Environmental Science Chapter 6 and 7
The greatest threat to global biodiversity is A) habitat destruction. B) overconsumption of rice, corn, and wheat. C) chemical pollution. D) the introduction of alien species.
A
The ability of an ecosystem to replenish itself leads to A) increasing natural resources but declining ecosystem capital. B) sustainability. C) the conversion of ecosystem capital from one form to another. D) decreasing consumptive use.
B
In the southeastern United States, the red fire ant is A) used to control invasive insect species that could potentially hurt agricultural crops. B) a natural predator that is a dominant species in forest ecosystems. C) an invasive species that has caused a decline in biodiversity. D) has increased songbird populations which use it as food.
C
This photograph illustrates (A truck carrying timber) A) the carrying capacity of a population. B) the maximum sustainable yield of a resource. C) the productive use of a natural resource. D) the consumptive use of a natural resource.
C
Which of the following best represents a loss of biological wealth? A) people fishing for catfish in a lake B) a naturally occurring fire in a forest C) the extinction of several beetle species D) mining coal from deep underground mines
C
Which of the following industries is most responsible for deforestation in the world? A) farming B) the lumber mills and wood pulp manufacturing C) housing construction D) hydroelectric plants
A
Which of the following lumber harvesting strategies will most likely produce erosion problems? A) clear-cutting B) selective cutting C) sustainable forest management D) shelter-wood cutting
A
24) The greatest number of known or yet to be discovered species are types of A) plants. B) fungi. C) mammals. D) animals.
D
The most productive systems on land are A) grasslands. B) forests. C) tundra. D) natural prairies
B
19) The ability of scientists to understand the natural relationships between organisms and their environments depends upon the A) availability and preservation of undisturbed regions in the world. B) instrumental value of the natural resources in the region. C) development of bioengineered organisms. D) institutional value of the organisms in the ecosystem.
A
Almost all of the threats to biodiversity represented by the acronym HIPPO are related to the A) overpopulation of the world by humans. B) reliance upon fossil fuels to power human societies. C) introduction of exotic species to new parts of the world. D) overuse of pesticides and herbicides.
A
Compared to forests using sustainable forest management, commercial forests managed for maximum sustainable yield of commercially valuable species will A) have greater erosion problems. B) produce a greater variety of wood. C) be more resistant to pests. D) support more biological diversity.
A
Considerable efforts have been underway to save the California condor from extinction. This effort is an example of A) preservation. B) conservation. C) asset management. D) a renewable resource.
A
In 1968, Garret Hardin described an environmental problem in which shared environmental resources may be depleted as individuals maximize their gains by disproportionately using the resource. He called this "The Tragedy of the Commons." Which of the following threats to biodiversity best reflect this "Tragedy of the Commons"? A) the decline of fish populations due to overexploitation B) the fragmentation of natural habitat to build bridges and highways C) the appearance of many deformed frogs from overuse of herbicides D) the accidental introduction of invasive species into North America
A
In general, as income levels rise, dependence on wild income A) deceases and consumptive use decreases. B) increases but consumptive use decreases. C) deceases but consumptive use increases. D) increases and consumptive use increases.
A
In general, humans can harvest renewable resources of plants and animals at sustainable levels because A) organisms naturally produce many more offspring than are needed to maintain their populations. B) new species are always evolving to take the place of those that are harvested. C) people naturally harvest organisms only after they have had a chance to reproduce. D) ecosystems continue to change with new species replacing those that have been harvested.
A
Individual restraints when using common-pool resources are necessary to prevent A) the tragedy of the commons. B) a shift from productive to consumptive use of resources. C) shifts in the carrying capacity of natural populations. D) increases in the maximum sustainable yield.
A
Japanese knotweed A) was originally imported as an attractive horticultural species but has become invasive in North America and Europe. B) is invasive, but fortunately can only propagate by seeds. C) began as an invasive exotic but has become an excellent forage plant for cattle. D) was named the official flower of the 2012 Olympics in England.
A
Regulating and cultural services provided by natural ecosystems A) are essential but difficult to value in monetary terms. B) include goods such as fresh water, wild foods, and livestock. C) are public goods usually provided by markets. D) typically have the highest economic value of any components of ecosystems.
