ENVR 230: Exam Questions Based off Class Schedule

A. What are the major differences between "classic" smog (e.g. London) and photochemical smog (e.g. Los Angeles) in terms of...

"Classic" smog (Donora, London) Photochemical smog (L.A.)

B. Cause (where, why and when they occur)

"Classic" smog: Comes from particulate matter (soot, smoke from coal emissions, biogenic/natural sources) PC smog: Comes from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines of cars, trucks, buses, planes, etc.

The creek that runs past your house is on fire. Who are you going to call? (Think immediate response and also how to prevent similar occurrences in the future).

- CERCLA (Superfund) - handles hazardous waste and oil spills - National Response Center - part of EPA that deals with emergencies and other immediate public health threats related to environmental hazards

B. Describe each agency briefly.

- FAO: branched under the UN, founded so that no one goes hungry, has no regulatory power, has two main goals of a sanitary food supply (food/water additives, contaminants) and to stop hunger worldwide - FDA: no direct regulatory powers, sets standards and other governmental agencies enforce these standards; created after the Civil War caused food supply anxiety; Delaney Clause: no food additive shall be deemed safe if it is found to have caused cancer in men or animals - NCDHHS: oversees food production in the state of North Carolina, works to reduce foodborne illness and monitors county-level health departments' sanitation inspections - Orange County's Environmental Health Division: inspections of food establishments, pools, schools, beaches if applicable

F. What are the major item(s) of environmental legislation that it is charged with administering? (List and describe briefly)

- Health and safety regulations Permissible Exposure Limits for chemical agents and pathogens (esp airborne ones) - General Duty Clause of OSH act - must keep workplace free of serious recognized hazards when no specific standard applies

What was Roger Road?

- It was a notorious case of environmental racism here in NC. - As population expanded, chose to place a landfill near a historically black community. Lots of contamination of their land and water, and the landfill just kept expanding, they had to fight super hard to get it shut down. - To satisfy the community, they promised to provide them with municipal rights like municipal water systems, trash collection, sidewalks, etc. - They also promised to build a community center and to not expand the landfill past the initial size. - However, none of these promises were kept. These promises were made in 1972 and the community center was finally built in 2014. - This was only after a big push by the community calling out Chapel Hill on blatant environmental racism.

B. What are their roles and missions ?

- OSHA: through US Dept. of Labor. Mission → Assure safe and healthy working conditions by setting and enforcing standards and providing training - NIOSH: through CDC. Mission → Conduct research to improve worker safety, identify hazards, develop interventions, exposures, chemicals, emergency prep, diseases & injuries, safety and prevention

A. What is/are the major agency/ies involved with worker health in the USA ?

- Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

B. Suggest three ways that the island might mitigate these problems?

- Rain catching - desalination - water treatment plants - importation of water - set up a government to bring in and distribute clean water - Tax/tariff foreign cruise lines/airlines to aid in the funding of water infrastructure.

A. What are the major practical problems that this island faces?

- Where to get drinking/agricultural water - what to do with used/contaminated water - how to develop an infrastructure that will aid in transporting/reaching non-contaminated, drinkable water.

Ground-level ozone (O3)

- three atoms of oxygen. - found both in the Earth's upper atmosphere and ground level. - Ground level or "bad" ozone is not emitted directly into the air, it is created by chemical reactions NOx + VOCs + Sunlight = O3 + airborne particles. - Industrial activities, electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors and chemical solvents are major sources of VOCs and nitrogen oxides. - Breathing in these chemicals can lead to a variety of health problems, particularly in vulnerable populations and individuals with respiratory diseases.

A. Describe some of the chemicals that we are exposed to every day (in e.g. food, water, household products).

-Lead, which we are exposed to through water, paint, etc. (as in Flint, MI). Mercury, Asbestos, Dioxins, Arsenic -through air: toxic air pollution from coal fired power plants, ground-level ozone

How do we know that average blood lead levels have decreased in the USA since the 1970s?

1. De-leaded gasoline, average blood levels have decreased in the US 2. Graph describing Weshler scale performance vs. average lifetime blood lead level, no major symptoms, but impact on intellectual functioning, neural deficit 3. CDC issues the National Exposure Report, which reports on blood lead levels. We have seen a consistent trend of decreasing blood lead levels. 4. NHANES data of sample population's blood and urine samples show decreased levels when compared to the past.

A. Name and briefly describe two major smog episodes that stimulated action to control air pollution. Where, why and when they occur?

1. Donora, 1948 - industrial town located in valley, air settles and gets trapped - poisonous gases (nitrogen dioxide) released by a steel company accumulated and led to 20 deaths 2. London, 1952 - Big city, in winter burned coal for warmth - Cold weather (and no wind) trapped pollutants above town

G. Approximately how many deaths are associated with the disaster that you named in F?

1. Hard to estimate because there was incredibly poor record keeping in the USSR, but very high 2. Conservative estimates put death toll anywhere from 10,000-200,000. Analysis of medical records from the year of the accident to 2004 calculated 985,000 premature deaths as a result of exposure to radioactive material.

(A) List and briefly describe the six Criteria Pollutants regulated by EPA under the Clean Air Act.

1. Ozone 2. Carbon Monoxide 3. Sulfur dioxide 4. Nitrogen dioxide 5. Lead 6. Particulate Matter O3COSOxNOxPbPM

A. List and describe three (3) major global agencies involved with maintaining environmental health. What are their missions, what are their roles ?

