exceeded a Human Health Benchmark. During the 1992-2001 time period, some 17% of agriculture land-use streams and one mixed land-use stream had annual mean pesticide concentrations that exceeded Human Health Benchmarks. During 2002-11, nearly two-thirds of agriculture land-use streams (66%), nearly 50% of mixed land-use and 90% of urban land use streams exceeded chronic Aquatic Life Benchmarks (ALB). Fipronil, metolachlor, malathion, cis-permethrin, and dichlorvos exceeded chronic ALBs in >10 percent of the streams under monitoring.
Pesticide Use in the US
In the US there are 50 manufacturers, but 14 firms account for 85% of all pesticides sold in the US. (2) In 1983-2000 nearly 0.95 billion PAI were sold in the US with an estimated value of >$6 - $9 billion in the US;
Refining petroleum affects its toxicity
Lower boiling point compounds such as gasoline (straight run distillates) are more acutely toxic > Middle Distillates (Kerosene, Diesel Fuel, Jet Fuel, Home Heating Oil). Heavier MW and higher boiling point compounds such as the wide cut gases (lubricants, oil used in cars) and Residual Oils are more of a chronic hazard.
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Major tanker accident in Alaska in 1989, that resulted in a major oil spill in Prince William Sound.
Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Mixtures of Hydrogen and Carbon that are the dominant component of crude oil, accounting for 50-98% of the crude oil, averaging 75% by weight. The remaining 25% is comprised of oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and trace metals; contain molecules ranging in molecular weight from 16 (methane - CH4) to >20,000, comprise more than 75% by weight of most crude and refined oils.
total pesticides used on golf courses in SC
More than 5,920 PAI of Pesticide/ Golf Course X 462 Golf Courses in SC = 2,735, 046 PAI Pesticides used State-Wide in SC.
Pesticide Toxicity
OPs > Carbamates > Organochlorines Insecticides > Herbicides (exceptions 2,4D/2,4,5 T due to dioxin contamination) > Fungicides > Biocides > Rodentacides
Pesticides Mode Actions in Causing Toxicity
Organophosphates (permanent Acetyl- Cholinesterase Inhibitors) - (1) Organophosphate and Carbamate Insecticides -Inhibit Acetylcholinesterase (Normal Rexn: Acetylcholine -> Acetate + Choline -> Nerve Relaxes (Normal Reaction) versus OP Exposure -Acetylcholine -> Blocks this rexn & nerve continues to fire -> Nerve Damage/Death (OP Exposure). Carbamates (Temporary Acetyl-Cholinesterase Inhibitors); (2) Organochlorine Insecticides -ATPase Inhibitors -ATPase Inhibition affects nerve permeability leading to death.
Pesticides in Breast Milk
Pesticide Levels in Breast Milk in US include (1) Dieldrin - 164.2μg/kg; (2) Heptachlor Epoxide - 91.40 μg/kg #; (3) Oxychlordane - 95.80 μg/kg # (# - Potential Carcinogens). Levels of PCBs have declined in Breast Milk since the 1980's but levels of other contaminants (Flame Retardents have increased). Pesticides in Breast Milk - primarily pesticides with a high KOWs.
-Pesticide Occupational Risks-
Skin Disorders (Chloracne) most common occupational illness; Disease Rate 8.5illnesses/1000 farm hands versus 2.5 illnesses/1000 manufacturing
states with the highest atrazine exposure to the public in drinking water - greater than 8 million people per state
Texas, Maryland, and Ohio
Alar
The degradation product of the pesticide daminozide is unsymetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH), commonly used on apples to enhance growth, was the greatest source of cancer risk in children with a cancer risk of 1 case/4200 preschoolers exposed (910X EPA Acceptable Risk Level) based on market basket surveys of foods consumed by pre-schoolers. Between 5500-6200 preschoolers will get cancer as a result of pesticide exposure before age 6. More than 50% of a person's life time risk of cancer may be incurred due to pesticide exposure before the age of 6 due to breast feeding and high rate of consumption of fruits and vegetables by toddlers.