A
Species are most likely to be conserved by humans if they have A) instrumental value. B) aesthetic value. C) institutional value. D) intrinsic value.
A
Sustainable exploitation of natural ecosystems will most likely A) maintain the ecosystem capital of the ecosystem. B) increase the ecosystem capital of the ecosystem. C) decrease the ecosystem capital of the ecosystem. D) convert the natural resources into ecosystem capital.
A
The fragmentation of natural habitats in the conversion of land for human uses creates A) habitat breaks that favor species that thrive at the edges of ecosystems. B) habitats that favor species that grow slowly or have naturally unstable populations. C) focused regions where careful wildlife management can actually increase biodiversity. D) more opportunities to preserve wildlife in many small parks.
A
The greatest potential for developing new types of agricultural crops depends upon A) thousands of plant species that occur only in the wild. B) our ability to identify and culture new types of animal pollinators. C) grafting together different plants into one new type of plant, such as a plant with tomatoes and sweet potato roots. D) bioengineering new combinations of wheat and rice.
A
The growth of the global fish harvest in the last 20 years has mostly been due to increases in A) aquaculture. C) saltwater capture fisheries. B) the major rivers of the world. D) freshwater capture fisheries.
A
The loss of biodiversity most severely affects A) the poorest people in developing nations. B) the production of food in the developed world. C) developed nations of the world. D) the wealthiest people in the world.
A
The maximum sustainable yield for most populations must be recalculated every year because A) changing environmental conditions produce variations in carrying capacity. B) carrying capacities show large fluctuations even in stable environments of the environment is stable. C) commercial demand for the product is variable. D) the cost of producing products depends upon varying costs of labor.
A
When cultivars require adaptations not currently in their genetics, plant breeders A) often introduce traits found in wild varieties of the plant. B) use fertilizers to change the chemistry of the crops. C) may treat the seeds with chemicals that cause mutations, to try to generate new forms. D) may try to introduce genetic traits found in pests of the crops.
A
Which of the following human activities is most negatively impacting biodiversity around the world? A) the production of food: agriculture and fisheries B) the construction of roads in wilderness areas C) the harvesting of fossil fuels D) recreational activities
A
Which one of the following best illustrates consumptive use of a resource? A) A farmer in Indiana shoots a wild turkey for his Thanksgiving dinner. B) A fishing vessel hauls in 100 tons of tuna for sale on the open market. C) A farmer raises 1,000 acres of soybeans in Illinois. D) A shrimp farm in Thailand raises shrimp to sell in China.
A
Which one of the following least represents ecosystem capital? A) introduced species that change environments B) natural populations of salmon in the oceans C) oil and natural gas reserves buried underground D) prairies and forests that reduce erosion
A
Which one of the following problems is the result of invasive species? A) the infection of European squirrels with a fatal virus B) the infection of wild mammals by human pathogens C) the depletion of oxygen from thousands of square miles of ocean in the Gulf of Mexico D) deformities in frogs from natural frog populations
A
27) Although unusually high, extinction rates may be A) declining because of overestimates of some groups in some ecosystems. B) even higher because of the loss of tropical forests. C) even higher because of intense predation in many grassland ecosystems. D) declining because fewer species are becoming threatened worldwide.
B
A taxonomist would be most helpful in determining A) how to increase the diversity of species in a national park. B) naming and classifying the number of insect species in a particular part of a rain forest. C) the best way to manage a population of endangered birds. D) the amount of fish that can be harvested annually to maintain sustainable populations.
B
Agricultural pollution in the Everglades Restoration Plan will be controlled by A) banning the use of chemical fertilizers. B) using manmade wetlands to remove agricultural nutrients before they enter the Everglades sheet flow. C) directing agricultural runoff into the Caloosahatchee river and then to the Gulf of Mexico. D) eliminating sugar cane farming.
B
At the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana, the loss of coastal wetlands due to human activities contributed to the extent of storm damage caused by recent severe hurricanes. This loss of coastal wetlands therefore represents a A) long-term economic benefit to humans. B) loss of natural services. C) loss of natural goods. D) long-term regional benefit to humans.
B
Despite a worldwide moratorium on whale hunting by the International Whaling Commission, A) most nations of the world now permit the hunting of whales. B) Norway, Japan, and Iceland have continued to hunt whales. C) the impact of whales on commercial wild fish populations requires whale hunting worldwide. D) whale meat is now more popular than ever in Japan and China.
