Environmental Science Exam #3
Volkswagon emissions scandal
- EPA alleges Volkswagen illegally installed software to evade standards for reducing smog on their diesel cars. - Volkswagon admits it - EPA uncovered emissions-cheating software on more Volkswagen and Audi cars than previously disclosed; also discovers illegal software in luxury Porsche models. - Volkswagen must fix the 11 million vehicles worldwide that contain a so-called defeat device, which effectively lowered emissions for testing purposes.
Energy Game Changers on the Horizon
1. Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) (how to capture; where to store (salt water filled rock formations, depleted oil and gas reservoirs) 2. Abiotic Renewable Fuels (find a catalyst to strip Oxygen off of CO2 and synthesize hydrocarbons) 3. Passive Radiative Cooling and Night Time Lighting
In what year did construction begin on the reservoirs, tunnels and aqueducts?
1907
fossil fuel power plants emit CO2 and geothermal power plants emit CO2, however the geothermal power plant emits only ____% of the CO2 compared to the fossil fuel power plant of the same size.
5%
What percentage of people in the United States of drink water from a plastic bottle occasionally or as their main source of water?
50%
Fate of MSW
54% landfill 33% recycle 13% incinerated (waste to energy)
In the CCS method, what percent of the CO2 is captured and mineralized in the process?
80-90%
Biodegradable pollutant
A pollutant that can be broken down into less harmful components by bacteria (but this only works to a point, as the biota can be overwhelmed by excess pollution) Some examples: sewage, paper, wood, cloth, leather, wool, vegetable/plant matterare biodegradable pollutants
Sustainable community
A sustainable community reflects the interdependence of economic, environmental, and social issues by growing and prospering without diminishing the land, water, air, natural and cultural resources on which communities depend
Items that should not be placed in landfill
Aluminum and copper Toxic chemicals (paint, motor oil, anti-freeze) Electronics, appliances, batteries Food, garden, yard waste - because the anaerobic decomposition of these items releases methane (CH4)
Darcy's Law
An equation that says the velocity of groundwater flow depends on the permeability (k) and porosity (n) of the soil and the slope of the water table Velocity = K/n * slope
Aquifer; discharges
Aquifer: a body of permeable rock that can contain or transmit groundwater Discharges:
Watershed
Area of the land flows to a river or stream or other body of water
Recharge zone
Area where surface water filters into aquifer
What happened to the CO2 that was injected underground at this pilot test site in Iceland?
It was converted into minerals
What did it react with and what did it create?
It was dissolved in water to react with basalt and created solid carbonate materials
In reality, what is missing from this five step linear model of the materials economy?
It's a system in crisis bc the reason it is in crisis is that it is a linear system and we live on a finite planet and you can not run a linear system on a finite planet indefinitely.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons: DDT, PCBs
Lipid soluble Long-lived Suspected human carcinogens Hormone mimickers (endocrine disrupters) Circulate globally in food chains
The Safe Drinking Water Act 1974 (SDWA)
Main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water Under SDWA, EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards MCL = maximum contaminant level Every town gets their water tested and this type of report is available to all residents. Any violations must me addressed.
Natural resource management aka conservation
Management of natural resources with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations (stewardship)
What was Dr. Calisi's experimental method and main result?
Manhattan neighborhoods that had many children with elevated blood lead levels also had pigeons with elevated lead. The research suggests that scientists may be able to use the birds to predict lead contamination in the environment.
What makes a good aquifer?
Materials with high porosity and high permeability produce good aquifers : sand, gravel, sandstone, fractured rock, and basalt Low-permeable rocks and sediments in the aquifer impede groundwater flow: granite, shale, and clay
Evaporation and transpiration
Move water from the earth's surface to the atmosphere
Precipitation
Moves water from the atmosphere to the earth's surface
MSW
Municipal Solid Waste aka trash - the stuff thrown away by households, small businesses, schools, hospitals, municipal buildings different from agricultural, mining , e-waste and industrial waste
Croton Watershed
NYC watershed that can no longer carry out ecosystem service of providing clear water, so it must be cleaned artificially; provides 10% of city's drinking water
What will nations have to do in order to put climate goals within reach?
Nations will have to enact sweeping new policies, like investing in energy efficiency to slow demand growth, curbing methane leaks from oil and gas operations, and developing carbon capture technology for existing fossil fuel power plants and cement factories Governments will have to drive the change
What Energy Game Changers do we already have?