1. United Nations (UN): purpose is to maintain international peace and good relations between member countries. Umbrella organization for FAO and UNEP; no regulatory power only can give recommendations, but has Millennium Development Goals (combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, other diseases) Mission: achieve world peace after the horrors of two world wars 2. World Health Organization (WHO): to direct and coordinate international health within the UN system. Facilitates international cooperation to reach health goals, has a treasure trove of data (but only as accurate as the collecting country), humanitarian and medical aid 3. World Bank: aids in infrastructure development which improves environmental health Mission: end extreme poverty worldwide

A. How do the major causes of mortality reported for the present times in the USA differ from those observed a century or more ago (1800s) ?

1800s: infectious disease caused by poor sanitation and crowding in big cities Present day: Cancer, kidney/heart disease, other chronic disease

E. When was it founded and what are its historical antecedents?

1971 - labor unions technically, no laws predating OSHA. Alice Hamilton (late 1800s, after moving into the Hull House) advocated for legislation to protect health and safety in the workplace

A. What were the major environmental problems at Love Canal?

A. After the failure of the William T. Love's Canal project, Mr. Love was forced to sell the property owned by his corporation, which included a partially dug section of the canal in the southwest corner of the city of Niagara falls. By the 1920s, the excavation was turned into a chemical and municipal disposal site for a number of chemical companies and the City of Niagara Falls. Benzene, toluene, chloroform, among other chemicals were dumped in this site for 30 years up until 1953. After 1953, the Hooker Chemical Company, then owners and operators of the property, covered the canal with earth and sold it to the city for one dollar. In the late 50s, schools and homes were built at the site and the chemicals underground were practically a ticking time bomb. Heavy rainfall in 1978 led to chemicals leaching from the ground and causing trees and plants to die, bad-smelling air, and human health effects including respiratory problems, birth defects, miscarriages, and cancer.

Water is essential to food production. How could concepts such as aquaponics and virtual water help us develop strategies to optimize our food supply while minimizing water use?

A. Aquaponics is the combination of aquaculture (raising fish) and hydroponics (soil-less growing of plants) that grows fish and plants in one integrated system. The fish waste provides an organic fertilizer for growing plants and the plants provide a natural filter for the water in which the fish live. Microbes and composting worms that thrive in growing media convert the fish waste into compost for the plants. They are self-contained systems that don't need new water into the system, utilized wastes and optimizes our food supply. B. Virtual Water: water used to create a good or service. Understanding the virtual water that goes into a product will help us make decisions about what foods are "water-friendly" if you will. It opens the door to better and more productive water usage. This conservation of water aids in ensuring enough of the valuable resource for agriculture. Makes us more aware of which foods/products use the most water, so we can limit use of those and develop strategies to decrease water use in their production

What do you consider to be the major current health-related problem associated with food? Describe, rationalize, and suggest possible remedies.

A. Food Deserts: an area that lacks healthy and affordable food options due to unavailability or inability to travel to grocery stores, farmer's markets or other places that offer fresh and nutrient rich food. B. Typically, communities affected are impoverished areas or those in low-income tract. C. 82% of the population living in food deserts actually lives in urban areas. D. Wealthy tracts contained up to three times as many grocery stores than poor ones and food deserts are more commonly found in communities of color. E. Food deserts are sustained due to a lack of transportation available to many members of a community. F. Food desert = the nearest community grocery store has to be more than 1 mile in urban areas and more than 10 miles in rural areas. G. 2.1 million households do not own a vehicle and live more than one mile from the nearest grocery store. People then go to consume the closest and most convenient food ... fast food and convenience stores like CVS. The food offered in these places is extremely high in fat, sugar and salt and there is little variety of healthy options at these stores. H. Chronic conditions such as obesity, hypertension, type-2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and cardiovascular disease are more prevalent in these areas I. It will take a lot of thoughtful policy and direct interventions to combat the issue of food deserts. It will take more than reintroducing healthy food into a community; peoples' behaviors must be changed and education is a key component of this. Some policy interventions include giving tax breaks to companies that open in food deserts, encouraging elected officials to amplify the work done in their local communities, and educational opportunities to promote healthy food behaviors.

Suggest some ways that our current food supply could be stretched and made more sustainable to feed the additional 2 billion guests on this planet who are projected to need dinners by 2050.

A. There are many organizations around the world set on solving this crisis and preparing for the massive population increases the world is expected to see within the next 3-4 decades. These include the FAO and World Food Programme of the UN, the WTO's Agricultural Committee, and the US Agency for International Development. Having these organizations work together to find solutions for the world's food supply will be vital for the world population. B. GMO crops are controversial, but they could help in this effort. Some benefits include directly increasing yields of crops, improving resistance to fungal infections, and micronutrient enrichment. C. Changing people's diets and lowering the dependence on animal products to meet nutritional requirements is another way to conserve our food supply. D. Finally, a theoretical solution to food insecurity is food sovereignty, or the concept that local people should control the production, storage, processing, and distribution of their food rather than foreign third parties. E. In conclusion, GMOs, reducing animal products, growing crops locally, not monocropping, urban gardening, more greenhouses, education on how to prevent nutrient depletion in soil, crop rotation, etc. Eat less meat, be more portion conscious, cut back on food waste.