B
If the red fire ant were accidentally introduced into California and spread widely throughout the state, we would expect A) insect agricultural pests to decrease B) a decline in biodiversity. C) that another species could be introduced that would control the population of ants. D) an increase in song bird populations
B
In preparation for the construction of a new, large subdivision, over 500 acres of hilly forest are cleared. In this cleared region, we will expect that A) the overall productivity of the region will increase. B) a drainage system will be built to limit erosion. C) more species of birds and insects will inhabit the region. D) the levels of carbon dioxide in the air will decline.
B
Many ecosystems are damaged by attempts to make a quick profit because A) natural services are valued more than natural goods. B) the value of ecosystem services is underappreciated. C) the prices of most natural goods continue to fall. D) ecosystem services require sustained human development.
B
One challenge to the protection of endangered animal species from overexploitation for commercial purposes, such as rhinoceros horns, is that as a species becomes increasingly rare, A) it is more difficult for poachers to capture the animal. B) the price of illegal animal products increases. C) the laws protecting that species tend to become even more restrictive. D) fewer poachers may search for the endangered animal.
B
Over the past 12,000 years, the greatest loss of biological wealth has resulted from the A) extraction of oil and mineral from reserves buried deeply underground. B) conversion of natural ecosystems to modern agriculture. C) use of deep aquifers, lakes, and rivers as sources of freshwater. D) movement of human products down rivers and across oceans.
B
Plants that can best resist a variety of environmental challenges are most likely A) domesticated plants with little genetic variation. B) wild plants with high degrees of variation. C) cultivars with little genetic variation. D) wild plants with low degrees of variation.
B
The Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty A) that would purchase all endangered species habitats in the world but has not been ratified in the United States. B) that aims to conserve biological diversity worldwide but has not been ratified in the United States. C) ratified by the United States to limit the international trade of endangered species. D) ratified by the United States to globally limit the loss of biodiversity.
B
The total allowable catch of a marine fish used for human food would be determined by calculating the A) carrying capacity of all species in the environment. B) maximum sustainable yield. C) minimum sustainable yield. D) maximum consumptive use.
B
The value of programs such as the Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) lies in A) their ability to raise funds for coral reef research. B) their involvement of citizens in the collection of data and the removal of invasive species from coral reefs. C) the increase in commercial fishing yields in the Caribbean. D) their use of untrained volunteers to replace qualified scientists in marine biology.
B
To provide south Florida with water during its winter dry season, the Everglades Restoration Plan calls for A) directing water away from Everglades National Park into reservoirs for urban and farm use. B) directing more water into the Everglades flow system and building underground reservoirs. C) digging canals to bring in additional water from the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. D) strict water conservation in farming and urban areas during the dry months.
B
Which of the following human activities have resulted in the conversion of nearly 50% of the Earth's land surface? A) construction of all homes and buildings B) production of crop and animal products C) construction of roads and bridges D) construction and operation of mines
B
Which of the following is the greatest current threat to forests in the United States? A) earthquakes B) fires C) logging D) erosion
B
20) Biodiversity in the world is A) increasing but is negatively impacting the poorest people of the world. B) increasing but is negatively impacting the wealthiest people of the world. C) declining and is most negatively impacting the poorest people of the world. D) declining and is most negatively impacting the wealthiest people of the world.
C
26) The species most vulnerable to extinction are those that are A) widespread but are not dominant in an ecosystem. B) genetically diverse and found in many regions. C) endemic and limited to a single population. D) endemic and widespread in several large regions.
C
A loss of biodiversity will likely A) eliminate most forest ecosystems of the world. B) increase the demand for ecotourism. C) increase the number of pest species. D) increase the number of k-strategists.
C
Ecosystem sustainability primarily results from the A) number of predators found in the ecosystem. B) total amount of biomass that exists in an ecosystem. C) relationships between the organisms in an ecosystem. D) frequency of fires or other natural disasters in an ecosystem.
C
Ecotourism throughout the world relies upon A) an interest in discovering plants to create new crops and agricultural products. B) the harvesting and sale of natural products. C) a widespread public interest in exploring and maintaining natural environments. D) the human desire to collect wildlife and wildlife products from throughout the world.