Wind (cheap) PV (low cost) Natural gas (CH4) (controversial due to fracking but it is cleaner than coal)
Planned obsolescence
the strategy of deliberately designing products to fail in order to shorten the time between purchases
Sustainable coffee
shade grown versus sun grown; shade grown is sustainable
Problems with incineration
siting of incinerator, cost per ton is high, air pollution, toxic ash
Injection well HN-02 has been drilled through the underground layers. According to the figure, what was injected into this well? What is the gray layer? How does this illustration help your understanding of this generalized chemical equation: C02 + H2S + water + basaltic rock >>> solid carbonates
CO2 and H2S are injected fully dissolved in water in injection well HN02 at a depth between 400 and 540 m
What are two ways the NYC water supply is disinfected?
Chlorine, ultraviolet radiation
Perceived obsolescence
Consumers perceive product as inferior when it is actually still useable
Solid waste generation and proposal systems (after WW2)
Cultural change led to a "throw away society": planned obsolescence, rapid pop growth, more money to spend, increased industrialization
What are three headaches for the recycling industry?
Diapers, plastic bags, juice boxes
EPA is working with industries to
Do very little as of 2017! But in the past: - develop cleaner-burning fuels - more efficient engines - make sure that pollution control devices installed in motor vehicles work properly - EPA has issued requirements that are leading to cleaner-burning diesel engines, reducing releases of particle pollution and air toxics
Under the 1990 Clean Air Act
EPA has regulated both large and small sources of air toxics, but has mainly focused efforts on larger source It makes good sense to regulate by categories of industries rather than one pollutant at a time, since many individual sources release more than one toxic chemical.
UN Sustainable Development Goals
End poverty in all its forms everywhere End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation, and foster innovation Reduce inequality within and among countries Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (taking note of agreements made by the UNFCCC forum) Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development
Which federal organization regulates contaminants in drinking water? Are you concerned about this?
Environmental Protection Agency
What are the five steps in the linear model of the materials economy?
Extraction to production to distribution to consumption to disposal
What to Wear to Be Kind to the Planet
Four major types of fibers: oil-based synthetics, cotton, rayon and wool
Freshwater, groundwater, water table
Freshwater = water without a significant salt content Groundwater = water held underground in the soil or in pores and crevices in rock Water table = the top of the saturated zone of the ground water (can be super deep or near the surface depending on where)
What mechanism allows water to flow from the watershed to the city?
Gravity + Catskill Aqueduct
What is the main message of the diagram in the Phys.org reading?
Groundwater in valleys appears to be more likely affected than water further upslope
Externalized costs
If some portion of the cost of producing a product are borne by third parties who in no way participate in or benefit from the transaction
Why do we need the Clean Water Act?
In 2009, EPA determined that greenhouse gas pollution threatens Americans' health and welfare by leading to long-lasting changes in our climate. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most prevalent greenhouse gas pollutant, accounting for nearly three-quarters of global greenhouse gas emissions and 82 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. 2014 was the hottest year in recorded history, and 14 of the 15 warmest years on record have all occurred in the first 15 years of this century. Recorded temperatures in the first half of 2015 were also warmer than normal. Overwhelmingly, the best scientists in the world, relying on troves of data and millions of measurements collected over the course of decades on land, in air and water, at sea and from space, are telling us that our activities are causing climate change. Fossil fuel-fired power plants are by far the largest source of U.S. CO2 emissions, making up 31 percent of U.S. total greenhouse gas emissions. Taking action now is critical. Reducing CO2 emissions from power plants, and driving investment in clean energy technologies strategies that do so, is an essential step in lessening the impacts of climate change and providing a more certain future for our health, our environment, and future generations.
What is natural gas hydraulic fracturing? Does the process require the use of freshwater? What are the two benefits if natural gas hydraulic fracturing happens in the Catskills? What are the risks/problems with natural gas hydraulic fracturing?
Natural gas hydraulic fracturing: a new technique for extracting natural gas from within deep shale deposits Yes (a million gallons per day) Benefits: creates the ability to exploit large natural gas reserves that were once considered inaccessible, generate revenue to help rural communities Problems: requires significant clearing of land, increased traffic, light/air/noise pollution, results in large volumes of wastewater
PCBs and the Hudson River
PCBs are oily solvents used in the electrical industry GE Co. factories legally released more than one million pounds of PCBs into the Hudson River between 1946 and 1977 PCBs were banned in 1977. In 1983, 200 miles of the Hudson River were designated as a federal Super Fund site GE and EPA battle over nature of problem and the solution
Why are we concerned with particles emitted into the air from diesel engines?
