EOSC 114 Final Exam (Learning Goals)

Define the characteristics of a mass extinction

- At least 30% of Earth's species must be lost - Be across a broad range of ecologies - have a short/ sudden duration (around 1 million years maximum)

Describe the tectonic setting of British Columbia and determine the dominant type of volcano that occurs here

The garibaldi-cascade arc formed from the subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the N.A. plate. The line of volcanoes stretches from mount meager in southern B.C to mount lasen in N. California. The dominant type of volcano is stratovolcanoes

Explain how sea-surface temperature, winds, waves, condensation, and a "warm core" affect hurricanes

The hurricane manipulates the environment to continually create the fuel needed by its bands of thunderstorms. It does this by tapping into the heat stored in the ocean. Low pressure in the eye of the hurricanes sucks boundary layer air into it. As this air gets closer and closer to the eye, it moves faster and faster, as already discussed. Faster winds create larger waves on the ocean surface. Evaporation on the ocean surface with the addition of the spray from the wave adds moisture into the boundary layer air. When the boundary layer air reaches the eye wall it contains sensible and latent heat. Condensation of the molecules will fuel the hurricane.

Identify where and how the maximum surge occur in a hurricane

Most disastrous during HIGH TIDE, because mass and height of tide adds on to the surge. The maximum surge is on the right side of the hurricane, as the surge driven by the wind is moving in the same direction as the surge driven by the low pressure of the storm.

Explain how solar energy can get into the atmosphere to power storms

Solar energy is absorbed by the earth's surface which then warms the air. This adds moisture into air parcels which can be blown into storms, where the energy is released to power storms.

Relate wave interference and resonance to marine hazards

Wave interference (Constructive) can create rogue monster waves that are large and unpredictable and can sink larger ships and ocean liners. They are common where a strong current flows against wind driven waves from storms.

Explain how waves move matter and energy

Waves do not transport or move matter. Water moves up and back and then down and forward in a circular motion. As each wave passes, the net movement of the water particles is zero, i.e. it ends up in the same place. -Energy transported by waves is related to the wave height, H --> correlation applies only to deepwater waves -for most of the waves in the open ocean, waves with great heights transport more energy than waves with shorter heights. usually waves with great heights also have long wave lengths

Describe hail hazards, locations and times of greatest risk, and appropriate safety procedures

Hail forms when the small ice crystals near the top of the thunderstorm re-circulate and fall down into the updraft region, instead of the downdraft region. This allows them to accumulate many layers of ice, growing like layers of an onion. In USA, hail is found mostly in oklahoma, texas, and kansas. In Canada its the town Red deer, central BC, S. Saskatchewan, and S. Manitoba. Weather radars can only determine if hail is coming when thunderstorms have formed. Safety Precautions include getting indoors or in a car then park under a roof.

Describe the different types of volcanic eruptions and how they are related to magma properties.

Hawaiin: Low viscosity, basaltic, magma low explosively Lava flows, lava lake, fire fountaining Strombolian: Basaltic/andesitic magma Mildly explosive Lava fountain, volcanic bomb, lava flow Vulcanian: Viscous andesitic/ rhyolite magma Very explosive Ash plume, lapilli, volcanic ash rain, volcanic bomb Plinian: Andesitic/rhyolitic ash Violently explosive ash plume, volcanic ash rain, pyroclastic flows

Describe relationships between force, pressure, stress, strain, energy, and power

force: push or pull Pressure: is a force applied perpendicular to a surface stress: force applied parallel to a surface -tends to strain or deform an object power: the rate of doing work or of using energy

Know the difference between forecasting and prediction.

forecasting refers to a calculation or an estimation which uses data from previous events, combined with recent trends to come up with a future event outcome. prediction implies making precise statements of what will happen in the future (specific and not reasonable).

Describe the particular hazards associated with pyroclastic flows, lahars, dome collapses, sector collapses, lateral blasts, and toxic gases

pyroclastic flows: all life and structures in its paths are destroyed. They usually stay in valleys but if they get big enough, they can flow over ridges, or even over water. Their velocity is generally high, and can range from 50-500 km/hr, and their temperature can reach up to 1000C. People caught in pyroclastic flows have no chance of survival lahars: damage roads, bridges, houses, livestock. They flow along valleys and are very dangerous. Their speed is slower than pyroclastic flows but can reach up to 50 km/hr and up to 200C. sector collapses: debris avalanche toxic gases: SO2 can combine with H2O to form sulfuric acid which forms acid rain which can destroy crops and contaminate drinking water. Additionally, Co2 is denser than air and can accumulate in low areas poisoning those living in such areas.

Relate these changes to risks for coastal communities

sea level rise may cause -submergence of low lying areas -increased erosion -increased coastal flooding -inundation of natural ecosystems.

Recognize the qualities that make fossils useful in biostratigraphy

- Short distance apart, higher resolution - Common - Lived in environments where fossilization is likely to occur - Present in many different environment

Describe the character of the extinction at the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary

-50% of all species on the planet went extinct - 80-90% of marine species went extinct - nothing over 25 kg survived

Explain how a tsunami compares with other ocean waves

-Approaches shallow water as a fast rising tide rather than a wind-driven oceanic wave. -Wave isn't confined to the beach like normal nearshore breaks, it can move inland and therefore causes monumental damage. -Windblown waves have short periods and small wavelengths. Whereas, tsunami waves have very long periods and very long wavelengths (hundreds of km in wavelength for a tsunami, compared to mere meters for common waves). --Typical tsnuami patterns: Wavelength = 200 kmWave Speed = 200 m / sec or 720 km / hourWave Height =0.5 to 1 mPeriod = 10 minutes to 1 hour-steepness = 1m in open ocean (meaning barely detectable = safe)

Understand how local ground conditions can affect the duration and amplitude of shaking.

-As seismic waves travel across boundaries between differing materials (for example from cooler, brittle materials of the crust to warmer, softer materials of the mantle), their velocity changes. -Distant: small amplitude only recorded by seismometers, only lower frequency's present - Near the earthquake=feels more like rolling, large amplitude, all frequencies are present

Explain how forces, acceleration, buoyancy, and pressure-gradients relate to winds

-Buoyancy: creates VERTICAL motions, warm air rises and creates updrafts, cold air sinks, and causes downdrafts. -Pressure: creates HORIZONTAL motions, horizontal winds and is dominant in cyclones

Identify tell-tale signs of an unstable slope.

-Crescent shaped cracks or terraces on a hillside. -Scalloped/recessed crest of a valley wall, and large boulders or piles of talus at the base of the cliff. -Tongue-shaped bare soil, tilled and jack-strawed trees. -Exposed bedrock with layering parallel to the slope, and hummocky land surface at base of slope.

Identify key properties of waves

-Crest: highest point of the wave -Trough: lowest point of the wave -Wavelength (L/λ): distance between 2 successive crests or 2 successive troughs of a wave (meters) -Amplitude (a): is half the vertical distance between a crest and trough (meters) -Period (T): time for one wavelength to pass a point (mins or secs) -Frequency (f): number of waves passing a point per unit of time (per mins or secs) -Celerity/Speed (s): distance travelled per unit time (meters/sec) -Steepness: a measure of the peaking wave, the ratio of height (H) to wavelength (L) -> H/L

Use these properties to determine wave speed and behavior in either shallow or deep water

-Deep water waves: or dispersive waves have longer wavelengths and travel faster than shorter waves. The waves travel in orbitals . -Travel in ocean depths equal or deeper than L/2. - Going deeper into water column, the orbits decrease -Don't "feel the bottom" because their wave bases are shallower than the ocean bottom - deep water depends on wave length (longer = faster) shallow water waves: travel at the same speed regardless of length when they are at the same depth. -travel in water qual or shallower than L/20 -Can "feel the bottom" as the water particles are dragging on the bottom as they move - Paths of particles at the bottom layer are flat = move horizontally back and forth (particle orbital motion: elliptical)

Explain what density is and how it relates to stratification

-Density describes how much mass fits into a space - Stratification occurs when 2 materials are mixed, and the less dense one floats to the top -Therefore for stratification to occur the idea of density is necessary Eg. Air is less dense than water, and water is less dense than rock. Therefore, rocks are on the ground, water is in the middle, and air on the top

Identify downbursts and gustfronts, describe how they form and look, and what their hazards are

-Downbursts are regions of sinking cold dense air. Downbursts are caused both by falling rain that drags some air down with it, and by the evaporation of some of the rain as it falls, which cools the air (cold air sinks). There speeds range from 20 km/hr to 90 km/hr and are hazards to aircrafts. - Gust Fronts: after downburst hits the ground and spreads outward, it creates a violent straight wind known and the edge of this cold air is known as a gust front. Can become a haboob and arc cloud- Hazard to aircraft and mobile homes