Petroleum Pollution
The major source of petroleum pollution in the environment is from NPS runoff of PAHs in the environment, primarily from automobile combustion discharges. The National Academy of Sciences (NRC, 2002) reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) and other petroleum products running off of roadways, parking lots and driveways in the U.S. cumulatively account for more than 10.9 million gallons of petroleum pollution in an 8 month period, which is the equivalent to the volume of oil spilled in the EXXON VALDEZ Oil Spill.
Variables Affecting the Toxicity in Oil Spills
Time of the Oil Spill - The season of the year when a spill occurs may greatly affect the magnitude of the ecological damage an oil spill causes. The EXXON VALDEZ Oil Spill occurred during the spring during bird and marine mammal migrations and in colder water where the oil persists for longer durations; (2)Type of Oil Pollution - The toxicity, persistence, and fate/effects will vary with differing types of oil crude oil versus refined oil; (3) Proximity of the Oil Spill to the Coast Line - the closer an oil spill occurs to a coastal shoreline the greater the impacts generally are. (e.g. Ixtoc Well Blow Out vs. Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill).; (4)Weather Conditions - affect how great of an impact an oil spill will have. Lower temperatures result is slower degradation of the oil. High wave and wind conditions means greater dilution and spatial distribution of the oil.; (5) Shoreline Topography - Differing habitats have different vulnerabilities to oil spills, with sheltered tidal flats, marshes and mangroves being most vulnerable habitats and exposed rocky shorelines and sandy beaches being less vulnerable and easier to clean up. This is the basis of the development of the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI).
global pesticide use
Western Europe - 25%, Asia - 16%, Latin America - 13%, Japan - 12%, Eastern Europe - 2%, Africa - 2%
environmental sensitivity index
a method for predetermining a habitats vulnerability to oil spills developed at USC and used by NOAA around the US.
Mousse
a mixture of petroleum than is 8 parts water and 1 part oil created by interaction with waves/wind, that may coat marine organisms and increase clean-up costs because of the increased volume of oil product.
The Scotts Miracle-Gro Company
a producer of pesticides for commercial and consumer lawn and garden uses, was sentenced today in federal district court in Columbus, Ohio, to pay a $4 million fine and perform community service for eleven criminal violations of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA); illegally applying insecticides to its wild bird food products that are toxic to birds, falsifying pesticide registration documents, distributing pesticides with misleading and unapproved labels, and distributing unregistered pesticides. Scotts admitted that it applied the pesticides Actellic 5E and Storcide II to its bird food products even though EPA had prohibited this use.This is the largest criminal penalty under FIFRA to date. In a separate civil agreement with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Scotts agreed to pay more than $6 million in penalties and spend $2 million on environmental projects to resolves additional civil pesticide violations. The violations include distributing or selling unregistered, canceled, or misbranded pesticides, including products with inadequate warnings or cautions. This is the largest civil settlement under FIFRA to date.
SC golf courses
account for $2.7 billion in sales, over 33000 jobs and $834 million in personal income and use 80 PAI/acre; highest use in SC
OPs
are Nerve Gas Like Agents and highly toxic. The Antidotes for OPs - Atropine Sulfate + 2-PAM (Pralidoxime = regenerates AChE) and for Carbamates - Atrapine Sulfate only
Dispersants
can cause more impacts in shallow water areas such as estuaries; Mesocsom studies indicated that the oil forms micro-droplets which can cause hypoxia/death where as the dispersed oil formed more low molecular weight oil products (rainbow sheen like gasoline) and was generally more toxic. Dispersed oil was 2x more toxic to shrimp and phytoplankton, 4X more toxic to fish and 8X more toxic to clams. Dispersants are generally safe for offshore uses.