Particles make it difficult for humans to breathe. Many truck and bus depots and routes are along poor neighborhoods. This causes bad air quality. High asthma rates in these neighborhoods.
Nonbiodegradable pollutant
Pollutant that cannot be broken down or metabolized ; they accumulate over time and therefore become more dangerous
Nonpoint source pollution
Pollution form an unclear source, e.g., finding fertilizers in ground water could be from any number of sources: homes, farms, golf courses. --> more difficult to control
point source pollutant
Pollution from a precise origin (ex: factory, industrial plant --> easier to control
August 2015: Clean Power Plan
President Obama and EPA announced the Clean Power Plan for reducing carbon pollution from power plants and the pollutants that cause the soot and smog that harm health Cesigned to strengthen the fast-growing trend toward cleaner and lower-polluting American energy (expand the capacity for zero- and low-emitting power sources) Shows the world that the United States is committed to leading global efforts to address climate change Will reduce carbon pollution from power plants, the nation's largest source Outlined Carbon Pollution Standards for new, modified, and reconstructed power plants
The Clean Water Act (CWA) 1972
Primary federal law governing water pollution; protects surface water quality Goal: reduce direct pollutant discharges into waterways, finance municipal wastewater treatment facilities, and manage polluted runoff Evolution of CWA programs over the last decade has also included something of a shift from a pollutant-by-pollutant approach to more holistic watershed-based strategies. Under the watershed approach equal emphasis is placed on protecting healthy waters and restoring impaired ones.
What is the first step taken to protect the city's drinking water supply?
Protecting land that surrounds the streams, rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
Define: recharge, confined aquifer, unconfined aquifer
Recharge: Precipitation minus evaporation and transpiration that infiltrates from the surface Confined aquifer: capped by impermeable layer Unconfined aquifer: open to receive water from the surface
Composting
Recycling organic material such as leaves and vegetable scraps into a rich soil Done under controlled conditions - need oxygen to be available
Are there ways to divert items away from the waste stream?
Reduce, reuse, recycle It makes sense to R3 because extracting resources from the earth (petroleum, aluminum, wood, etc.) costs energy, time and money and damages habitats and causes pollution Reduce = best (ex: online textbooks, double sided printing)
Surface water
Rivers, lakes, wetlands
How are the water quality measurements constantly obtained and which method collects the most measurements?
Robotic buoys (1.9 million measurements), field scientists (15,500 samples) --> fed into centralized computer system
Porosity
Sediment has particles and empty space (pores). The percentage of pores is the porosity.
What are three things that can be done to reduce CO2 emissions?
Shifting to renewable energy sources, increasing energy efficiency, put some CO2 away before it reaches the atmosphere
At which fracking stage(s) can drinking water become comtaminated?
Short answer: all stages Long answer: fracking has contributed to drinking water contamination in all stages of the process: acquiring water to be used for fracking, mixing the water with chemical additives to make fracking fluids, injecting the chemical fluids underground, collecting the wastewater that flows out of fracking wells after injections, and storing the used wastewater
Natural resources
Soil Air Water Trees Animals Other plants
What are the sources of lead pollution? What are the various modes of lead exposure for people? What are the health effects of lead poisoning in children?
Sources: use of leaded paint, leaded gasoline, and leaded aviation fuel, manufacturing for motor vehicle batteries/other products/lead pipes Modes: inhalation of lead particles generated by burning materials containing lead; ingestion of lead-contaminated dust; use of certain types of unregulated cosmetics and medicines Effects on children: lead attacks the brain and central nervous system to cause coma, convulsions and even death; may be left with mental retardation or behavioral issues; children absorb 4-5x as much as adults
Carbon emissions from electricity generation have gone down over the last decade (25% less). Why?
Substituting natural gas for coal and more renewables being used
Coal-fired plants release
Sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides
The NY DEC used to battle GE over the Hudson River PCB pollution problem. With whom does the DEC now battle over the Hudson River PCB pollution problem? Why?
The EPA (they disagree on results of how polluted the Hudson is)
Biomagnification
The buildup of certain substances, such as DDT, in the bodies of organisms at higher trophic levels of food webs ex: DDT would be at lower levels lower in the food chain, but if a predator eats a lot of DDT-contaminated organisms, the buildup in the predator will be higher
Solar energy
The driving force in the water cycle in that it facilitates evaporation
Permeability
The ease with which water and other fluids move through sediment. A sediment is permeable if the pores are connected.