Explain (with examples) how energy conservation applies to natural disasters

-Energy is conserved when it changes form 1. Kinetic energy of an asteroid is converted into sensible and latent heat when it strikes Earth 2.Heat causes water to expand into steam in the Earth's crust which does work, pushing magma, some of whichrises into volcanos (increasing PE) 3.Potential energy (PE) of rocks high on the slopes of a volcano are converted into kinetic energy (KE) when theyfall down during a landslide or lahar

Explain why disaster scales are based on the Order-of-Magnitude concept and interpret graphs with logarithmic scales

-Graphs are interpreted with logarithmic scales because most of the graph is off the scale if we use an exponential curve; a log graph is much nicer -Disaster scales are based on the Order-of-Magnitude concept because the "power" indicates intensity of the disaster -10^P

Explain how recent disasters were associated with the concentration or dilution of energy

-It takes time for energy to build up and to be released. -Creating natural disasters requires the concentration of energy in a small area, and to continually it build-up. -Concentration of Energy: Earthquakes (yrs->mins), Volcanoes (decades->days), Hurricanes (Months->days), Storms (Hrs->mins) - But many energy sources are diffuse (weak but cover a large area), and gradual (weak but spanning a long time) -Dilution of Energy: Tsunami (mins-> days), Floods (hrs->days)

Explain what lava flows, fire fountains, lava bombs, and volcanic ash are and how they form.

-Lava flows: are flows of basaltic lava. They form due to low silica content (mafic) and high temperature. -fire fountains: when basaltic lava contains lots of gas which create small explosive eruptions. The liquid that falls back to the ground can gather and re-form a lava flow. -lava bombs: occur when volcano ejects viscous fragments of lava, which cool before hitting the ground. They usually lie close to the origin of eruption. -volcanic ash: ash forms from fragments of a frothy magma. Gas bubbles form but don't pop, as gas pressure exceeds bubble wall strengthens it causes explosive fragmentation which creates triangular glass shards

Relate natural-disaster risk and intensity to frequency, return period, and consequences (costs)

-More intense disasters occur less frequently, less intense disasters occur more frequently -More intense = Huge expenditure of time and money for recovery -The return period, or RP, is the average number of years between disaster events of the same magnitude (M). It is by no means a prediction of when the next disaster of the same scale will next occur. (RP) = Time span of data/number of cases

List some of the major impact features preserved on the Earth's surface and explain why impact craters appear to be rare on Earth

-Northern Quebec, the Manicouagan impact crater. This formed about 214 million years ago in the Late Triassic. It is 70 km in diameter but was probably as wide as 100 km before glacial erosion stripped away the upper levels. -impact event is thought to be associated with 4 others including the Saint Martin Crater in Manitoba (40 km in diameter) and the Rochechouart Crater in France (25 km in diameter) -Impact craters are rare on earth as they have eroded due to tectonic activity and erosion

Consider other potential causes of the K/Pg environmental collapse

-Pangaea began to fragment, causes changes in ocean circulation and climate - Deccan traps in India = volcanic activity which produced gases that could have affected the Earth's climate in terms of acid rain, ozone depletion, greenhouse effects

Explain the different magnitude scales, which one is best for large quakes, and why.

-Richter Magnitude: Based on largest amplitude of shaking for high frequency - Surface Waves magnitude (Ms): based on s-waves - Body Waves magnitude (Mb): based on p-waves -Seismic movement (Mo): produces an estimate of energy released in an earthquake event --> [Strength of Rocks][Area Involved][Distance fault is Removed] -Moment magnitude (Mw): Most commonly used magnitude scale for a large earthquake. (Mw=(2/3)(Mo-6)

Be able to diagnose the type of strain by the way a material deforms

-Strain: Change in the shape or size of a solid object (deformation) -Elastic: Ability to change shape when forced but spring back to original shape when force lifted -Plastic: Ability to permanently change shape or deform when forced -Ductile-very plastic -Brittle- not very plastic, breaks instead of bending

Explain differences between surging, plunging, and spilling breakers

-Surging Breakers: occur where ocean bottom is VERY STEEP, makes them potentially dangerous -Plunging: occur where ocean bottoms are MODERATELY STEEP, only for expert surfers -Spilling Breakers: where ocean bottom is FLAT and GENTLE, good for surfing

Explain how the impact of landslides depends on the affected area's population density, economic infrastructure, and population preparedness.

-The higher the population density, the more people may be affected when a landslide hits an area. Converselyif there are no inhabitants, a serious landslide will not kill anyone -Landslides can cause a lot of damage to infrastructure if they are built in a location prone to landslides. -A hazard map can allow the population to be more prepared in case of a landslide, as well as avoiding building roadways near steep slopes, installing nets to catch rockslides, building barriers, removal of unstable material,drainage and anchors, etc. This can reduce the number of deaths in the event of a landslide

Describe how viscosity and compressibility relate to the phase of matter

-Viscosity is the measure of how much fluids resist flowing or changing shape -Compressibility: ability to be squeezed/expanded. Results in a change in density because of volume change. Solids: Not fluid, not very compressible. Liquids: Very fluid, not very compressible. Gases:Very fluid, very compressible

List the 5 types of energy, and describe what causes them to vary

-Work: depends on force that pushes/pulls an object over a distance ( W= F x D) -PE: The work needed to raise an object of mass a distance against the pull of gravity ( PE= gmz) -KE: a moving object possesses kinetic energy (1/2m x V2) -Sensible Heat: the heat we can feel in the form of temperature (ΔQH = m C x ΔT) where C = specific heat capacity -Latent Heat: stored/hidden when matter changes phase -- When solids melt/liquids evaporate sensible heat becomes stored as latent heat When they condense/freeze - > heat is released (ΔQE = L x Δm) where m is the mass of the matter that changes phase and L is the latent heat constant

List and describe the site conditions (causes and trigger) that led to the development of the Oso Landslide in Washington State

-area had history of slides and erosion, one occurred in 2006 and created uncompacted layer of rocks and soil that redials soaked up water and were therefore more prone to failure (CAUSE) -45 days of rain prior to 2014 event causing the debris field from the 2006 slide to liquify, and created a mass of mud sliding and taking a chunk of mountain with it (TRIGGER)

Outline the different factors, both natural and human, that contributed to the landslide disasters in Vaiont, Italy

-dam built in Italy, rushed and not evaluated properly--Investigation was only done on the lower most sections of the slopes, not higher up. -filling the dam with water increased the pore water pressure within the slope, decreasing the shear strength -slope had clay, which when there was excess water decreased strength -there was a prehistoric landslide of unknown dimensions there already, which weakened more with filling the dam

Describe the particular hazards associated with lava flows, fire fountaining, lava bombs, and ash fall.

-lava flow: damage infrastructure -fire fountaining: lava flow can form which can be dangerous -lava bombs: erupted as ballistic projectiles can be hazardous if nearby -ash fall: ash particles can be picked up by global winds causing ash to be deposited over a vast area. -Ash injected into the stratosphere can contribute to a lower amount of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface which in turn causes global cooling. - breathing ash can be deadly. Buildings may collapse from the weight of the ash -choke aircraft engine.. -contaminate surface water and kill aquatic life, increase acidity of water and destroy vegetation and crops.

Describe wave refraction, seiche (standing waves in enclosed or semi-enclosed bodies), and resonance; how do these affect the coast and people?

-wave refraction: or the bending of the wave occurs as waves come closer to the shore they slow down as the depth becomes shallower. The first part of the wave that feels the bottom slow down before the rest of the wave that is farther out. wave refraction is involved in shore straightening. Waves refract as they hit an irregular coast cuasing wave energy to focus on headlands and disperse across bays. Over time the shoreline straightens out and causes erosion. -seiche is resonant wave in a body of water caused by a disturbance by wind or seismic activity. Usually form in lakes, landlocked seas, and semi-enclosed seas. Can last a few seconds to several hours depending on the size of the water body and complexity of its shoreline. Seiche effects are similar to a storm surge and are a danger as they can oscillate back and forth for a while. Can form from tsunami in semi-enclosed body (Can cause drowning)

List the different human activities that contribute to increased landslide hazards.