A. What were the major causes of death in an urban area such as London in the 1600's ?

Accidents, infectious disease (TB, plague, smallpox), dental issues, worms. John Graunt would list symptoms as reasons for death bc he didn't actually know the real reason for mortality

D. What are the biggest health problems in the workplace today ?

Accidents/falls

B. Recent incidents have stimulated calls for a single Agency in charge of national food safety. What are some of the advantages, what are some of the disadvantages of such an approach? (think Homeland Security).

Adv- streamline food regulation Disadv- blanket agency may not be good for needs of individual states

C. What are the major items of environmental law that the US EPA is charged with administering (list and describe briefly, focusing on those that we have covered in class)

Air 1. Air Pollution Control Act 1955: Provides federal funds for researching techniques and controlling and monitoring air pollution, first legislature passed regarding air pollution control 2. Clean Air Act 1970: Federal and state regulations on emissions, mobile and stationary sources; provide public health protection as well as public welfare protections (visibility, damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and buildings) Water 3. Clean Water Act: Limit the amount of waste (chemical and biological) that can be discharged into water; does not cover drinking water 4. Safe Drinking Water Act: Covers drinking waters; does not cover sources that service less than 5 households; EPA creates standards on contaminants in water supplies 5. BEACH Act (Beach Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health Act): Monitors coastal recreation water Hazardous Wastes 6. CERCLA/Superfund Act: clean up hazardous waste sites 7. RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act: Regulates disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous waste

C. Under what circumstances might we see in the USA a return to 19th century patterns of mortality ?

Antibiotic resistance, failure of sewage system/water processing plants, decreased vaccination usage, civil war or invasion

How might environmental pollution cause childhood asthma? Is asthma in adults different?

Asthma: Chronic respiratory condition caused by genetic and environmental factors that cause rapid swelling and closure of airway in response...even if not having an attack, airways are more constricted Significant exposure in first 6 years of life increases risk of asthma and causes prenatal effects smoking/second hand smoke, exhaust fumes/pollution, chemicals in farming and factories Urban areas like LA have alot of pollution, leads to obesity in some cases Many cases of adult-onset asthma are triggered by allergies. Allergens are substances that can cause an immune reaction in people who are sensitive to them. The American Lung Association also states that secondhand smoke is particularly dangerous for children. An estimated 400,000 to 1 million children with asthma have their condition worsened by secondhand smoke.

B. Would they be handled any differently (better?) under the current CERCLA and Superfund legislation?

B. Under the current Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), or Superfund, I believe this event would have been handled much better. This legislation provides a federal funding source to clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous-waste sites. The EPA is also given the power to seek out those parties responsible for the accident/spill and assure their cooperation in the cleanup. If the Superfund had already been in existence, the chemicals would not have been dumped in the same manner, the land would have not been sold and developments would not have been made until the site was cleaned up. Finally, the heavy rainfall would then not have caused this massive environmental disaster in the first place.

C. What public/environmental health measures have been taken to prevent this disease from being the major killer that it was centuries ago ?

Better sanitation practices, less overcrowding in cities, better pest control (rats/fleas) done by public health departments or independent contractors

D. What evidence do we have that the measures described in (C) have been successful ?

Blood lead levels are decreasing in younger generations.

D. Under what circumstances might the plague return as a major health threat ?

Buildup of antibiotic resistance, breakdown of infrastructure

D. Demonstrated/demonstrable human health effects

C smog: Health effects are more intermediate than photochemical smog PC smog: High ozone levels lead to damage to lung tissue and decreased immune function, nitrogen oxides and VOCs can lead to chronic lung damage General health effects of smog:Cardiovascular Disease, Asthma, Lung Function and Development, Low birth weight, Lung Cancer, Premature mortality

C. Chemical constituents

C smog: Made up of sulfur oxides; water vapor condensing on soot nuclei from burning coal PC smog: Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react with sunlight to form this brown photochemical smog, leaving airborne particles and ground-level ozone

11/1-11/3 Love Canal and Superfund: Hazardous waste, waste disposal

CERCLA and the Superfund after Love Canal Incident

Carbon monoxide (CO)

CO is a colorless, odorless gas that can be harmful when inhaled in large amounts. CO is released when something is burned and sources include cars, trucks, other machinery that burns fossil fuels, kerosene, gas space heaters, leaking chimneys and furnaces, and gas stoves.

What is the major legislation that governs water quality in the USA?

CWA and SDWA

(B) Which Federal agency oversees this Report

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

10/13 Chemical pollution

Chemicals and Ischemia, and the major chemicals in air, soil and water

F. What is the most deadly environmental disaster (that) was covered in class?

Chernobyl (1986) Ukraine i. The worst nuclear power plant accidents in history in terms of costs and casualties. One of the reactors at the Chernobyl power plant exploded, resulting in a nuclear meltdown that sent massive amounts of radiation into the atmosphere; even more than the fallout form Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since then, thousands of children have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer.