C
In a rural hilly neighborhood, a landowner uses bulldozers to clear all but the largest trees and cleans up a nearby stream, lining the bottom of the stream with pretty rocks and stepping-stones. Planting lawn grasses around the base of the trees, the owner wants to create a pretty park-like setting around his home. We expect that in this ecological simplification of the cleared yard, there will be A) fewer species of vertebrates and plants everywhere but more invertebrates in the stream. B) more mammal and plant species but fewer birds and invertebrates on the land and in the stream. C) fewer species of plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates everywhere. D) more species of invertebrates in the stream and on the land but fewer species of vertebrates and plants everywhere.
C
In general, most ecosystems in the world have A) experienced increased ecosystem capital because of human activities. B) remained relatively unchanged for millions of years. C) been impacted by human activities. D) already been significantly harmed by global climate change
C
Someone who argues that every species has a right to exist, undisturbed, on this planet is arguing for the A) economic value of life. B) finite value of life. C) intrinsic value of life. D) institutional value of life.
C
The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) has as one of its major goals to A) drain Lake Okeechobee to increase the amount of water in the Everglades wetlands. B) pump excess water out of the Everglades system into the Atlantic. C) redirect water southward to provide water for cities and farms and restore some of the drained wetlands. D) expand the agricultural region from 550,000 to 900,000 acres.
C
The greatest potential for sustainable growth in fisheries is in A) freshwater capture fisheries. B) the major rivers of the world. C) aquaculture. D) saltwater capture fisheries.
C
The harvest of organisms is more likely to be sustainable if organisms are captured A) before they have had a chance to reproduce. B) during the first year of their life. C) after they have had a chance to reproduce. D) while they are still in the egg or seed stages.
C
The main categories of biomes are based on differences in A) the particular continent on which they are found. B) the density of the plants in the biome. C) climatic conditions. D) the ratio of plants to animals in the biome.
C
The main instrumental value of biological diversity is the A) ability of organisms to adapt to fluctuations in their natural environments. B) joy that humans gain from their beauty in nature. C) the potential for new types of domesticated animals and plants. D) ability of natural ecosystems to respond to natural disasters.
C
The phrase "ecosystem capital" is better than the phrase "natural resources" because ecosystem capital A) includes only the ecological value of natural ecosystems. B) includes neither the economic nor the ecological value of an ecosystem's goods and services. C) includes both the ecological and economic value of natural ecosystems. D) includes only the economic value of an ecosystem's goods and services.
C
The structure and maintenance of all ecosystems results from the A) types of plants in that ecosystem. B) bacteria, fungi and sols in that ecosystem. C) the totality of organisms in that ecosystem. D) types of animals in that ecosystem.
C
The value of many natural ecosystem services is most apparent as A) new species are discovered and described by scientists. B) research into alternate energy resources continues. C) we appreciate the damages and economic loss that result from the disruption of these ecosystems. D) new technologies allow us to more fully exploit the natural capital of these ecosystems.
C
What global event happened about 35 years ago that helped some fishing areas recover? A) The size of the vessels used for commercial fishing was restricted to 200 tons. B) All commercial fishing was limited to hand lines instead of nets. C) Nations extended their jurisdiction from 12 to 200 miles offshore. D) International agreements limited the size of fish that could be kept and sold.
C
Which of the following represents a habitat intrusion in the United States that kills at least 5 million individual birds annually? A) construction and repair of highways B) offshore oil exploration and drilling platforms C) telecommunications towers D) barges and ships on lakes, rivers, and oceans
C
Which of the following would most likely have the greatest impact on a large ecosystem? A) allow the ecosystem to burn on a natural cycle B) construction of a two-lane gravel road through the middle of the ecosystem C) loss of a keystone species from the ecosystem D) construction of a lodge and trails to permit better access for ecotourists
C
Which one of the following statements is true? A) Forest ecosystems contain about half as much carbon as is contained in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. B) Most deforestation occurs in North America and Europe. C) Globally, the amount of forests protected as reserves or parks is on the increase. D) Forests cover about 10% of the total land area of Earth.
C
Wild plants often have greater resistance to parasites than domesticated plants because the wild plants experience A) artificial selection, while domesticated plants experience natural selection. B) artificial selection, while domesticated plants do not experience any selection. C) natural selection, while domesticated plants experience artificial selection. D) natural selection, while domesticated plants do not experience any selection.