1) Excavation of a slope at its toe 2) Loading of a slope at its crest 3) Deforestation 4) Irrigation 5) Mining 6) Water leakage from utilities 7) Artificial vibration

Distinguish between broad extinction-producing phenomena

1. Biological causes - competition: between creatures occupying the same ecological niche - predation: predators kill until the population is low enough for random extinction to occur - pathogens: disease being introduced to an area by incoming plants or animals 2. Earth-based causes - changes in the distribution of continents - changes in climate, ocean cyclicity, sea level (weather patterns and the movement of the oceans are linked to the distribution of continents) - greater the landmass the lower the diversity -changes in the atmosphere (Volcanism can have cooling and then warming (greenhouse) effects which can affect species) 3. Extraterrestrial Impacts 4. combination of many factors

Describe the different types of seismic waves and how they move through the Earth.

1. Body Waves: Waves that travel through the interior of the material Two Types: - P-Waves (Pressure or Primary Waves): When wave particles move back and forth in line with the direction that waves are travelling. - S-Waves (Shear or Secondary Waves): When wave particles move from side to side perpendicular to the direction that waves are travelling. 2. Surface Waves: waves that travel along sufaces and generate when P/S waves arrive at earth's surface. Two Types (Slowest and most damaging seismic waves): -Rayleigh Waves: These are the waves that cause the most damage because they are largest, and they are most clearly felt because they travel along the Earth's surface. When a Rayleigh wave travels, particles experience a backward-rotating motion that is in line with the wave's direction. - Love Waves: When a Love wave passes, particles experience a side-to-side motion that is perpendicular to the wave's direction. This side-to-side motion is in a horizontal plane roughly parallel to the Earth's surface.

Describe different types of lightning, and explain the sequence of events in a lighting strike

1. Cloud-to-Cloud: inter-cloud (IC) 2. Cloud-to-Ground: further divided into positive and negative charge- NEGATIVE strikes from the cloud base and are more numerous- POSITIVE strikes are less frequent, stronger, and form from thunderstorm anvil and most likely to start wildfires sequence: 1. Lightning forms because electrical charge build up in thunderstorm 2. when electrical potential between cloud and ground becomes great enough-- known as breakdown potential and causes air to ionize 3. ionization changes the air from an insulator to a conductor along an ionized path 4. stepped leader forms the path that lightning uses to step down from cloud 5. streamers of electrons rise from tall trees, pole and buidling to meet the stepped leader 6. once they meet, the circuit is closed and the electrons flow this is called the return stroke

List the "Big Five" mass extinction events and their order through time

1. Cretaceous/Tertiary (KT) -- 65 ma 2. Late Triassic-- 205 ma 3. Permo/Triassic (allows evolution of dinosaurs)-- 251 ma 4. Late Devonian-- 360-375 ma 5. Late Ordovician (earliest)-- 440-450 ma

List the three types of plate boundaries and the different types of volcanoes that occur at these plate boundaries

1. Divergent: Found on land and under the sea. On land divergent boundaries within continents produce rifts, which produce rift valleys. Under the sea the plate boundaries are between oceanic plates called mid-oceanic ridges. -Submarine shield volcanoes 2. Convergent: This happens with ocean-ocean collisions and ocean-continent collisions. And with continent and continent collisions. Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of oceanic crust. -Stratovolcanoes, cinder cones, and calderas 3. Transform: Magmatism is rare, therefore no volcanoes occur as they simply slide past one another

Explain factors that determine earthquake intensity.

1. Earthquake magnitude: cause them to be stronger, and more catastrophic 2. Duration of Shaking: longer duration, causes more damage 3. Distance of Epicentre: closer to the epicentre, more intense 4. Ground Type: waves travel faster and are more intense in hard rock

Relate the type of landslide damage expected as a function of its velocity.

1. Extremely slow: minimal disruption, construction possible with precaution 2. Very slow: some permanent structures undamaged 3. slow: some remedial construction 4. moderate: some temporary and unaffected structures can be temporarily maintained. 5. Rapid: escape evacuation possible; structures, possessions, and equipment destroyed 6. very rapid: some lives lost 7. extremely rapid: buildings destroyed by impact, many deaths; escape unlikely

List possible mitigation strategies and appraise their relative effectiveness

1. Fragmentation: Destroy an approaching impactor with nuclear weapons. This might not work for metallic bodies, as we may have to drill into an object to deploy the weapon, which would be difficult. Even if fragmentation was achieved there is no guarantee that the fragments produced during the explosion would not still impact our planet (risky). 2. Sudden Orbit Adjustment: exploding nuclear warhead in front or on surface to adjust movement. (Unpredictable) 3. Steady State Orbit Adjustment: Requires more warning, but more predictable a. attach chemical or nuclear rocks to gently nudge out of way b. Deploy robot mass drivers to use propulsion and "launch" off surface and change trajectory c. Ablation systems: irradiate surface with lasers or mirrors to focus sunlight-- gases produced by vaporizing propel asteroid d. Solar sails: mirrors to catch particles from sun and act like giant sails in space.

Understand the basics of how buildings can be designed or retrofitted to better resist earthquakes (and reduce casualties).

1. Static Methods: Involve simply adding strength in the form of cross braces, shear walls (walls with good shear or side-to-side strength), and shear cores (a central zone with added shear strength) 2. Dynamic Methods: Involve one or more of three mechanisms: - build buildings with springs for absorbing energy -add mass to buildings to reduce the resonant frequency of the building - isolate foundation of building from ground with huge rubber foundation blocks. Allowing the earth to move without dragging the structure with it

Discuss the evidence used to support the K/Pg impact

1. clay layer with iridium-- iridium is rare at earth's surface and is found in higher concentrations such as asteroids 2. fern spores-- ferns are the first plant to colonize a landscape that has been devastated by a fire. In the early paleogene their is an incease in fern spores relative to pollen = evidence of a global fire at the end of the cretaceous 3. tektites-- are natural glass that is produced by melting rocks during impact. Tektites were found at the K/Pg boundary suggesting a massive impact event 4. shocked quartz-- Mineral quartz found had multiple fractures which are only produced during a high-energy impact 5. tsunami deposits: Tsunami waves leave sedimentary deposits. They were found globally = evidence of enormous wave created by impact in the ocean (K/Pg impact)

Describe the type and location of potential impactors and rate of meteor influx

1. comets (dirty snowballs): are made of material left over from the formation of the solar system. Made up of icy material and debris. They come from the Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt 2. Asteroids: some are solid, rocky to metallic, or "rubble piles" in space. They are found between mars and jupiter rate of meteor influx: 100 billion objects enter our atmosphere every 24 hours. Most of these are burned out at a distance of 60 km above the Earth's surface; commonly traveling around 11 - 30 km / second. At such speeds, the atmosphere acts like a brick wall.

Explain the factors that determine the roughness of the sea

1. wind strength/ speed 2. wind duration 3. fetch (uninterrupted distance over which wind blows) -increase these, wavelength increases

Understand the different types of faulting at different plate boundaries, and which plate boundaries produce the largest quakes.

2 types of plates: -Oceanic Plates: Fast moving (centimetres/year), you (less than 200 million years old), are formed at mid- ocean ridges, and destroyed at subduction zones -Continental Plates: Slow moving (millimetres to centimeters/years), much older than oceanic plates, and do not get subducted because they are more buoyant than oceanic plates 4 types of plate boundaries: -Divergent: plates move apart, leading to tension (stretching). Due to the tensional forces, rocks break and many small(ish) earthquakes occur. Divergence occurs at mid-ocean ridges. - Transform: plates move past each other, leading to shearing forces between plates. Shearing forces are those that push one part of a body in one direction and the other part in the opposite direction. Rocks are being sheared, thus many earthquakes occur here. These are moderate to large 'quakes, but not as large as convergent. - Convergent Type 1: In this and the next type, plates move toward each other and collide, leading to compression (squeezing). In this type, one of the plates is less dense than the other, one plate subducts or dives under the other at subduction zones. Rocks are compressed and very large earthquakes occur. - Convergent Type 2: Same as in Type 1, plates move toward each other and collide, leading to compression. Here, both plates are of the same density the plates crumple up like a rug being pushed together. Rocks are compressed and very large earthquakes occur. -Convergent plate boundaries produce the largest quakes. The world's largest earthquakes occur at collision zones

List some of the major developments in the history of life on Earth

4550 Ma: Formation of the Earth 4527 Ma: Formation of the Moon 4000 Ma: End of the Late Heavy Bombardment; first life - Prokaryotes --> 3200 Ma: Earliest start of Photosynthesis- 2300 Ma: Atmosphere becomes oxygen-rich (result from prokaryotes/connected to this); first snowball Earth; between 2.5 & 2 Ga = Eukaryotes; between 2 Ga & 1 Ga = Multicellular life; between 1 Ga and 541 Ma = Animals 530 Ma: Cambrian Explosion (related to animals); 380 Ma: First vertebrate land animals (related to emergence of land plants)- close to 252 Ma = emergence of mammals --> 230-66 Ma: Non-avian dinosaurs (relatead to emergence of mammals)- CENOZOIC (66 Ma +) - 2 Ma: First Hominins

Explain what a volcanic hazard map is and why they are useful.