facultative anaerobe
can live in the absence of oxygen; ex - clostridium botulinum, produces a spore stage when it encounters poor living conditions, may grow well inside a can and can produce a deadly toxin
low acid canned foods
canned foods use additives such as ascorbic acid to lower the pH and prevent growth of clostridium botulinum, which can't grow in a pH < 4.5
scombroid poisonings
caused by spoilage of deep sea fish such as tuna, bonita and mackeral, which are very prone to spoilage; amino acid histadine is converted to histamine, which may cause allergic reactions in people consuming fish; symptoms occur within 30 minutes of exposure and may include headache, gastroenteritis, discomfort, burning mouth and hives
no observable effects level (NOEL)
concentration of a pesticide that is used as "Safe Level" in pesticide risk assessments
Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI)
developed at USC in the 1978 time period and is used to protect resources at risk during an oil spill including (1) Anadramous fish spawning areas such as salmon runs, (2) Shellfish Beds; (3) Bird Rookeries; (4) Marine Mammal Haul Out Areas; ((5) Sea Turtle Nesting Sites and (6 ) Important Locations/Habitat for Endangered Species The ESI is based on HABER's Law and prioritizes different habitat sensitivity based upon their ability to concentration of oil (Dose) and for oil to persist (Duration of exposure) within a habitat. Every mile of shoreline in the US has been mapped with the ESI. The ESI maps contain wildlife symbols which include (1) the General Animal Type; (2) Seasonal Occurrence/Distribution; and (3) Species Identification. The EIS contains other important information including power plant intakes, drinking water intakes, location of marinas and boat ramps for staging clean-up equipment and boom/skimmer locations for cleaning up the spilled oil.
pesticides
economically justified poisons which affect target and non target species
EDCs
endocrine disrupting chemicals that mimic male (testosterone) and female (estrogen) hormones and may alter growth, reproduction and development.
The quantity of oil pollution entering marine waters each year from all sources
estimated to be about 0.06-0.16% of petroleum used in commerce enters as pollution/year (2-5 million mt/yr/3000 million mt/yr = 0.06-0.16%).
Norwalk agent
food infection; causes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps (24-72 hours post exposure); raw shellfish is high risk; 1982 outbreak in NY - 103 outbreaks involving 1017 cases of illness associated with consumption of raw/steamed clams and oysters; cruise ship industry hit in 2003
atrazine
herbicide which is the most widely used pesticide in the US which is reported to be an endocrine disruptor and may affect frogs - demasculazation in males and increased hermaphrodism; adversely affects Spartina alterniflora (salt marsh grass)by reducing biomass production and causing chlorosis in the plants, resulting in detection of plant stress by hyperspectral imagery using satellites
peanuts and grains
high risk foods for aspergillums flavus, which produces a fungle or mold toxin termed aflatoxins, which severely damage the liver and may lead to liver cancer in humans; keep low humidity and temperature to prevent mold growth
food intoxification
infectious agent is consumed as a toxin produced in food that poisons host; ex - staph aureus, clostridium bottulinum, aflatoxins, E. coli
food infection
infectious agent is consumed in food as a live agent or organisms that produces disease in host; ex - salmonella, vibrios, viruses (Norwalk and Hepatitis), campylobacter
petroleum
is a complex mixture of both inorganic and organic compounds that may exist as a solid (coal), liquid (crude oil) or gas (natural gas).
Drunken Jacks Marina and the Causeway to Garden City Beach
locations in Murrells Inlet, SC that have the highest levels of PAHs from marinas and roadways, respectively.
MRSA
methicillin resistant staph aureus; a dangerous bacteria that kills more people in the US each year than AIDS; resistant to antibiotics; responsible for more than 94,000 serious infections and nearly 19,000 deaths each year
Alicyclic Hydrocarbons (Cycloalkanes or CycloParrafins)
molecules are arranged with carbons that are arranged in a ring structure with < 6 carbons, that are more intermediate in persistent and moderately toxic [e.g. Cyclobutane (C4H8)].