A. Why do these chemicals have a bad reputation - what health hazards are they associated with?

Chlorinated organic compounds like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin (TCDD) are common contaminants at hazardous waste sites and have a number of health hazards associated with them. Dioxins suppress T-cells and weaken immune and lymphatic function as well as nervous, endocrine, and reproductive systems. They can also lead to chlorache and altered liver function, and have been linked to a number of cancers. PCBs are very stable and explain why they persist in the environment. They burn at high temperatures and produce dangerous by-products such as dioxins. PCBs aren't soluble in water, but they are in fat and similar nonpolar substances, which explains why PCBs can build up in animal fat and move along the food chain. PCBs lead to chloracne and related dermal lesions as well as respiratory problems.

D. What measures have since then been taken to improve air quality in the USA ?

Clean Air Act 1963 (with amendments in following years), air pollution levels monitored by EPA

E. Specific measures that have been taken to prevent their occurrence (relate these to the sources of the relevant chemical constituents?

Clean Air Act of 1970: federal and state regulations on emissions, mobile and stationary sources EPA established a year later to implement CAA

CWA

Clean Water Act (1972) i. Establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the US and regulating quality standards for surface water. Wastewater standards for industry, implemented pollution control programs. Made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant form a point source into navigable waters without a permit. (Fishable, swimmable) ii. Regulates activities that happen near bodies of water, sets chemical standards

11/15 Energy, Waste

Conventional and "alternative" energy sources What happens to our waste? Alternatives to conventional waste disposal Impact of energy on air quality

10/25-10/27 Water: Health effects and legislation

Cuyahoga and the EPA on Water, CWA, SDWA, Drinking Water Contaminants, BEACH Act, Water Footprint, Virtual Water

C. What measures have been taken in the USA to limit human exposure to lead ?

De-leaded gasoline. Regulating levels of lead of products produced in/imported to the US? Replacing old water pipes? Testing for water? Reduction of use of lead based paints, pipes, etc.

B. Of these, which one do you think poses the greatest threat to health (explain your choice) ?

Dioxins because they can bioaccumulate in things we eat (meat, dairy,fish), also can pollute water, soil, and air.... and can come from natural disasters like volcanic eruptions and forest fires which we can't control, it is also involved in a lot of industrial processes → can suppress T-cells and immune system and lymphoid systems

(B) What are the major human adverse health effects attributed to dioxin (name and describe briefly)?

Dioxins can cause chloracne, blurred vision, skin lesions and nausea in the short term. They are highly toxic and can cause reproductive and developmental problems, damage to the immune system, interfere with hormone balance and is a known carcinogen.

C. Is there currently any regulatory authority (in the USA) that can control/limit exposure to this chemical?

EPA regulates dioxins with clean air act, safe drinking water act, and toxic substances control act to monitor proper waste incineration, levels in the food chain, and limiting processes that give off dioxins

A. How would you go about selecting a site for a landfill intended to contain hazardous waste?

Ensure that the landfill is built on top of the ground to isolate trash from surrounding environments. It must be geologically stable, not on high ground or upstream of any major water supply. Must be away from population centers and from watersheds. There can't be a lot of public opposition and it can't be built on a sacred or historical site.

8/23: Introduction to Environmental Health

Environmental Health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are determined by interactions with physical, chemical, biological and social factors in the environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling and preventing those factors in the environment that may adversely affect the health of present and future generations. Environmental Scientists and Specialists Job Description: Conduct research or perform investigations for the purpose of identifying, abating or eliminating sources of pollutants or hazards that affect either the environment or the health of the population. Utilizing knowledge of various scientific disciplines may collect, synthesize, study, report, and take action based on data derived from measurements or observations of air, food, soil, water and other sources

C. Describe an example of the sort of health problem found in the workplace in the past.

Exposure to harmful industrial chemicals like asbestos or painting with radium (radium girls)

C. For each of the three global agencies that you have listed under A, name and briefly describe an US (American) counterpart.

FAO: Food and Drug Administration (also USDA) UNEP: EPA WHO: CDC (under DHHS, prevention of disease) World Bank: no real American counterpart, USPHS?

A. What are the major federal agencies involved with food safety? (list, describe briefly)

FSIS (under USDA) - responsible for ensuring that the nation's commercial supply of meat, poultry, and egg products is safe, wholesome, and correctly labeled and packaged. FDA - charged with protecting consumers against impure, unsafe, and fraudulently labeled products CDC - gather data on foodborne illnesses, investigate foodborne illnesses and outbreaks, and monitor the effectiveness of prevention and control efforts in reducing foodborne illnesses

11/22 Food

Food security, microbial food quality (food poisoning), Chemical food quality (food additives), and food deserts

B. To what causes do you attribute any changes in mortality patterns ?

Germ theory becoming accepted, increased sanitation, antibiotics and vaccines, better knowledge about how disease is spread, more regulation and better diagnoses

D. What public/environmental health measure(s) would you suggest to change the current pattern (remember, it's a zero-sum game- we all have to die from some cause).

Healthier lifestyles; eating better, exercising more often, preventative care focus rather than reactionary care of healthcare providers. Reduction in exposure to carcinogens through treatment of water supply, ambient air and other environmental exposure pathways

B. What human health effects might be expected?

High ground-level ozone levels lead to damage to lung tissue and decreased immune function, nitrogen oxides and VOCs can lead to chronic lung damage. Smog in general can lead to cardiovascular disease, asthma, lung function and development issues, low birth weight, lung cancer, and other forms of premature death.