A map which indicates the types of hazards that can be expected in a given area the next time a volcano erupts Can be used to prevent destruction from eruptions, by pointing out where the different results of the eruption will go. They are useful as show where hazards are likely and where potential loss and damage is possible. Therefore, they reduce population's vulnerability to such risk.

Describe how storm surges are generated

A storm surge: abrupt bulge of water driven ashore by a hurricane. created by two processes occuring at the same time- -Wind-driven Surge: when hurricane winds push water into a large and tall mound - Pressure Surge: when ocean water is raised, suctioned upwards, underneath the eye of the storm because of the low air pressure created at the ocean surface

Describe the risks from a tsunami for the coast of British Columbia, especially one resulting from a megathrust earthquake

After a mega thrust earthquake a large tsunami is very likely with the highest risk being to the west coast of Vancouver Island. The tsunami may arrive on shore within 10 minutes. Medium threat to the north coast and central coast. With low risk to Juan de Fuca strait and the Strait of Georgia. One should still move inland or to high ground immediately.

Describe how coastlines affect waves, and how waves affect coastlines

As waves move from the deep ocean toward the coastline and then into shallower water, the waves change: - Waves slow down, wavelength shortens, orbital flatten, energy is conserved, period stay the same, wave height increases, and waves steepen beaches are produced when sediment is transported to the shore by rivers and streams and deposited there. The incoming water-- swash move up the beach at an angle. The water that recedes and returns to the sea is called the backwash. beaches change shape as a result of longshore drift which consists of the transport of sediments. The backwash then returns water as well as sediments back to the ocean. They produce barrier islands and tombolos.

List the mitigation techniques commonly used for avoidance, prevention and protection strategies.

Avoidance: by hazard mapping, modeling (computer), geological mapping (surrounding geological features)and determining the frequency (total number of events per year) and magnitude Prevention: by anchoring (cables), removal (of unstable material), stabilizing slopes (increase resisting force at the toe of landslide) and drainage (of water Protection: from debris flow, setting up rock fall nets, barriers and netting

Compare and contrast avoidance, prevention, and protection strategies for dealing with landslide hazards.

Avoidance: move to a different area to avoid hazardous area. Prevention: do something to make sure landslides don't occur when people are there. This is usually done by reducing the driving forces (e.g. active mass, pore pressure, etc.) or by increasing the resisting forces (e.g. anchors, buttresses, etc.) Protection: armour/strengthen the area that may be affected if landslide happens.

Make informed decisions about earthquake safety -- how to act, how to prepare.

Before an earthquake: -modernize your home-- put secure latches on cabinet doors, connect bookcases, and wall units to the wall - learn how to shut off gas, water, and electricity. - identify safe spots -prepare an earthquake kit During an earthquake: -stay clam -stay under strong tables or desks -get out of areas where flying objects could cause injury After an earthquake: -help the injured -get out of damaged buildings -Be prepared to survive on your own; Help might not be available for at least 3 (or more) days

Describe how the Earth builds, stores, and releases energy in earthquakes (elastic rebound).

Builds: Rocks on opposite fault sides are subjected to force Stores: Rocks accumulate energy and slowly deform until internal strength is exceeded Releases: Faults restore and release energy by recovering back to original form once the the force is removed

Explain the main hazards of a hurricane and appropriate safety procedures

Can destroy homes, and cause flash floods with storm surges. To avoid issues it's best to not build homes near southeastern USA, and plan out an evacuation plan in case you do end up there.

Explain what we can and cannot predict about large earthquakes.

Can predict: where earthquake will happen, location of fault, recurrence time, effects of the earthquake Cannot predict: the epicentre, cannot tell when it will happen exactly, or how the ground will move

Compare and contrast landslide causes and how they differ from landslide triggers. List and describe some external and some internal causes of landslides.

Cause: a factor that makes slopes susceptible to movement wihtout starting a landslide. Usually long term factors that lead to instability of slope Reduce shear strength of a slope Trigger: a single event that starts the slope material in motion. Ex: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mining and quarrying. Landslides can have several causes but can only have one trigger. Factors that decrease stability (make Fs < 1) or when shear strength > stress are considered causes External causes: 1.. Vegetation: roots bind loose material and removal can make slopes unstable; however, too much heavy vegetation can cause overloading 2.High slope angle: steep slope = more movement 3. Undercutting: lower part of the slope is removed leading to lack of support. caused by roads, rivers, buildings 4. overloading: adding weight, caused by buildings, roads, landslides, trees 5. Climate: if temperature and rainfall is high, sediments are loosened, rocks are weathered and fractured andthe earth is saturated , decreasing friction and shear strength and also causes overloading Internal causes: 1. water content -alot of water within a slope increases its mass, increasing shear stress within parts of the slope -water increases rate of weathering. When water freezes/ thaws it expands in volume. The volume change wedges apart rocks, causing them to fall from steep slopes. -In sediment (lose rocks, sand, silt), water can help or hinder cohesion depending on amount No water = low angle of repose. Some water = high angle. Too much = very low angle

Describe the location and probable nature of the K/Pg impactor

Chicxulub Impact Crater over 180 km in diameter, thought to be impact location of K/Pg Impact. The object responsible for this crater had a shallow angle of entry around 20 - 30° and is estimated to have been at least 10km across. An estimated 100 km3 of rock was vaporized and released to the atmosphere. Material that wasn't instantly vaporized was thrown out of the crater (the ejecta) and was deposited to the NW of the impact site.

Use the VEI to rank the size of a volcanic eruption.

Classification considers volume of ejecta, eruption cloud/plumec height, eruption style, duration of eruption, and qualitative observation (non-explosive, gentle, cataclysmic, to mega-colossal)) Use logarithmic scale for volume. Scale ranges 0 fro non-explosive and 8 for mega-colossal explosion Icelandic and Hawaii eruptions are 0-1 : Strombolian eruptions are 1-3, vulcanian eruptions are 2-5 and include stratovolcanoes and lava Domes. plinian are 3-6.5 and ultra-plinian are 5-8 whereby an 8 represents a mega-clossal explosive eruption. A 0 is described as effusive with an outpouring of lava on the ground. A 1 is described as gentle low level- small to medium volume. A 2 is explosive dense cloud of ash and gases with volcanic bombs. A 3 is a severe glowing avalanche of hot ash and pyroclastic flows. A 4 is a cataclysmic columns of gas and ash that extends to stratosphere.

Explain how the continuity affect ties vertical and horizontal winds into circulations

Continuity refers to air molecules that spread themselves evenly and don't get bunched together. For example, if an air parcel rises it leaves a hole where it used to be, the surrounding air is sucked in to try and eliminate the hole. Thus, due to continuity a vertical movment as described above also simutaneously creates a horizontal motion.

Use photographs & videos to identify the tornado intensity on the enhanced Fujita scale

EF0: windows broken EF1: windows and minor roof damage EF2: roof almost totally destroyed, some exterior wall damage, but most interior wood-frame walls intact EF3: roof and many interior and exterior walls destroyed EF4: total destruction; all aboveground wood-frame walls destroyed, with the resulting debris littering the lot EF5: total above ground destruction of wood-frame building, with most of the debris blown away by the winds. All that remains are the foundations and concrete floor and driveway slabs.

List the 1st and 2nd most common elements in the Earth, ocean, and atmosphere

Earth crust: oxygen and silicon Earth core: iron and nickel Ocean: oxygen and hydrogen Atmosphere: nitrogen and oxygen

List some of the major subdivisions / ages of the geological time scale and appreciate the relative scale between the Phanerozoic and the Precambrian

Eons: Phanerozoic: the geological timescale during which abundant animal life as existed. - Precambrian: From the formation of the Earth until the Cambrian. (87% of Earth's history) Eras: Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic Periods: from the oldest, Cambrian, to the most recent, the Quaternary

Assess the balance between the strength of the slope and the destabilizing forces due to erosion, vegetation, precipitation, and anthropogenic activity that are acting on it (Factor of Safety)

Erosion: the transport of material away from its source. Driving mass becomes greater than resisting mass- slope steepness increases such that shear stress > shear strength- Fs < 1 Vegetation:- plant roots increase soil cohesion by binding material (but this can also have a negative effect by increasing shear stress -> by uprooting and increased tree weight) -vegetation can make slopes unstable by uprooting and after a fire -> soil cohesion decreases- Depending on situation vegetation can increase or decrease Fs ( Fs > 1 or Fs < 1) Precipitation: heavy rainfall can cause landslides as a result of water erosion rates- can also increase groundwater levels, which can trigger more deep-seated and slower moving landslides- Fs < 1 Anthropogenic activity: - excavation at top of slope/loading at slope crest - deforestation for construction - irrigation/mining and water leakage both increase probability of landslide by changing groundwater flow and surface water drainage - Artificial Vibration: blasting/moving of heaving equipments during construction/mining can act as a TRIGGER - during road construction, bedrock can be fractured apr faulting leading to a LOWER shear strength

Distinguish between the different modes of failure (falls, flows, slides, topples, and spreads) and how they are influenced by geology.