Plastic
The features that have made plastic so important in the global market are the same ones that make it such a pervasive pollutant: durability and resistance to degradation.
How do pollutants get into the air?
The majority of air toxics come from human-made sources: factory smokestack emissions coal-fired power plants motor vehicle exhaust gasoline vapor industrial sources such as chemical factories, refineries, and incinerators small industrial and commercial sources such as dry cleaners and printing shops
Hydrological cycle
The movement of water between the atmosphere and the earth's surface
Briefly summarize the three energy trends outlined in this editorial.
The price of electricity has gone down, along with the price of clothing and wireless phone service Wind energy production has increased by 645 percent, while coal decreased by 9 percent. Natural gas use increased 42 percent while coal use fell by 40 percent.
Incineration
The process of burning waste to reduce the volume (and sometimes to generate heat or electricity). If the resulting ash is not too toxic it is brought to a landfill.
Bioaccumulation
The repeated uptake of pollutants by an organism so that the concentrations in that organism accumulate + become several orders of magnitude greater than their surrounding environment Ex: a clam filters polluted water and concentrates the toxins in its tissue)
Challenge with renewables
There are peak times of production and times of no production
Why are pigeons ideal for for making comparisons with human health?
They live in proximity to people and eat much of the same food; and unlike other birds they usually spend their entire lives within the same square mile
Where does NYC's MSW go?
Today NYC exports 85% of its waste via truck to landfills in upstate ny, nj, va, pa; there is a waste-to-energy facility in NJ. This costs about 300 million dollars per year. 35% of this waste stream is yard waste and food scraps. The city spends 85 million dollars exporting it to landfills.
Pollution
Unwanted alteration of natural systems as a result of human activity
Catskill/Delaware watershed encompasses more than a million acres (provides 90% of the city's water): What additional steps are taken to protect the water?
Upgrading septic systems and watershed treatment plants, building salt and manure sheds on farms to prevent harmful runoff,
What is the simplest way to curtail energy use in relation to your electronic gadgets?
Use a power strip to group appliances — TV, gaming console, powered speakers, DVD player, streaming devices — so you can turn them all off at the same time
Solid waste generation and proposal systems (pre-1900)
Virtually all metal, wood and glass were recycled (a broken shelf was made into a stool and then the broken stool was used as fire wood); done voluntarily by people - not through a recycling program
In the 1830's, why did NYC seek to get its water from north of the city?
Water from wells in the city was contaminated by human/industrial waste, animal carcasses, disease
In a coal-fired power plant
Water is turned into steam, which in turn drives turbine generators to produce electricity
What are the three basic steps in the water cycle?
Water precipitates from the atmosphere, travels on the surface and through groundwater to the oceans, and evaporates or transpires back to the atmosphere from land or evaporates from the oceans
How did lead get into the water supply in Flint, Michigan?
Widespread use of lead pipes
Sustainability (sustainable development)
development which meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" - UN 1987
Renewable energy
energy from a source that is not depleted when used / energy is from an energy resource that is replaced rapidly by a natural process such as power generated from the sun or from the wind
Sanitary landfill
ground facility used to hold MSW with as little contamination of the surrounding environment as possible Clay or plastic lining at bottom to prevent leakage Pipes installed below liner to collect leakage Try to keep water out Site away from people (there are many environmental injustices) Site away from other sensitive areas like aquifers, streams, wetlands Cap when full
How do pollutants get into the water?
industry waste CSOs septic systems agricultural runoff leaking landfills golf courses and suburban lawns illegal dumping parking lot runoff
Mercury
pollutant from coal-fired power plants + incinerators neurotoxin When mercury falls on land, it is absorbed by soil and by fallen leaves that are consumed by worms and insects. Songbirds then feed on the bugs, absorbing the mercury; the mercury interferes with reproduction.
Evapotranspiration
• Plant roots absorb rain water and return some of it locally to the atmosphere through transpiration. • Another portion of this absorbed water is slowly released to the aquifer or reservoir..... • It is first purified by the soil microbes and plant roots in the forested watershed
What is a forest's role in the water cycle?
• Transpiration (release of moisture from within the leaf to the atmosphere - evaporation and diffusion are involved in transpiration) • Leaves provide a surface on which water can collect and then drip to the ground (interception) • Roots enhance water storage capacity of soil and prevent flooding and erosion