Lead (Pb):

In the US, the major sources of lead in the air are ore and metal processing and piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation fuel. Combustion of gasoline being emitted into the air. Air concentrations of lead are highest around lead smelters. As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts, including the removal of lead form motor vehicle gasoline, levels of lead in the air decreased by 98% from 1980 to 2014. Intellectual potential is linked to blood lead concentrations (not causal but there is an association.

C. How would/should waste containing these compounds be handled (and no, "very carefully" is not a complete and acceptable answer)?

Incineration and deep well injection are two methods of disposal that have been employed, but both have their own inherent weaknesses when applied to highly chlorinated wastes (cost and corrosive byproducts). A continuous process based on decomposition of wastes into gaseous byproducts by high temperature reactions with air and steam is an effective method that is cheaper and more permanent than most conventional methods. The exit gases can be scrubbed with water, eliminating atmospheric pollution

8/25-9/1: The Major Players in Environmental Health

International: UN (UNEP, FAO), WHO, World Bank National: FDA, EPA, USPHS, CDC, NIH: NIEHS, USDA, US Consumer Product Safety Commission (USCPSC), National Environmental Health Association (NEHA) State/Local: NC DHHS: Environmental Health Section, NC Department of Environmental Quality, Orange County Environmental Health Division, Non-Government: Sierra Club

B. How do we know this information on causes of death?

John Graunt wrote them down in Observations of the Bills of Mortality in 1662. He is thought of as the father of biostatistics. The Church kept vital records of births and deaths, including causes of death.

9/6: The Beginnings of Public Health: Fighting Disease

John Graunt, Edwin Chadwick, John Snow

(C) How is the data in the National Exposure Report generated ?

Measuring chemicals in people's blood and urine, also called biomonitoring.

C. What are the major similarities and differences between the roles of these agencies? Where do they overlap?

Most of these agencies only have the power to educate/persuade, pull together reports and recommendations rather than real regulatory or enforcement power. Funding sources are different (international/private charities for FAO vs. federal/state/local funding). Scope: reducing worldwide hunger vs. small-scale local restaurant inspections

B. What are the major sources of human exposure to lead (include both past and present) ?

Mostly through old buildings because of water pipes leaching and paint. Pipes (Flint MI), preservatives/sweetener, paint, pottery glaze, glass, lead batteries, bullets, solder, make-up...

9/15: Chemical exposures: organic chemicals

National Exposure Report

A. What are the major health hazards associated with human exposure to lead ?

Neurotoxin- interferes with the release of neurotransmitters, synapse formation, integrity of the myelin sheath (nerve damage), amnesia, kidney damage, gout, possible carcinogen

C. Why was this disease a major public health threat in the West in the 19th Century?

Overcrowding, bad sanitation, absence of disease control. Lack of efficient sewage systems. People were drinking their own waste pretty much

D. Were the same health concerns present in London in the 1800s ? What were the major changes ?

Plague was no longer a concern. Health concerns were affected by the Industrial Revolution and movement toward urban areas. Cholera, TB, diphtheria, typhoid fever- all diseases linked to unsanitary conditions (i.e. sewage system and high concentrations of people in one place).

9/8: The Plagues of Today

Plague, Cholera, Typhoid Fever

A. Why was the Plague such a public health problem several centuries ago ?

Poor sanitation/overcrowding, link to rat/flea vector not yet known, no antibiotics at the time which led to it spreading quickly

12/3 Local issues: Where are we now?

Powerpoint

11/29-12/1 Environmental Justice

Powerpoint and 4 Instances of Environmental Injustice

11/8 Energy

Powerpoint: Petroleum, Natural Gas, Coal, Nuclear Energy and Renewables

C. Why is this information useful for Public Health ?

Provides a control to measure against public health today. Allows us to track changes in causes of death and measure progress/advances made in the field.

D. What major changes were made to reduce this health threat in Westernized (developed) countries? What are the major public health steps that were undertaken that actually did help control the spread of cholera ?

Pump shutdown. Much-improved sewage infrastructure was put in place, acceptance of mechanism of disease

10/4: Occupational Hazards

Radium girls, hull house, occupational protections

(D) How is the data in the National Exposure Report made available to the public ?

Releasing this report that is available to the public in 2 year cycles

C. What human health effects were observed ?

Respiratory tract infections, lung infections like pneumonia and bronchitis

A. Describe briefly the institution and purpose of Quarantine ?

Restricts the movement of people who were exposed to a contagious disease to see if they become safe. Right of the state to take action affecting individuals for the benefit of society

SDWA

Safe Drinking Water Act (1974) i. Ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water. ii. Authorized the EPA to set national standards for drinking water to protect against health effects from exposure to contaminants iii. Only apply to public water systems, not individual private wells iv. Works with states, localities, and water suppliers to carry out these standards.

Air Pollution: Beijing under Red Alert

Schools and construction sites have been closed and vehicle traffic severely restricted in Beijing in an attempt to control air pollution (smog and reduced visibility, photo right).

(A) What is the National Exposure Report ?

Series of ongoing assessments of the U.S. population's exposure to environmental chemicals

B. Name and briefly describe a past environmental disaster that these compounds (some or all of them) have been associated with.