Falls: -steep slopes (rock falls) -material detach due to weakness -falls due to gravity and is therefore very fast -mechanical weathering (physical break-up of material) by freeze-thaw cycles, salt crystal growth, root wedging, and penetration, and absorption of water without chemical changes influence falls Flows: -slow to fast -consists of soil, mud and wet debris -water is very important 3 types: -Creep: soil/bedrock move downslope slowly - Debris Flow: rapid flow of fully saturated debris, in a steep channel. Forms a debris fan at the mouth of he channel - Debris Avalanche: rapid/shallow flow of partially-fully saturated debris on a steep slope. Extremely dangerous as they can move at speeds greater than 330 km/hr. Slides: -slow to fast -consists of soil, rock and debris -move as a coherent mass along the surface of failure 2 types: -Rotational Slides: weak material move along a curved rupture surface -Translational Slides: strong material move upon a weak plane or pairs of intersecting weak planes in the rock. Topples:require forward rotation of material about a pivot point below the centre of gravity of the unit of slope - require fractured material oriented perpendicular and parallel to the slope face - NO SUCH THING AS A DEBRIS TOPPLE Spreads: 2 types- -Lateral Spreads: slow to rapid movement of rock or soil. Related to the sudden liquefaction of a weak soil layer. - Sensitive clays: are marine clays whose particles repel each other. When quick clays mix with salt water, the salt ions help bind the clay particles, giving it more cohesion and stability. When out of a marine environment (salt ions gone) during an earthquake the clay particles repulse each other, the clay's house of card like structure collapses and liquefies.

Describe the nature and skill of hurricane forecasting, and explain why Canada has few hurricanes.

Forecast maps of hurricanes usually includes probabilities accurate over a small area. There will always be uncertainty until the hurricane gets closer to the shore. Few hurricanes in Canada because of cold ocean water just off the coast of Atlantic Canada, which ultimately kills the hurricane

Describe the forces that generate waves, eliminate waves, and return the ocean to a flat, undisturbed surface

Generating force: force that adds energy to the water - Gravity -> tides -Earthquakes/landslides/volcanoes -> tsunamis -Wind -> ripples, chop, swell Restoring forces: the force that returns water to its undisturbed state - Surface tension -> capillary waves -Gravity -> surface gravity waves Eliminating forces: take energy out of the system, destroying waves by transferring energy to heat and particle motion. - turbulence -friction along the sea floor

Explain why gravity affects motion and energy

Gravity is a force that attracts matter -- F=mg Potential - (PE)=mgh -- Gravitational pull toward earth--Objects of mass near the earth's surface are pulled with the force

Compare and contrast the effects of artificial barriers such as groins, seawalls, and other structures, on coastal processes

Groins: a way to control beach erosion. They are elongate structure that protrude perpendicular to the shoreline. They sucessfully trap and retain sediment on the side that faces the wave front. They intefere with longshore transport of sediments which results in deposition in the up-drift (upstream) side and erosion in the down-drift (downstream) side. Seawalls: : reduces the effects of strong waves and to defend coast around a town or harbour.In contrast to groins and breakwaters, which are built on the seaward side of the coastline, seawalls are constructed on the inland part of a coast. They reflect wave power, but promote increased erosion/destruction of beaches jetty: protect an inlet or harbour, limits long shore drift. Effecs are similar to groins breakwater: defend against wave action and erosion. Also dissipates wave energy (area behind it becomes a safe harbour for boats etc). Because the breakwater cuts off the energy required to drive the longshore transport, adjacent unprotected sections of the coastline do not receive fresh supplies of sediments and gradually shrink due to erosion. Tethered Breakwater: removes energy from waves without interrupting sediment transport * best one - no interference

Appreciate the scale of changes that can occur over geological time scales

Groupings (especially eras) are not placed abritarily but represent times when there has been a major change in the Earth's biosphere (ex. evolution of hard-shelled creatures; emergence of new species following a mass extinction)* The base of all periods is defined on the emergence or radiation of new species.

List and describe the storm hazards and disaster scales covered in this course

Hazards: - Downbursts which are regions of sinking cold dense air and are hazards to aircrafts. - Gust front are violent straight-line winds created when downbursts hit the ground and the air speeds outwards. They are hazards to homes, trees, out-buildings, and aircrafts. -Hail are balls of ice that fall out of a thunderstorm. They can cause damage to crops, break car windshields, and dent metalwork. - Lightning which kills more people than tornadoes Disaster Scales: -Enhanced Fujita scale which classifies tornado intensity, based on the amount of damage to buildings. The scale ranges from EF0-EF5 -Torro Scale which is used in europe, is based on wind speed -Saffir-Simpson Hurricane scale: measures hurricane intensity, based on wind speed

Describe how groundwater affects shear stress and shear strength, and how it contributes towards the increased likelihood of a landslide.

Heavy and prolonged rainfall can increase groundwater levels as a result of deep infiltration of abundant water. An elevated groundwater table tends to trigger more deep-seated and slower moving landslides. Groundwater decreases Fs, by decreasing the shear strength. Elevation of the water table triggers deep-seated landslides. Displacement of soil through pore pressure increases the shear stress, and shear strength decreases as space increases b/w grains

Describe the evolution and movement of hurricanes, and locate times and places of greatest risk

Hurricanes consume fuel to power their motions and create new fuel within the boundary layer air that is drawn inward. To maintain this circulation, latent heating in the eye wall is so intense, it creates a warm core within the storm. This warm core produces a high pressure at the top center of the storm that removes air outward from the core. = Low pressure is kept constant. If the hurricane moves either over colder water or over land, then it cannot generate sufficient warm, humid air to serve as fuel, and the hurricane weakens and dies.

Explain tornado hazards and safety procedures, and times and locations of greatest risk

In N. America tornadoes are found mostly in Kansas, Oklahoma, and texas. In Canada they are found in mostly Alberta, S. Saskatchewan, and S. Manitoba. Be below ground in a basement, evacuate mobile home if a tornado is approaching. If outdoors get into a ditch or a hole. Drive away from tornadoes to the right or left of the translation direction. Don't be under highways bridges or overpass.

Describe the initial and long-term effects of the impact and their environmental consequences

Initial effects: -vaporized all rocks and trees nearby -heat from the blast caused forest fires -tsuanami waves generated Long-term effects: -no sunlight for months due to the ash, photosynthesis stopped on land and in oceans - water vapor remains in the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect - average global temperature rises up 10 C -Acid rain: Oxides of nitrogen becomes nitric acid dissolved in rain which changed the acidity level of soil affecting the base of food chains thus, affecting the food web. The vaporization of limestone creates sulphuric acid rain.

Identify fault zones that could produce an earthquake damaging to Cascadia; Describe the evidence for the Cascadia subduction zone generating large megathrust earthquakes.

Juan de Fuca plate is subducting under the North American plate and we know from global earthquake distributions that all the world's largest earthquakes occur at subduction zones. Cascadia's tectonic setting is similar to those of Alaska, Chile, and other locations where many recent mega-quakes (earthquakes with magnitude greater than 8.0) have occurred Evidence of megathrust earthquake occurring Includes: - Tree rings - Changing of sediment deposition - Tsunamis occurring around this time

How do key triggers and causes affect the Factor of Safety?