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH)
most heavily used insecticide in the world in the 07s and 80s and is the most abundant pesticide in arctic air and water
Ixtoc Oil Spill
oil drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico which exploded in 1979, resulting the spillage of 40,000-50,000 barrels/day for 10.5 months; (> 3 million barrels; 2.5 MG of dispersant Corexit 9527) - -Burned at the well site - 1%; Mechanically Removed - 5%; Evaporation into the Atmosphere - 50%; Photochemical/Biological Degradation - 12%; Mexican Beach Landfall - 6%; US Beach Landfall - 1%; Sank to bottom of the Gulf of Mexico - 25% = -71,500 barrels (11,000 m3) of oil impacted 162 miles (260 km) of U.S. beaches as the oil was contained there and not in estuaries (lagoons).
Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill
oil drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico which exploded in 2010, resulting the spillage of 5,000-20,000 barrels/day for 1.5 months; 4.7 million barrels; >2MG of dispersant) -Burned at the well site - 5%; Mechanically Removed - 3%; Direct Recovery from the Wellhead - 17%; Evaporation into the Atmosphere or Dissolved - 25%; Chemically Dispersed - 8%; Naturally Dispersed - 16%; Photochemical/Biological Degradation - NC (Not Calculated); Residual (includes oil water mixtures, tarballs , & oil buried or washed ashore) - 26%; Sank to bottom of the Gulf of Mexico - NC (Not Calculated).
Endosulfan and Chlorpyrifos
two insecticides found in ice in the Arctic whish at low doses may lower the thermal tolerances of freshwater fish.
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons (Alkanes; Branched Chain Alkanes or Paraffins)
open straight chain molecules that are not that persistent but are acutely toxic (e.g. CH3---CH3 = Ethane)
Giardia
parasitic infectious agent consumed in food; parasites cause 53% of illnesses in surface waters
Cryptosporidium
parasitic infectious agent found in surface water; parasites cause 53% of illnesses in surface waters
circle of poison pesticides
pesticides such as DDT that are banned in the US but used abroad on food crops which are then imported back into the US, resulting in exposure to the US population
biocides or disinfectants
pesticides used to eradicate bacterial, viral, or protozoan pests
pesticide resistance
propensity for pest targeted by pesticides to develop adaptive strategies to survive pesticide exposure, rendering many pesticides ineffective for safe use in the environment
SC Coastal Pesticide Decision Making Tool
provides a web based platform for the public to use in the selection of the "Safest" Pesticides for use in the coastal zone based upon 11 criteria identified by the public which they felt were most important (e.g. Toxicity to humans, aquatic animals, wildlife and honey bees, Persistence in the environment, and Bioaccumulation Potential).
Contemporary Use Pesticides (CUPs) of Concern
pyrethrins - Bifenthrin & Permethrin and OP Insecticide - Chlorpyrifos
no till farming
replaces tillage with a tractor with increased reliance on herbicide to eradicate weeds
average daily intake (ADI)
safe level of a pesticide that a nontarget species can bioaccumulate without harm
pesticide tolerance
safe levels of pesticides that can be used or tolerated within the environment
Yitalo et al. 2012
show that PAH levels in seafood was well below action levels for fish and shrimp. Thus the importance of restoring fishability to the ecosystems is paramount.`
Chlordane and Chlorpyrifos
termitacides found primarily in coastal areas adjoining urban development
food quality protection act (1994)
the # of new pesticides being introduced each years is increasing and none of these new compounds are being monitored in traditional monitoring programs = termed Contemporary Use Pesticides (CUPs).
antibiotic resistance
the process of natural selection of resistance genes which favor exposure to antibiotics; 1977 - FDA concluded that antibiotics in agricultural feed were a significant health risk but has not done much to combat this issue; today - untreatable MRSA rose from 13300 to 90000 infections from 1992 to 2011; 2012 - Judge Theodore Katz ruled that FDA's findings in 1977 are binding and must address issue comprehensivey
DDT
used worldwide for mosquito control and was banned under the Stockholm Convention