Seveso, Italy Disaster: a substantial amount of carcinogenic dioxin TCDD was released into the atmosphere. This was caused by the release of an emergency pressure valve at a chemical plant that released 6 tons of chemicals into the atmosphere. i. At first, symptoms were not noticed until several days after the initial exposure. But eventually, affected individuals exhibited nausea, blurred vision, skin lesions and severe chloracne. Studies confirmed the carcinogenicity of the dioxin and found supporting evidence for its association with different cardiovascular and endocrine diseases related to the Seveso disaster.

10/6 Notorious Accidents

Seveso, Times Beach, Bhopal, Chernobyl

9/27-9/29: Air Pollution: health effects and legislation

Smog Student presentations: air pollution and asthma, air pollution and cancer, the world's worst air

B. How is this agent transmitted ?

Spread by water contaminated by feces of a sick person or animal

9/13: Environmental infectious disease

Student Presentations: vector and water-borne disease

9/22: Chemical hazards

Student presentations: Air-bourne diseases, dioxins, arsenic, abestos

B. What chemical constituents were specifically identified as contributing to those smogs ?

Sulfur dioxide

E. To which major environmental disaster(s) was methylisocyanate (MIC) a major contributor?

The Bhopal Disaster (1984) i. One of the worst industrial disasters in history. Took approximately 15,000-20,000 lives immediately following a methyl isocyanate (C2H3NO) gas leak from Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL). Citizens of Bhopal still suffer from chronic diseases such as respiratory, reproductive, endocrine, neurological and mental disorders.

B. Where do the roles of these agencies overlap ?

The WHO and the World Bank are linked to the UN through cooperative agreements. They all work to eliminate broad threats to humanity and educate rather than enforce.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

The major source of SO2 originates from the combustion of fossil fuels by power plants and industrial facilities. Smaller sources include extraction of metal from ore, volcanoes and other natural sources, locomotives, ships and other vehicles that carry equipment that burn sulfur-containing fuels. Exposure to SO2 can lead to health problems related to respiratory issues. Vulnerable populations such as children or the elderly, or individuals with asthma are particularly at risk for these types of health issues.

D. What (if any) have been the positive consequences of the EPA's actions (or, if you prefer, what bad things are we no longer seeing in the environment thanks to the EPA)?

The phase down of lead in gasoline began in 1974 when, under the authority of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) introduced rules requiring the use of unleaded gasoline in new cars equipped with catalytic converters. This lead to the decrease of blood lead levels since the introduction of this regulation, impacting human health positively for generations. By the early 1980s gasoline lead levels had declined about 80% as a result of the regulations.

Question 9: Chlorinated compounds

The presence of chlorinated organic compounds such as PCBs and dioxin (TCDD) in waste or spilled or released material generally raises the level of concern over dealing with that material

G. What (if any) have been the positive consequences of this agency's actions (or, if you prefer, what bad things are we no longer seeing in the workplace thanks to this Agency)?

Their performance standards are very well thought out and successfully protect workers' safety. These include standards for confined spaces, bloodborne pathogens, respiratory protection, fall protection, trenching and scaffolding standards.

Uses for water

There are numerous ways water is used throughout the world. The uses of water include... - drinking - washing and cleaning - preparing/cooking food - providing hydroelectric power - irrigation and agriculture - construction - fighting building and forest fires - recreation. - Medical procedures and chemical reactions require water, and all living organisms need water to survive.

Are pesticides currently being used safely in the USA?

There have been some advances in the control of pesticide usage, but there's some plausible evidence that the reason all the bees are dying is b/c of pesticides/insecticides in the neonicotinoid family WE USE ROUND UP (glyphosphate) YO - it uses a pathway that animals / humans don't have and eliminates the production of epsp enzymes ( in plants) !!! ^^^Why are epsp enzymes important to our health. - we dont have them they are just in plants And follow up, if they use a pathway that humans don't have, then that's a good thing right? Yes - thats the point But overuse of Round Up has caused the emergence of Roundup-resistant weeds, so people have to turn to harsher herbicides which do have negative effects on humans/animals. I think although we aren't spraying DDT all over the place, the main issue here is overuse of herbicides/pesticides on a large scale, leading to crazy resistant strains of insects and plants.

Cb. Describe briefly the incident chiefly associated with stopping the spread of cholera in London.

There was an outbreak of cholera on Broad Street. John Snow linked the outbreak to contaminated water and identified the source as a public water pump (identified the source by mapping out the cases of cholera and realizing that they were all grouped around the Broad St. Pump)

H. What was the least deadly environmental disaster (that) was covered in class?

Three Mile Island i. No deaths that could be confirmed to be directly caused by the accident. ii. American Nuclear Society determined that the radiation exposure was equal to that of a chest ray; no increase in cancer in surrounding areas.

A. How did the US Environmental Protection Agency come to be founded?

To enforce the Clean Air Act and to research air quality/pollution in order to figure out what standards should be set and monitored (b/c the Clean Air Act said there should be standards, just didn't say what)

B. What is its mission?

To protect human health and the environment -- air, water, and land.

What is its route of transmission?

Transmitted by the Aedes aegypti mosquito from pregnant women to fetus, also sexually transmitted

B. What public health threat was attributed to Typhoid Mary? How was Quarantine used to mitigate that threat?

Typhoid Mary was an asymptomatic carrier of typhoid who spread the disease to people because she was a cook. She was taken to an isolated island in New York for the benefit of society. She lived there for a few years, fought the system and was freed under the promise never to cook again, was later found using a pseudonym of "Ms. Brown" cooking for a family and was returned to the island where she stayed for 23 years. Quarantine was used to mitigate the threat of her spreading the disease to other people for the benefit of society as a whole.