Landslides occur when the shear stress at the time of failure is greater than the shear strength of the geological material Fs = (shear strength/shear stress) Fs > 1-- shear strength is greater than or equal to shear stress, the slope is stable Fs < 1-- shear stress is greater than shear strength, slope failure is expected Erosion decreases Fs Vegetation can increase/decrease Fs Water content/precipitation decrease Fs Volcanic activity decreases due to accelerated erosion Earthquakes cause Fs to decrease sharply due to increase in shear stress Human activity also decreases Fs

Describe the late Ordovician and Permo-Triassic extinction

Late Ordovician: Gondwana moves to the south pole and freezes over. This caused sea level to sink, waters retreat and shallow reefs exposed-- kills many creatures Permo-Triassic extinction: 1. Continental configuration caused drop in biodiversity-- formation of Pangaea 2. sea level fall- less ocean ridge activity--the oceanic ridges were smaller in size and displaced less water = oceans retreated into the deeper basin-- problems for creatures that lived in shallow areas 3. Ocean stagnation: Cold polar waters disappeared and ocean circulation slowed/stopped = reduced ventilation of deep ocean waters killing off many deeper marine species 4. climate was much drier - -led to drought 5. siberian traps- volcanic activity released Co2 into the air causing greenhouse effects 6. possible extra-terrestrial

Differentiate the mechanism by which liquefaction landslides develop in loose sands and sensitive clays.

Liquefaction results when loose soils are saturated with water and seismic shaking causes water pressure to increase. It decreases the Fs < 1. Sensitive clays have a house of card-like structure and can collapse when out of a marine environment (salt ions gone) and liquefy during an earthquake as the clay particles repulse each other.

Be aware of how earthquakes can be the cause of other natural disasters (e.g., tsunami, liquefaction, landslides).

Liquefaction: Occurs when soft materials likes sands or soils are full of water (saturated) and they are shaken, it is possible for the particles of the material to get shaken apart within the fluid (water) and thus lose their strength. This causes structures built on the material to skin, or the material to slump. Landslides: occur when earthquakes occur on areas with sleep slopes, soil slips and causes a landslide - debris flow by earthquakes can also trigger mass movement of soil

Describe the distribution of the world's active volcanoes.

Located near hotspots and tectonic plate boundaries. 80% of active subaerial volcanoes are associated with convergent plate margins. They are found above ground level and found at the ring of fire. Divergent plate boundaries = 15% of sub aerial volcanoes--> Divergent boundaries occur with many more submarine volcanoes (those occurring @ mid ocean range) Subaerial volcanoes within plate are due to hotspots, hotspots don't move but the plate itself does (Creation of Hawaiian islands).

Explain what magma density and magma viscosity are and how they control volcanic behaviour.

Magma is less dense than solid rock, so it will rise towards the surface of the earth. Magma that has erupted and cooled forms solid rock called lava. In order to rise magma must be: 1. Less dense than the crust 2 Runny enough to flow (low viscosity) 3. Hot enough to stay liquid Viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow. The more easily magma flows, the more likely the gas bubbles in it will dissipate and the magma will erupt effusively rather than explosively. Viscosity is dependent upon the amount of Silicate and temperature of the magma. A combination of high gas content and high viscosity leads to the most explosive volcanic eruptions.

Explain why some magmas erupt explosively (as pyroclastic material) and some magmas erupt effusively (as lava). Explain what controls volcanic explosivity.

Magma that erupts explosively because of the chemical properties of the magma. The magma has a high viscosity, bubbles form and retain pressure with a high SiO2 content. The bubbles eventually explode and result in pyroclastic material and an explosive eruption. Other magmas erupt effusively when the magma has low viscosity and a low SiO2 gas %, bubbles are unable to form and retain pressure so they dissipate and therefore no explosions occur, only lava flow. Therefore, a combination of high gas content and high viscosity leads to the most explosive volcanic eruptions.

Compare and contrast the meanings and uses of earthquake magnitude and intensity scales.

Magnitude: The amount of energy released at the source of the earthquake - Earthquake magnitude can be estimated by: 1. Observing the amount of ground motion, 2. Taking into account the materials through which waves traveled, 3. The distance traveled, 4. The physics of wave propagation - Conditions that affect the amount of energy released during an earthquake: 1. Area of zone broken, 2.Strength of rocks being broken, 3. Amount of motion Intensity: The effects of ground motion on people and structure (how strong the ground motion is felt at the location) Modified Mercalli Intensity: Based on people's descriptions and opinion to decide on the intensity

Understand how extinction events are linked to the structure of the geological time scale

Mass extinctions occur between periods-- cause large changes in biosphere that defines a new period

Explain why British Columbia has the highest frequency of landslides in Canada and what the future holds as the population expands into mountainous regions.

Mountainous terrain leads to higher shear stress and/or lowering of shear strength which drives down Fs. Complex geology and abundance of unconsolidated glacial sediments sitting on top of bedrock, and high precipitation also leads to increased chances of a landslide as they lower shear strength. Frequent earthquakes also increase trigger frequency.

Evaluate volcanic hazards and their risks that may affect Vancouver and the Lower Mainland.

Mt. Baker is a local stratovolcano, which is dormant but hot. Has potential for explosive activity (with dominant intermediate magma). It is glacier covered, therefore there is a high risk for a lahar and pyroclastic flow. There is also a Lahar hazard in surrounding valleys: Abbotsford

Identify important historical figures in the development of stratigraphy and biostratigraphy

Nicholas Steno: the principles of stratigraphy including the principle of superposition and original horizontality. - James Hutton: cross cutting relationships -William Smith: principle of faunal succession- James Ussher: discovered that the world is much older than stated in the bible. Concluded that the earth was 6000 year old. - George Cuvier: concluded that mammoths were once living species that became extinct

Describe the type of volcanoes that occur at oceanic and continental hot spots

Oceanic: 1) When a mantle plume induces melting in the mantle near the base of an oceanic plate, mafic magma is produced 2) Rises to the surface through mafic crust with little interaction because the melting temperatures of the magma and crust are similar. 3) Volcanoes formed in these oceanic hotspot settings are typically shield volcanoes (along with some small cinder cones) that erupt mafic magma. Continental Hot Spot: 1) There is higher silica content of the continental crust 2) Rising mantle plume will induce melting in the upper mantle or the lithosphere near the base of a continental plate. *The resultingmelts are mafic* 3) As mafic magma rise through the continental crust, the crust melts 4) ^ Mafic magmas can produce large volumes of felsic melt 5) Leads to the formation of giant calderas Ex: Yellowstone caldera

Explain the differences between pahoehoe and a'a lavas.

Pahoehoe and a'a refers to lava flows and its appearance. If the surface of the lava flow is a ropy-texture than its pahoehoe.They flow faster than a'a lava. (low viscosity, high temperature) A'a is a lava flow with a rubble-y flow consisting of broken fragments of lava. Moves slower. Its rough and blocky. (High viscosity, low temperature).

Describe population growth and explain why it is important for natural disasters

Population growth has been exponential over the past 12,000 years. Society has become vulnerable to disruptions such as natural disasters as infastructure (transporation, communicatoin, and utilities) are affected. Infrascture will fail for long periods of time in large areas. People will be evacuated less sucessfully, so fatalities will increase.

List the different categories of volcanic rocks and explain the differences between the magmas they came from.

Rhyolites (Felsic) rock: -Form at lower temps. -Have high viscosity -Erupt explosively -Light-colored -Low density -High gas contents Intermediate rocks (andesite and dacite) Basalt (mafic) rock -Low SiO2 content— low gas content -Exist at high temp -Low viscosity -Erupt effusively -Dark colored -More dense

Explain lightning risk: dangerous times and places; how it affects people; and what you can do to stay safe

Risk is highest at southeast US, Alberta, and near the Great Lakes. Use 30/30 Rule: if 30 seconds or less between the flash is seen and a bang is hear, then move indoors and stay there until 30 minutes after last lightning or thunder. when indoors don't touch electronics and plumbing connected by metal pipes. To stay safe try not to be the high point, stay away from trees. If you are stuck outside do the lightning safety crouch.

Describe how the rupture propagates from the focus and why shaking and damage are not necessarily greatest at the epicenter.

Rupture propagates as body waves and surface wave -> Felt Zone. They begin at the focuse and propagate at 2/3 km/sec. -Damage not necessarily at epicentre b/c shaking is the greatest in the direction the rupture travels (where the waves propagate). Therefore greatest damage is around the epicentre and not necessarily AT the epicentre

Use your knowledge of volcanic processes to map major hazards around different volcanoes.

See ash fall is in the direction of the wind. lahars and lava flow come out on the sides, and lava domes are at the top.

Describe how an earthquake is recorded and how to locate the epicenter.

