EPC Exam Master Guide
How is hypertrophy different from hyperplasia?
Hypertrophy is an increase in muscle fiber size Hyperplasia is an increase in muscle fibers themselves
Is the RPE method a credible way of determining exercise intensity?
No, RPE is a very rough estimate that is only used to get an objective measure of a client's effort. It shouldnt be used in subjective studies
Which one of the principles indentified in the ASEP Code of Ethics speaks primarily to exercise physiologists engaged in teaching of sports nutrition?
Number 9 Exercise physiologists should participate in and encourage critical discourse to reflect the collective knowledge and practice of the exercise physiology profession to protect the public from misinformation and unethical acts
What particular foods should be consumed before, during, and immediately after exercise?
Pre-exercise: high carb (250 g about 3-5 hours before) no fiber low fat During: 30 to 60 g of carbs Post-exercise: 100 to 150 g of carbs depending on body weight
How critical is it for non-strength building athletes to consume protein?
Very critical. Protein is the building block of most tissues. It helps maintain or build muscle even if they arent training for it.
What are the differences between the percentage of VO2 max method of prescribing exercise and the percentage of HR max method?
Vo2 max percentage is a more precise method that is tailored to an athlete's profile that can be used in a lab HR max percentage is just an estimate that can be used in a field
Beta-blockers are also referred to as ___ that ___ heart rate and ventricular contractility, and ___ myocardial oxygen consumption.
adrenergic blocking agents/decrease/decrease
Why is Vo2 max important to endurance athletes?
Vo2max is the measure of aerobic capacity which is directly related to the volume of O2 consumed. The longer O2 can be sustained at a higher rate and the more O2 consumed, the higher the performance can be achieved.
How many ATP is produced during glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and ETC?
glycolysis: Net of 2 Krebs: Net of 4 ETC: 32 to 34
Iron supplementation for anemic subjects will improve
hemoglobin
Which of the following is the classic "gold standard" in assessing body composition?
hydrostatic weighing
Researchers use correlational research because it allows them to ___.
predict relationships
How is the target HR determined in the Karvonen method? Also, when should the subject's HR be determined?
(fractional intensity)(HR max-HR rest) + HR rest The heart rate should be determined before the client starts working out
What are the steps involved in initiation of muscle contraction?
1) An action potential in a motor neuron causes acetylcholine to release in the synaptic cleft. muscle contraction steps 2) Acetylcholine binds with receptors on the cell membrane on the muscle fiber, opening Ca2+ -Na+ channels. Usually referred to as Calcium channels. 3) Calcium is released from the terminal cisternae into the muscle fiber. 4) Calcium binds to troponin 5) Troponin shifts tropomyosin, which was blocking the active site on the actin. 6) Myosin heads attach to actin by breaking down ATP to ADP and a phosphate via Myosin-ATPase 7) The Myosin head forms a 'cross-bridge' on the active site of the actin filament. 8) The cross bridge pulls actin, which slides over the myosin - known as the 'Power Stroke.' 9) The release of ADP completes the cross-bridge movement and ATP attaches to myosin, breaking the actin-myosin crossbridge. 10) Every time ATP is split into ADP + P, the myosin head 'cocks' into place to form another cross bridge with actin.
Discuss ways that CO2 is transported in the blood.
1) dissolved in physical solution 2) as bicarbonate 3) as carbamino compunds
What are the most obvious ethical dilemmas in exercise physiology?
1) ethical decisions regarding the use of research grants from companies that have a vested financial interest in the research 2) failure to make full, critical disclosure of academics and/or research information that influences self-determination 3) refusal or failure to confront public-sector problems faced by students and members of emerging profession
What are the mistakes that occur with training for an increase in range of motion?
1) failure to use a joint through its normal motion 2) failure to use muscles with create a resistance to being stretched
What are the principles of muscular training? How do the principles differ when the objective is muscular strength rather than muscular endurance?