A. What is the agent that causes the disease "cholera" ?

Vibrio cholerae

11/10 Water

Water supply - Cochabamba, water sanitation, innovative water-treatment, and soil-borne diseases

The island of Verdana is short of water - it's a small island, no snow covered mountains, no glaciers, no rivers, no natural lakes, little rainfall, yet with a vigorous human community including tourists to support.

Water supply question

a. What are the major sources of renewable energy being considered at present?

Wind, hydroelectric power, solar, wave and tidal.

E. Is cholera still a problem elsewhere in the world (describe)?

Yes, in Haiti specifically after a devastating earthquake in 2010. Introduced by UN peacekeeping camp. Cholera wasn't a problem before 2010, but now it is endemic in the country with thousands of cases per year

B. Is this disease still found today ? Where, and under what circumstances ?

Yes, most cases are found in Africa. Largest number of infected animals in US/former USSR, leading to animal bites. No person to person transfer since 1924.

C. Is Quarantine still used in the present day ? What health problems might it be used against, and which agency/ies would be involved?

Yes. One example is with health workers returning to the U.S. from countries hit with Ebola. CDC has quarantine authority for a number of diseases including cholera, TB, plague, smallpox, etc. Local governments may also enforce quarantine in some situations

Name one environmentally transmitted disease that you consider to be a major contemporary health threat.

Zika

(B) Which of these criteria pollutants are emitted mainly by automobiles? Which industry(ies) is/are primarily responsible for those that are not emitted mainly by automobiles?

a. Automobiles: O3, CO, NOx b. Industries: O3, PM, lead, SOx • The industries primarily responsible for these types of pollutants include electric utilities, extraction of metal ore, lead-acid battery manufacturers, power plants, and among other industries.

A. Would you expect to see smog in Chapel Hill?

a. Chapel Hill is currently experiencing smog from wildfires/forest fires in Western NC and Tennessee. b. Particulate Matter from hog farms c. Otherwise, it is not that common because it is neither an industrial center nor a massive urban area like LA.

b. What are the major controversies and/or uncertainties surrounding these sources of renewable energy?

a. Costs of implementation and time it will take to produce an effective grid. b. Necessary developments to improve energy storage infrastructure when it's not windy or sunny c. What they look like (not aesthetically pleasing) and the amount of land they take d. Those who work for traditional energy production companies (oil, natural gas, coal) will be out of a job if there is a complete switch. Jobs in renewable energy sector require higher-level education (college or higher), while workers in the oil and coal industry may not require this level of training. e. Windmills kill about 500,000 birds annually. f. Traditional energy sources are entrenched in our economy and our daily lives, it will be hard to make the switch. Oil is needed for our cars, coal and natural gas used for power, etc.

c. What measures would you suggest to resolve these controversies and uncertainties? (Be specific - "more research is needed" is much too broad and obvious...)

a. Education about why renewables are important, the effects of climate change, stopping the spread of misinformation and the ideology of climate deniers b. Giving businesses, industry, and homeowners incentives to implement clean technologies through tax breaks. A carbon tax to incentivize industries to rethink carbon emissions and how renewable energy can benefit them c. Advocating these energy sources through grassroots organizations to get local officials and local government on their side. Producing reliable research on the environmental and economic benefits of switching to clean energy.

B. How would you deal with community opinion?

a. Explain the necessity of a landfill and the benefits of it b. Pass legislation and enforce strict limits on the landfill to ensure that it is following protocol and keeping the surrounding community safe c. Promise and follow through with additional benefits to help make sure the community is supporting the move. (Community center, municipal benefits)

A. Is the smog more similar to "classic" smog (e.g. Donora, London) or to photochemical smog (e.g. Los Angeles) with respect to causes, chemical constituents, and seasonal occurrence?

a. More like photochemical smog found in LA. It is caused largely by automobile emissions and industrial fumes in hot/dry climates like Beijing b. Chemical constituents: PM2.5 Particulate matter, harmful microscopic particles that penetrate deep into the lungs, ordered factories to reduce or suspend production. Nitrogen oxides and VOCs react with sunlight to form brown photochemical smog, leaving airborne particles and ground-level ozone c. Seasonal occurrence: summer days are hotter and longer, more time to have exposure to the sun and produce these photochemical reactions

(A) To which major environmental disasters was dioxin/TCDD a major contributor?

a. Seveso, Italy Disaster: a substantial amount of carcinogenic dioxin TCDD (6 tons of chemicals) was released into the atmosphere caused by the release of an emergency pressure valve at a chemical plant. b. Times Beach, Missouri Disaster: NEPACCO rented out a manufacturing facility to refine antibacterial agents and produce hexachlorophene. The company produced dust suppressant that contaminated soil with the dioxin TCDD

(C) To what extent were the health effects actually observed after the disasters named in A consistent with exposure to TCDD?

a. Seveso: At first, symptoms were not noticed until several days after the initial exposure. But eventually, affected individuals exhibited nausea, blurred vision, skin lesions and severe chloracne. Studies confirmed the carcinogenicity of the dioxin and found supporting evidence for its association with different cardiovascular and endocrine diseases related to the Seveso disaster. b. Times Beach: Not many adverse affects actually reported. Despite push back from the EPA, the CDC eventually convinced most people to evacuate, avoiding most major long-term health effects. Some reported birth defects, but no evidence of TCDD-related cancer diagnoses.