Seismogram: a graph that plots ground motion in relation to time, produced by a pendulum seismometer which is a heavy mass with a spring is attached to a pen, and as the ground moves the paper moves but the mass remains constant. Locate the epicenter: -P and S wave arrival times on the seismographs at different locations -Converting the P-S time to distance ( t = d/v ) -Plotting circles on a map and seeing where the circles intersect

Describe the morphology, dominant rock type and typical eruption style of the different types of volcanoes

Shield Volcanoes: -tens of km high, over 100km wide - formed by repeated eruption of BASALTIC LAVA FLOWS - low viscosity, low volatility - form at oceanic hotspots- erupt often, -Hawaiian/Icelandic eruptions - Mafic Cinder Cone: - Conical hill formed from accumulation of pyroclastic material around a volcanic vent - Hundreds of meters high and across - Medium viscosity and volatility - BASALTIC/ANDESITIC pyroclastic debris - Can hold lava lake, and degrades rapidly - Strombolian type eruption - Mafic Stratovolcano: - Composite volcano composed of alternating layers of lava flows and pyroclastic layers -have volcanic domes - Tall, conical, and have steep slopes - High viscosity, volatility, and volume - At subduction zones - Can erupt multiple times - Vulcanian to Plinian type eruptions - Intermediate to Felsic Lava Dome: -Pile of viscous lava that forms over a vent- mushroom-shaped - Pacific -> Intermediate SiO2 - High viscosity and volatility but small volume -highly explosive -Intermediate to Felsic Calderas: - High viscosity, volatility, and volume - Largest violent explosive volcanic behaviours - Range 2-75 km in diameter - Form at continental hot spots - Forms after magma chamber empties, causing the roof to collapse and in to the partially emptied reservoirs - Ultra Plinian eruptions - Felsic

Name and describe the characteristics and hazards of the 3 main types of supercell thunderstorm

Supercell storms: most violent, contain a single cell. They are long lasting, have violent gust wind and can cause tornadoes and hail. 3 types: - low precipitation: produces lots of hail -classic supercell: have rainy downdrafts and rain free updrafts - high precipitation: updrafts surrounded by rain

Distinguish between the oldest and youngest portion of a geological section using the Principles of Superposition, Original Horizontality, Lateral Continuity, and Cross-cutting Relationships

Superposition: As layers accumulate through time, the rock layer at the bottom of the pile will be the oldest and the layer at the top the youngest. Original Horizontality: when sediments lay down on earth's surface they form horizontal layers. Thus, any tilting or folding is new Lateral Continuity: sediments are extended out laterally in acontinuous formation Cross-cutting Relationships: A rock feature that cuts through another rock is the younger of the two features

Understand the concept of a biosphere and Earth System Science and that the biosphere has evolved over time

The biosphere is the thin layer of life that exists on the surface of the planet and that interacts with the hydrosphere (oceans, lakes, and rivers), the atmosphere, and the lithosphere (the Earth's crust). The biosphere has changed over time as species/ organisms evolve or go extinct. Consider the two ocean scenes millions of years apart. Even though the creatures may look different in each figure, both demonstrate an active marine community

Describe the anatomy of a hurricane, and how it looks in weather radar and satellite images

The centre of a hurricane consits of a calm eye. Around the relatively-calm eye of the hurricane is a ring of thunderstorms called the eye wall. From the eye wall are additional bands of thunderstorms that spiral outward, called spiral bands

Describe the Principle of Faunal Succession and the use of fossils in correlation and in the subdivision of Earth history

The principle suggests that there exists a predictable sequence of fossils through the layers. Strata of like age can be recognized by the fossils they contain even if the outcrops of strata are separated by large distances geographically. This only works because species have evolved through time. Using the appearance and disappearance of fossils to subdivide geological time is the science of biostratigraphy. Each fossil species is said to have a range through geological time. (it exists in the geological record from the point that it evolves to the point that it becomes extinct). Certain fossils occur in certain time periods.

Understand the risk associated with an impact hazard

The risk of being killed in an impact event by a body around 1 km or greater in the next 50 years is about 1:20,000. This is the same level risk of being killed in an air crash! Impacts can be hazardous as seen by the comet shoemaker levy 9 which collided with Jupiter with the force of several million tons of TNT. If it had hit earth it would have wiped out everything but the simplest forms of life. need lots of time to make appropriate plans and to build what we need for our defense, or risk is very high

Predict the type of breaking wave that will be found on a given beach

The shape, size, and behaviour of the breaking wave is controlled by the slope of the ocean bottom. (Look at previous flashcard)

Describe the global distribution of earthquakes and how often quakes of various magnitudes occur.

The vast majority of earthquakes occur at the margins of Earth's tectonic plates. The vert largest of recorded earthquakes have all occurred on the edges where continents meet oceans. Earthquakes of large magnitudes occur less frequently than smaller magnitude earthquakes.

Explain how humidity, saturation, latent heat, advection, and adiabatic cooling affect storm energy

There are two ways the sun's energy can be drawn into storms-- advection of heat and advection of moisture. When water vapour is drawn into the storm it condenses releasing latent heat and increasing the air temperature. Thunderstorm convert fuel of warm humid air through the adiabatic cooling as the air parcel rises high enough to become cold enough to reach saturation. Then condensation of water occurs within the air parcel. -Humidity: amount of water vapour in the air that represents measure of energy that can be released to power storms -Saturation determines whether condensation occurs and latent heat is released into the thunderstorm. -Advection moves heat and humidity around by wind and can start up storms through latent and sensible heat.

Identify atmospheric layers and explain how they relate to storms

Thermosphere: top layer, very hot and heats air, the non-visible radiation of the sun's energy is abosrbed in this layer Stratopause: absorbs UV light and becomes hot from absorbing UV solar energy Troposphere: Doesn't really receive any heating, energy is instead absorbed into the surface, which heats the air. Atmospheric layers and the energy from the sun goes to sensible heating and latent heat which are sources of fuel for storms.

Describe the hypothesis proposed by Raup and Sepkoski

They found that extinction events are periodic and it is possible that they are caused by periodic meteorite impacts. Every 25 million years there, there is a stress on the biosphere resulting in mass extinction. Something shifts in oort cloud that causes comets to fall in towards the sun with possible meteor impacts with Earth

Identify and describe typical components of a thunderstorm cloud, and describe the nature and evolution of cells in different types of thunderstorms

Thunderstorms are cumulonimbus clouds that have lightning and thunder. These are deep clouds with strong updrafts, with a cloud base near the ground and cloud top near the top of the troposphere-Mature thunderstorms have a characteristic anvil or mushroom top. Strong updrafts can cause the clouds to overshoot and create an overshooting top. stages of thunderstorm cells: Stage 1: Cumulus Phase, all updraft and no rain/anvil - Stage 2: Mature Stage, up/downdrafts, heavy rain and start of anvil with a sharp outline Stage 3: Dissipating Stage, only downdrafts, weak rain, and anvil is diffusing. Stage 4: Storm Propagation, when cold gust front plows under a warm/humid boundary layer, which triggers an updraft that can spawn new thunderstorms multi-cell storms: a thunderstorm that contains many cells. the different cells are in different stages of their life cycle Air mass thunderstorms: short lived and pop up in scattered locations within a large air mass due to strong heating of the ground

Explain the difference between tornado watches and warnings, and appropriate safety responses

Tornado watch: indicates a broad region within which tornadoes are favorable or likely later in the day. You can resume normal activities, just beware if a human spotter or other government official actually sees a tornado, then a TORNADO WARNING is issued. they only come 15 minutes or less prior to the tornado hitting. drop everything and get to an area of refuge!!!!

Describe tornado shapes, what makes them visible, and where they form relative to a thunderstorm

Tornados that exist over water are called waterspouts. Weak tornadoes over land are called land-spouts, and weak swirls of dust and small debris often with no water-droplet funnel are known as gustnadoes. What makes them visible: usually spinning air is invisible, but dirt and debris makes them visible. The rotating funnel cloud grows down from the base of the thunderstorm, and merges with debris cloud from the ground.

Describe how tsunami form and how they are detected

Tsunami: wave or a series of waves generated by the rapid displacement of large amounts of ocean water 1) earthquakes 2) volcanic eruption-- an eruption on land creates a landslide into water. Or an eruption under water, volacano top moves, gas and lava are ejcected. 3) meteor impacts 4) landslides 5) icebergs falling from glaciers detected: -The pacific tsunami warning and mitigation system which measures and detects earthquakes and tides and sends alerts to the appropriate stations -an earthquake of sufficient size to trigger the alarms, set at the threshold of 6.5 on the Richter Scale, is detected - seismic data is collected, the earthquake is located, and its magnitude is computed• reports from tide stations are monitored for any indication that a tsunami has been generated -if so, a warning is transmitted to the participating agencies (dissemination points) for relaying to the public Dart: real-time tsunami monitoring system consisting of "tsunameters" (monitoring devices) and buoys positioned at strategic locations throughout the world's ocean. The tsunameter is a seafloor bottom pressure recording (BPR) system capable of detecting tsunami as small as 1 cm (wave height in the middle of the ocean). The data generated by the bottom meters are transmitted to the moored surface buoy which then sends the data to various Warning Centers via real-time communications.