A combination of load and number of reps define the athlete's approach to increase muscular strength and max power output. Muscular endurance is about how long the muscle can continue to work, not power or strength output
Describe the chambers of the heart.
4 chambers: 2 upper, thin walled atria called left and right atria = wrinkled earlike flap on the outer surface called an auricle 2 lower chambers are thick walled ventricles called the right and left ventricle The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs. The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood to the body.
Explain the steps involved in the release of energy from the use of ATP.
4 ways to produce ATP: 1) creatine phosphate 2) adenylate kinase reaction 3) anaerobic gkycolysis 4) aerobic oxidation (90% of production) Very little ATP is produced so it must be continuously resynthesized
What is vo2 max in relative and absolute terms?
Absolute VO2 is simply the maximal oxygen uptake level you reached during the test and is expressed in liters per minute (L/min). Relative Vo2 takes into account your body weight and shows you the value relative to weight (VO2 is divided by body weight (kg)
What is acceleration, and what is the difference between acceleration and velocity?
Acceleration is velocity that isnt constant and it changes in unequal increments. Accerelation is variable and velocity is constant and equal
Explain the differences between training for aerobic power and muscular power.
Aerobic power is how well and efficient the system can pump blood through the body Muscular power is how fast and how forceful muscles can output strength
Aging is associated with declines in muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility. Why?
Aging causes a decrease in muscle tissue (atrophy) which causes all three to decline. Also, training has less of an effect because recovery is less efficient
Explain the importance of peripheral adaptation that a-vo2 diff plays in the Vo2 response to exercise.
An increase in a-vo2 diff can give a person more arterial oxygen to supply the body with. With this increase in O2, more oxygen is readily available to use during exercise and can increase performance.
Why is it that anaerobic athletes are interested in Vo2max?
Anaerobic athletes are interested because having a high Vo2 can help supply their muscles with more O2 which might help their performance
What are the differences in anaerobic and aerobic adaptations to exercise training?
Anaerobic: increases ATP, PC, free creatine, and glycogen increases in enzymes that facilitate glucose catabolism increase in muscle strength increase in speed and fiber size increase in myofibrillar volume, cytoplasmic density, and myosin heavy-chain protein increase in creatine phosphokinase, myokinase, and phosphofructokinase increase in stored ATP, creatine phosphate, and glycogen Aerobic: increase in left ventricle cavity and myofibril thickness of the left ventricalar wall size increase in blood volume increase in stroke volume decrease in resting and active heart rate increase in cardiac output increase in mitochondria increase in enzymes to oxidize fatty acids
What is the difference between anatomical dead space and physiologic dead space?
Anatomical dead space is the total volume of the conducting airways from the nose or mouth down to the level of the terminal bronchioles Physiological dead space is Anatomical dead space plus alveolar dead space
Describe the surfaces of the heart.
Anterior (Sternocostal) surface: It is formed mainly by the right atrium and right ventricle. They are separated from each other by the vertical atrioventricular groove. The right border of the anterior surface is formed by the right atrium while the left border is formed by left atrium and part of left auricle. Inferior (Diaphragmatic) surface: It is formed mainly by the right and left ventricles separated by the posterior interventricular groove. The inferior surface of the right atrium into which the inferior vena cava opens, also forms part of this surface. The base of the heart (posterior surface): It is formed mainly by the left atrium, into which the four pulmonary veins drain. It lies opposite to the apex. Often, the beginners think of the diaphragmatic surface of the heart as its base because of the fact that the heart rests on it, however, it should be kept in mind that the heart does not rest on its base. It rests on the diaphragmatic surface which is not the base. The posterior surface is called the base because it lies opposite to the apex of the pyramidal shaped heart.
Explain the terms bigeminy and trigeminy when used to describe premature complexes.