B. How could that role be mitigated?

a. Some strategies to mitigate this role include protecting portals of entry. Some examples of this include putting up bed nets to prevent the transmission of malaria or wearing long pants and sleeves and using insect repellent to reduce the risk of Lyme disease or West Nile virus. This includes education techniques to inform the public on the benefits of these interventions and the detriments of certain vectors and reservoirs. b. Rodent population monitoring, use of pesticides and vaccination.

A. Outline two ways that animals can play a role in human disease.

a. Vectors: most prevalent and dangerous group of vectors are mosquitoes because they are responsible for transmitting a number of prevalent diseases like West Nile virus, dengue, malaria, yellow fever, chikungunya, and Zika to name a few. They carry pathogens in their salivary glands so when the mouthpart is inserted underneath the skin of a human host, the pathogen is directly inserted into the bloodstream. Other vectors include ticks, ants, flies and fleas. b. Reservoirs: these are long-term hosts of a pathogen of an infectious disease. It is the habitat in which the agent normally lives, grows, and multiplies and it may or may not be the source from which an agent is transferred to a host. Oftentimes, the hosts do not get the disease carried by the pathogen. For example, rats are reservoirs for the plague while fleas are the vectors. Bonus: Hog Farms

B. Why (or why not), and under what circumstances?

a. You wouldn't normally expect to see smog in Chapel Hill because of the reasons above. b. Carried in by winds blowing from the western part of the state. People with sensitive lungs were advised to stay indoors. c. NC wildfires: primary pollutant is PM, but also carbon monoxide, VOCs and ozone. Causes respiratory irritation and is harmful to everyone, but especially susceptible populations such as the elderly and those with asthma.

Air Pollution and Asthma

chronic respiratory condition caused by genetic and environmental factors that cause rapid swelling and closure of airway in response...even if not having an attack, airways are more constricted

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

gets in the air through the combustion of fossil fuels. NO2 forms from emissions from trucks, buses, cars, power plants, and off-road equipment. They can irritate airways in the respiratory system and can lead to breathing issues like asthma.

Air-borne

i. Air-borne: spread when droplets of pathogens are expelled into the air due to coughing, sneezing or talking ii. causative agents: bacteria, viruses, pathogens iii. respiratory droplets transmitted through air by coughing, sneezing, etc. iv. preventative measures: Wear masks/respirators Wash hands/cover mouth/stay home if infected

A. Name the agencies that oversee food safety at the (i) global, (ii) national (USA), (iii) state (USA) and (iv) local (USA) levels ?

i. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) ii. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) iii. NC DHHS iv. Orange Country Environmental Health Division

Dioxins

i. Stay around for a long time and bioaccumulate → present in organic pollutants ii. medical waste incarcerators, chlorinated pesticide production iii. primarily exposed through food: meat, fish, shellfish iv. regulations by the EPA, SDWA, CAA, Toxic Substances Control ACt

Vector-borne

i. Vector borne: illness that is caused by an infectious microorganism (pathogen) and is transmitted to a host via a vector ii. causative agents are vectors like aedes mosquito, ticks, fleas iii. modes of transmission can be mechanical (pathogens are transferred from vector to host) or biological (pathogen can replicate in vector, mature in vector or both) iv. massive insecticide/pesticide spraying, insect nets, vaccines, preventative measures, education and surveillance

The first session of Student Presentations covered 2 types of infectious diseases: water-borne and vector-borne A. For each of these, describe (i) the disease (ii) the (major) causative agent(s), (iii) the mode of transmission and (iv) the measures (if any) that have been (or could be) taken to control that disease.

i. Water-borne: illnesses caused by pathogenic microorganisms found in untreated water ii. Caused by inadequate drinking water sanitation and hygiene leading to diarrheal disease iii. Mode of transmission is through injestion iv. short term: boiling water, hand washing, rain water collection, water provision for outbreaks long term: hygiene infrastructure, surveillance, education

Asbestos

i. durable stone that is used in many old buildings ii. caused by exposure to buildings with asbestos, roofing iii. breathing iv. regulation

Arsenic

i. metalloid found organically and inorganically in the earth's crust ii. caused by contamination of groundwater sources, human industrial processes, smoking tobacco iii. primarily caused by ingestion of contaminated water, eating food washed with contaminated water, irrigation iv. safe water preparation, monitoring, and education

Particulate matter (PM)

mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects. In general, most PM particles form in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between pollutants.

What control measures are/could be implemented to reduce the threat?

o Chemical: insecticide products, spraying technologies o Environmental: eliminating breeding grounds for vectors o Biological controls o Personal protective/preventative strategies like insecticide treated nets and bed nets

Who are the people most at risk?

• Those most at risk include developing countries where public health systems aren't as developed and response isn't as rapid or effective. • The problem is that there is currently no cure, little research, no immunity and leads to pregnancy complications. Rates of spread are higher than past outbreaks. • Symptoms: none to mild headaches, muscles aches, rash, runny eyes. Fetal cells vulnerable to virus leading to microcephaly and birth defects. Also linked to slower mental speed and depression