C
21) The greatest biodiversity would be in an ecosystem with the same number of species as other ecosystems but which has A) more consumers species than producer species. B) a single dominant species. C) several dominant species in intense competition with each other. D) no dominant species.
D
22) In general, biodiversity is A) accurately quantified for most ecosystems. B) 75% plant species and 25% animal species. C) fairly evenly spread among all of the major groups of animals and plants. D) declining in the United States and around the world.
D
23) Endemic species are A) usually the dominant species within an ecosystem. B) well-established and show the least risk of extinction. C) widely distributed, found especially on large continents. D) limited to just one location, such as an island.
D
25) According to the Global Biodiversity Outlook in 2010, groups showing highest extinction risk are A) corals and freshwater crabs B) invasive species in general C) cycads and conifers D) birds, amphibians and freshwater fish
D
A growing cooperative approach to manage larger ecosystems is building on the combined efforts of A) men, women, and children. B) national, state, and local government agencies. C) governments and private businesses. D) government agencies, environmental groups, and private individuals.
D
Because of a growing population of people and increased interests in fishing, a lake in Florida is experiencing increased harvests of the bass population. To better manage the bass population, ensure sustainability, and continue to draw tourists to this popular lake, the state government determines that all fishing in the lake should be stopped for 5 years. Using lessons from the study of the Santa Cruz River in Arizona , the approach to this Florida lake problem would be better if the A) decisions about the management of this ecosystem were left up to the tourist industry. B) federal government banned fishing every other year for the next 20 years. C) population of fish was instead managed to keep the bass population near carrying capacity. D) local people were involved in determining how best to manage the fishing in this lake.
D
Care and proper management of the world's biomes are necessary to maintain sustainability. However, some ecosystems are in better condition than others. Which one of the following regions appears to be healthiest and best managed today? A) tropical forests in South America C) coral reefs throughout the world B) coastal regions in the North Sea D) forests in the United States
D
Efforts to limit global deforestation should be concentrated A) in regions with the highest production of agricultural crops. B) in the northern hemisphere. C) wherever there is the greatest concentration of people. D) in the developing regions of the world.
D
Environmental pollution often decreases biodiversity by A) spreading pathogenic microorganisms in natural environments. B) favoring invasive species in a region. C) reducing the number of pathogens in a region. D) dramatically changing abiotic factors in the environment.
D
Humans often manipulate the environment in ways that decrease the overall ecosystem capital because A) long-term gains are often local, while short-term losses in regulating and cultural services are experienced regionally. B) short-term gains are often regional, while long-term losses in regulating and cultural services are experienced locally. C) long-term gains are often regional, while short-term losses in regulating and cultural services are experienced locally. D) short-term gains are often local, while long-term losses in regulating and cultural services are experienced regionally.
D
In general, the optimal population for harvesting A) the maximum sustainable yield is at about 90% of the carrying capacity of the population. B) a plant population is quite different from the optimal population for harvesting animals. C) any organism is independent of the carrying capacity of the environment. D) the maximum sustainable yield is at about half of the carrying capacity of the population.
D
In the state of Arizona, the use of groundwater has been aggressively managed since about 1980. Before that time, agricultural, commercial, and private demands for water were growing at levels that were not sustainable. Before water regulation of any sort, demand for water in all its forms in the state of Arizona illustrated the A) need for agreements such as CITES. B) use of a nonrenewable resource. C) need for the preservation but not conservation of a resource. D) tragedy of the commons.
D
Invasive species have been A) successfully controlled in most regions using predators, viral or bacterial agents. B) hunted to extinction in most places where they occur. C) successfully controlled by the introduction of other alien species that are natural competitors. D) an ecological problem in North America since the first European colonists arrived.
D
Maintaining sustainable human exploitation of ecosystem capital will be increasingly difficult because of A) expanding number of viral and bacterial human diseases. B) changing temperature and rainfall patterns C) over reliance on grains and other plants as a significant portion of the human diet. D) growing pressure from human population on Earth.
D
Marine protected areas are A) the primary regions of commercial aquaculture. B) temporary zones that shelter feeding activities of marine organisms for part of a year. C) primarily breeding regions where whales and dolphins rear their young. D) successful and have proven vital to the recovery of many overfished regions.