Bigeminy: a heart rhythm problem in which there are repeated rhythms heart beats, one long and one shorter. Most often this is due to ectopic beats, or extra beats, occurring so frequently that there is one after each sinus beat, or normal rhythm beat. The two beats are figuratively similar to two twins (hence bi- + gemini). The ectopic beat is typically a premature ventricular contraction (PVC). For example, in ventricular bigeminy, a sinus beat is shortly followed by a PVC, a pause, another normal beat, and then another PVC.[1] In atrial bigeminy, the other "twin" is a premature atrial contraction (PAC) Trigeminy: two PVCs with one sinus beat. This rhythm is different from bigeminy, where the heart beats with one sinus beat and one PVC.
Why is the study of exercise biomechanics related to better coaching skills?
Biomechanics can help coaches pay attention to an athlete's mechanics and correct them to produce a better performance
What determines whether oxygen and hemoglobin are combined or dissociated?
Blood acidity (pH), temperature, and CO2 levels
Why is blood supply so important to the development of energy at the cellular level?
Blood carries the Co2 waste out of the cycle and carries oxygen to the ETC which by far the most efficient system. Without this, energry production would cease
Describe the significance of the terms wenckeback and mobitz in regard to the efficiency and/or work of the heart.
Both are types of second degree AV blocks Wenckeback: the PR interval becomes progressively longer until the AV node is no longer stimulated which occurs at the AV node Mobitz: Occasionally, without lengthening of the PR interval, the QRS complex is dropped (after a normal P wave). The block occurs below the bundle of His.
What is ventilation equivalent of carbon dioxide? How is calculated?
CO2 equivalent is a good indicator of anaerobic threshold it is calculated as the ratio of air expired to volume of CO2 produced
Explain the basic research methods to measure muscular strength
Cable tensiometer: Used to assess max strength. Tension applied to a steel cable that depresses a riser which is read by the measuring instrument Dynamometer: Used to assess static strength and endurance. When a force is applied, a spring is compressed and a needle is moved to measure One-rep Max: Used to assess max strength. A test that measures how much a person can lift in one rep (squat, bench press, deadlift, ect)
Explain the functional significance of calculating cardiac output and how it relates to athletic performance.
Calculating cardiac output can help an athlete find what is limiting them from increasing it and also if it can be increased any further
Explain what is meant by carbo loading and its significance in endurance sports.
Carbo loading is a method of eating a vast majority of carbs in your diet to saturate your muscles with muscle glycogen. This oversaturation can help give your body more fuel during long endurance events and can help increase performance
Explain the roles of carbs, fats, and proteins in athletic training.
Carbs: the main fuel source. Used in moderate to high intensity workouts. Fats: Another main fuel source. Provides more calories. Used typically in a low to moderate intensity Protein: Used as a building block for muscle and other tissues. Used as fuel as a last resort (starvation)
Explain how cardiac output can be estimated in the exercise physiology laboratory.
Cardiac output can be estimated using the Fick principle. quotient of total body oxygen consumption divided by the difference in oxygen content of the arterial blood and the mixed venous blood
What is the difference between cardiovascular endurance and muscular endurance?
Cardio endurance is the ability of the cardiovascular system to continuously provide oxygen and release carbon dioxide for as long as possible Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to continuously do work for as long as possible
What are the primary diseases that kill or disable Americans?
Cardiovascular diseases brought on by physical inactivity (blood pressure, heart pathology, metabolic diseases, ect)
What are the two types of chemoreceptors?
Central chemoreceptors: located in the central nervous system bathed in the brain interstitial fluid responds to changes in partial pressure carbon dioxide and positive H ions Peripheral chemoreceptors: located in the arch of the aorta and in the bifurication of the internal and external carotid arteries in the neck responds to changes in partial pressure carbon dioxide and positive H ions
What are chemoreceptors?
Chemically sensitive cells that serve as sensory receptors
Discuss the differences between concentric and eccentric movements. Which one is consistent with creating a movement?