List and describe some recent impacts and "near misses"

Tunguska, Siberia: June 30, 1908: large explosion about 8 km above the surface = extraterrestrial object breaking up in the atmosphere (which is why no crater was found). - area was not populated but people and horses 480 km away were knocked off their feet.-shock wave from the blast traveled around the Earth twice. -In Scotland and Sweden, a light appeared in the sky so bright that you could read books at 2 AM without the aid of artificial light. -> fragment of comet Encke which was passing close by the Earth at the time. - 80 million + trees were knocked over -March 22, 1989: A 500-m asteroid misses Earth by 6 hours. The impact crater would have been 7 km across. -•May 19, 1996: A 150-m diameter asteroid misses Earth by 430 000 km, a hair's breadth away in astronomical terms. The Crater would have been around 1 km in diameter (similar to Meteor Crater in the USA) and released twice the energy produced by Mount St. Helens in 1980.

Describe how heat released in the atmosphere can create vertical and horizontal winds

Warm air (less dense) wants to rise, thereby creates updrafts. Cold air (more dense) wants to sink, creating downdrafts. Temperatures creates vertical buoyancy forces and these vertical forces can cause vertical winds. Temperature also alters pressure to drive horizontal winds. For pressure, warm air is less dense thus decreases atmospheric pressure with height and causes horizontal pressure gradients

Identify tsunami warning signs, and know how to respond

Warning signs: -Strong near shore earthquakes may generate a local tsunami, -can be indicated by a rise or fall of coastal waters. - an approaching tsunami is indicated by a loud roar Response: - evacuate homes/ buildings - Move inland or to high ground -move further into the ocean if you are already in deep ocean waters -listen to the local radio, marine radio, weather radio, or television stations during a tsunami emergency

Use weather radar and satellite to identify and predict storm characteristics

Weather radar: transmits microwaves into the atmosphere and listen for echo of microwave energy that bounces back off of moisture. Heavy rain = yellow and red; light rain = blue and green satellite photos: shows thunderstorm's shadow of anvil that it casts on lower clouds and ground. remote sensor: instrument outside of storm can see precipitation inside the storm.It uses disaster intensity scaled (dBz) which quantifies rain rate over a specific area. High dBz means more water vapour is contained within the cloud and a higher rain rate

Discuss why tsunami come ashore so violently

When a tsunami comes ashore shoaling occus. Shoaling is when the wavelength decreases, waves pile up due to increased friction. , but the height increases and period stays the same. Wave speed is 60kph, wave height increases to 3m, and L decreases from 100km to 2km. Destruction comes about due to the speed and mass of the water.

Define wave breaking and determine when a wave will break

When a wave reaches beyond the following critical points the wave crest becomes unstable and the wave breaks: - when ratio of Height (H)/Wavelength (L) ~ (1/7) - when ratio of height (H)/ depth (d) ~ (3/4) Whitecaps (froth) begin to form as the wave turns to SURF. When a wave breaks, its energy is dissipated in the SURF ZONE, and is transformed into KE which affects both water and land

Understand concepts of (a) stress causing strain and (b) plastic versus brittle deformation.

a) Stress is the force per unit area, whereas strain is how a material changes shape as a result of stresses involved. Strain is caused by stress, the more force you apply to an area more strain there is -Stress is released by an earthquake, but at the ends of the zone where faults moved, stress can actually increase, raising the likelihood of earthquakes in those areas b) plastic deformation: Occurs when the applied force permanently changes the shape of a rock without "breaking" it. -brittle deformation: Consider a wooden stick being bent until it breaks. As forces applied to the material increase, the material stores the energy, i.e. we say that stress is accumulating. When the stress (force per unit area) exceeds the strength of the material, the material breaks. The accumulated energy is rapidly released as heat, motion, and sound.

Describe characteristics of tornado evolution, tornado outbreaks, and mesocyclones

a. Rotation starting and kicking up some dust and debris b. rotating funnel cloud grows down from the base of the thunderstorm, and merges with the debris cloud from the ground c. near the end, tornadoes decrease into a rope stage where they are long, thin, and bent. Be aware of tornadoes forming nearby Tornado outbreaks: When many tornadoes occur during a week or less Mesocyclone: when the whole supercell thunderstorm is rotating- most likely to spawn tornadoes

Explain how Earth's carrying capacity and overpopulation are related to the fate of the human race, and anticipate your role in it

carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of humans who can survive given the continued availability of food, clean water, clean air, and energy. Carrying capacity is limited by the resources available on Earth, and with the increase in population density, these resources are quickly depleting. To a point where all resources are used up and quality of life becomes unpleasant-- starvation

Identify mammatus clouds, flanking lines, cloud striations, haboobs, arc clouds, wall clouds

mammatus cloud: are visible on the underside of anvil clouds and give no clue to the intensity of the thunderstorm or if tornadoes are present flanking lines: are a line of clouds sticking out from the main updraft in multi-cell storms. Often they are new cells in the cumulus stage. As they grow, the prevailing winds blow those cells into the main updraft, by which time the cells are often in the mature stage cloud striations: seem like grooves on a screw around the main updraft haboobs:when a gust front blows over a dry/ dusty surface it becomes a dust storm arc clouds: in humid areas, the advancing gust front pushes humid air upward to create a cloud called an arc cloud wall clouds: lowering of cloud base that develops beneath the surrounding base of a cumuloniumbus cloud. Wall clouds in supercells sometimes rotate, and it is from these rotating wall clouds that tornadoes form.

List the different volcano monitoring techniques and the instruments that are used.

monitor changes in magma movement beneath volcanoes. 1. Seismic activity: -Seismic monitoring- As magma rises through the crust, it fractures the overlying rock to make room for itself, causing earthquakes. -Acoustic flow monitors- a type of seismometer that records high-frequency vibrations caused by lahars. When a lahar is detected it sends a signal from an antenna to a receiving station. A signal is then sent to people to move to higher ground. 2. Ground deformation: -Direct measurement of horizontal displacement: measure the distance between metal stakes or by measuring an increase in the width of cracks on a volcano. -Tiltmeters: records changes in the tilt of a surface. The volcano tilts outward as it inflates with magma. After an eruption, the tiltmeter records the decreasing tilt as the volcano returns to normal. -GPS: to see horizontal and vertical movement of targets on a volcano through repeated measurements over time. -Insar: satellite radar interferometry: satellites using radar waves to measure the elevation of areas of the crust near active volcanoes. Brighter color = greater change. 3. Increased gas emissions -Direct collection of gases or COSPEC which estimates SO2 emissions from afar. -Fourier transform infrared spectrometer analyzes several gases simultaneously and uses a mathematical process to show the amount of light absorbed at each wavelength. 4.Visible signs -Still photography and video footage are used to document changes of active volcanoes -LIDAR: images helpful in visualizing the progress of change in the volcano 5. Increased heat flow: -Optical pyrometer is used to determine the temp. Of glowing lava -Aerial remote sensing of infrared spectra records atypical hot areas -Forward looking infrared: images taken by airplanes or satellites used to monitor dome growth

Explain what pyroclastic flows, lahars, volcanic domes, sector collapses, lateral blasts, and toxic gases are and how they form.

pyroclastic flows: are mixtures of hot gas and pyroclastic fragments. They include ash, lapilli, crystals, and other rock fragments. Can form from a collapse of a volcanic column, collapse of a volcanic dome, when pyroclastic eruption builds up and overspills the crater rim resulting in a flow of pyroclastic material. lahars: are volcanic mud or debris flows with a mixture of water, ash, rock fragments, and debris. In order to form need pyroclastic material and water. volcanic domes: when small eruption builds up and overspills crate rim resulting in high speed flow sector collapses: occurs when collapse of eruption column and a volcanic edifice is weakened and part of the volcano collapses. lateral blasts: failure on one side of volcanic edifice, toxic gases: can be released by a volcano during or between active eruptions. The main gases released are H2O and CO2. Other gases include SO2, H2, and HCl.

Describe how waves interact; explain constructive and destructive interference

when waves strike other waves they combine constructively or deconstructively. -Constructive occurs when the wave amplitudes reinforce each other building a bigger wave. -Deconstructive occurs when the wave amplitudes oppose each other resulting in smaller waves.