D
Only about 10 species have recovered significantly enough to be removed from the Endangered Species List. Recovery to this extent is limited because A) hunting of protected species often continues even after the organisms are listed. B) protecting the habitat of an endangered species is not as critical as once assumed. C) the regulations protecting the species do not extend to private landowners. D) populations are already low and at high risk by the time they are listed.
D
Over the last 90 years in the United States, A) most national forests have been replaced by commercial development. B) most national forests have been clear-cut and converted to agriculture C) the total area of forests has been reduced by about 90%. D) the total area of forests has increased in size.
D
Protection of biodiversity around the world requires A) changes to social structure and political organizations that drive basic science. B) new technologies and techniques that are still being developed. C) the introduction of new species into new regions to spread a species range. D) basic science to guide public policies and laws that then must be enforced.
D
Some drugs that are currently used with great success to treat cancer and viral infections A) were discovered as mutations in the development of new cultivars of wheat. B) represent the intrinsic value of wild species. C) are derived from cultivars that combine together traits of several other plants. D) are derived from wild plants.
D
The application of the precautionary principle to a commercial fishery whose primary catch species is in decline would result in A) a total allowable catch above the best estimate of the maximum sustainable yield. B) many years in which no fish are harvested at all. C) an optimal population size that is just about the maximum sustainable yield. D) a total allowable catch below the best estimate of the maximum sustainable yield.
D
The best way to sustainably manage natural environments is to A) carefully limit the growth of the major carnivores and herbivores in the ecosystem. B) stop hunting animals and harvesting the fruits of the plants in the ecosystem. C) minimize the impact of natural disasters, such as fires and storms. D) maintain the interactions between the members of the ecosystem.
D
The lionfish is A) valued by local Caribbean communities because of its value as food. B) an invasive species in the Caribbean but is controlled by local predators. C) threatened in many parts of its range but is recovering thanks to the REEF program. D) an introduced invasive species that is causing declines in native Caribbean reef fish.
D
The pervasive alteration of global ecosystems is mainly the result of A) global climate change. B) increased frequency of wildfires in the past 500 years. C) the movement of continents by plate tectonics. D) human activities.
D
The photograph reveals the border of two countries. Compared to the country on the left, the country on the right is more likely to have (The left has signs of deforestation, the right has a large forest.) A) greater reliance upon natural ecosystems for trade. B) higher rates of poverty. C) higher rates of human population growth. D) greater political and economic stability.
D
The world's wild species represent a warehouse of genetic diversity of instrumental value commonly called A) the agricultural genome project. B) a chromosome concentration. C) a genome center. D) the genetic bank.
D
Which of the following concepts are most closely associated to each other? A) biological wealth and introduced species B) anthropocentric values and extinction C) intrinsic value and anthropocentric value D) biological wealth and biodiversity
D
Which of the following ecosystems might be considered as a bank of biodiversity? A) large lakes, such as the Great Lakes in North America B) Antarctica C) boreal forests D) tropical forests
D
Which of the following is an example of natural goods from an ecosystem? A) carbon sequestration B) control of pest populations C) pollination D) ocean fish netted for food
D
Which of the following represents the greatest conservation of the genetic bank? A) the human genome center, analyzing the components of the human genome B) all of the varieties of corn, wheat, and rice currently serving as crops C) the field of proteomics, investigating the many ways the proteins function in organisms D) the MSB and Svalbard seed banks storing seeds of thousands of plants from around the world
D
Which one of the following best represents the productive use of a natural resource? A) Deep in the Congo, a man kills a bush pig to feed his family for the next week. B) A family on vacation catches trout, which they will enjoy for dinner that evening. C) A man in Colorado burns wood from his property as a source of heat for his home. D) A woman gathers mushrooms from a forest to sell in the local produce market.
D
Which one of the following statements best reflects the overall position of current science on the role of biodiversity in ecosystems? A) Every species in an ecosystem is essential to maintain the overall ecosystem. B) The more species in an ecosystem, the greater the biomass production. C) The more species in an ecosystem, the greater its drought resistance. D) The effects of biodiversity loss on ecosystem function depend on how many and which species are lost.
D