Concentric is when the muscle shortens to create force Eccentric is when the muscle lengthens Concentric usually creates the movement while the eccentric movement is the downward phase
What is the role of mitochondria in aerobic exercise?
Creates ATP via oxidative phosphorylation
During strenuous exercise, what additional muscles help with respiration?
Diaphragm, external intercostals, sternocleiodmastoid muscles, pectoralis major and minor, trapezius, and serratus anterior
Explain Do2 (delivery of O2) and its role in endurance activities.
Do2 is the delivery of oxygen throughout the bodily systems and its tissues. It is vital during endurance exercises in order to continuously fuel the body with O2
The medullary respiratory center is split into two sections. What are they?
Dorsal Group: formerly the inspiratory group; neurons in the medulla that generate the rhythm of breathing in response to the needs of the body such as laughing, talking, crying, ect innervated by the bilateral phrenic nerves (C3, C4, C5) Ventral Group: formerly the expiratory group ; it autorhythmically stimulates spontaneous ventilation innervated by the bilateral phrenic nerves going inactive
What is the relationship between double product and myocardial oxygen consumption? How is double product calculated?
Double product is calculated: systolic blood pressure x pulse rate Double product is used as an index for myocardial oxygen consumption (the optimal oxygen level needed for heart function)
Dehydration is a potential threat to all athletes. How can it be avoided?
Drink before exercise (500 to 600 mL about 2-3 hours before) Drink during exercise (5 to 7 oz. every 10 to 15 minutes, 6 to 8% of carb solution) Drink after exercise: ~1.5 L for every 1kg lost
What is the role of myoglobin in facilitating oxygen transfer to the mitochondria during strenuous exercise?
During vigorous exercise, the hemoglobin will unload oxygen into the mitochondria of the muscle cell
Discuss the VO2 max values of a nonathlete versus those of an endurance athlete
Endurance athletes will have a much higher Vo2 max value than a nonathlete. Nonathletes can increase there VO2 max by 25-50%
How would a high V/Q ratio (ventilation-perfusion ratio) affect gas exchange in the lungs?
High ratio results in poor gas exchange in the lungs. An equal or lowered ratio is ideal.
In what way does ethical thinking support the exercise physiologist's professional obligation to refrain from harming others?
Ethical thinking sees the argument from both sides and allows us to make an informed decision to help a person in the best way while causing them the least amount of harm
Discuss the term "exercise as medicine" and its significance to a healthier lifestyle.
Exercise as medicine can help with chronic or acute illnesses by managing or even reversing symptoms
In what way is exercise believed to be medicine?
Exercise can be seen as a type of preventative medicine that can help stave off chronic cardiovascular or metabolic diseases
How does internal respiration differ from external respiration?
External respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the atmosphere Internal respirationis the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the muscular tissue level
What are the recommendations of starting to exercise?
Find something you enjoy that can build up your endurance and then go from there.
Describe the ECG characteristics of a normal sinus rhythm.
Four requirements are needed for a normal sinus rhythm. 1) The P wave must be upright (positive) in lead II. 2) Each P wave is followed by QRS, and each QRS is preceded by a P wave. 3) The PR interval is normal and constant. 4) The rate is constant (60 to 100 bpm)
Is exercise frequency important in the prescription process, and if so, in what way?
Frequency is important because 1) it will help build endurance and 2) it is necessary to increase as a person continues to get stronger and better
When alveolar ventilation (in liters of air per minute) and alveolar capillary blood flow (in liters of blood per minute) are approximately equal, what is the effect on oxygen equilibration across the alveolar capillary membrane?
Gas exchange is negatively affected and is less efficient
What is genetic enhancement and how does it threaten the integrity of sports?
Genetic enhancement is designed to modify a person's nonpathological human traits for the purpose of either supplementing the function of normal genes or boosting the current genetic function It threatens the integrity because it uses unnatural influences to get better at a sport
What is the burden or value of genetics in the athlete's desire to perform well?
Genetics can give athlete's an edge or limit their potential growth, but all athlete's must train and consider nutrition
Explain why pulmonary ventilation does not limit endurance exercise performance among healthy people and athletes
Healthy lung capacity can increase 20 to 30 fold in ventilation compared to resting levels
What is heart disease, what are the risk factors, and how does exercise help to reduce the risk of a heart attack?
Heart disease is any pathology of the heart that causes disease-like symptoms The risk factors are inactivity, blood pressure, stress, smoking, metabolic diseases, ect Exercise increases the integrity of the myocardium and diameter of the arteries
Exercise Physiology equations
Heart rate: cardiac output/stroke volume Stroke Volume: cardiac output/heart rate Cardiac Output: stroke volume x heart rate (must be in L) Stroke Volume Index (stroke volume relative to body size): Stroke volume/body surface area Cardiac Index (cardiac output relative to body size): cardiac output/body surface area Arteriovenous oxygen difference: volume of oxygen consumed/cardiac output x 100 Oxygen consumption: minue ventilation x (air inspired minus air expired Oxygen Pulse: volume of oxygen consumed/heart rate Double product: Heart rate x systolic blood pressure x 0.01 Myocardial oxygen consumption: 0.14 (heart rate x systolic blood pressure x 0.01) - 6.3 Relative cardiac efficiency: myocardial oxygen consumption/volume of oxygen consumption Left ventrical power output: cardiac output x systolic blood pressure x 13.6 x 0.001 cardiac output power: left ventrical power output x 1.2 Exercise cardiac power: vo2 max/systolic blood pressure max myocardial efficiency: cardiac power output x 2.34 Left ventrical stroke work: stroke volume x mean arterial pressure Mean arterial pressure: diastolic blood pressure + 0.32 Systemic vascular resistance: mean arterial pressure/cardiac output
Why does hemoglobin combine with oxygen in the lungs and release oxygen at the tissues?
Hemoglobin must be fully saturated with oxygen and the most efficient path is in the lungs. It releases oxygen at the tissues because the Bohr effect surrounds it with CO2 which encourages O2 release from the hemoglobin
Why is eating a well balanced diet more important for athletes than consuming supplements, vitamins, and minerals?
If an athlete has a well balanced diet, they should already be getting all the nutrients they need. There is no need to try and supplement the diet with outside vitamins and minerals.
Is cheating in sports getting worse or is it about the same as it has been for several decades?
It is about the same. People are just getting better at hiding it.
In what way is the upper respiratory system designed to carry out its function?
It is designed to physically move the air in and out of its system with muscles and air pressure
Describe the anaerobic threshold (venilatory threshold).
It is the disproportionate increase of expired ventilation with oxygen which indicates a steep rise in blood lactate levels
Where and why does the chloride shift take place?
It takes place in plasma and red blood cells this process helps maintain blood pH levels
What is the role of acetyl CoA in energy production?
Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to be oxidized for energy production.
What are the equations for kinetic energy and potential energy?
KE=(1/2)(mass)(velocity squared) PE=(weight)(displacement) or (force)(distance)
What is the difference between kinematics and kinetics?
Kinematics is the study of bodies of motion with respect to time, distance, and displacement Kinetics is the study of forces including the bodies that produce the force and receive the force
What is the value in knowing a client's ejection fraction before developing an exercise prescription?
Knowing a client's ejection fraction can help a trainer decide what type of training needs to happen. If EF is normal, the client can go through most of all training modalities. If EF is low, the trainer can only perform certain training methods and maybe implement some cardiac rehab training.
In what way is linear motion different from rotary motion?
Linear motion is motion that moves in a straight line at a constant speed Rotary motion is motion that revolves around an axis
What is lipolysis and what role does the cardiorespiratory system play in its use at the cellular level?
Lipolysis is the breakdown of fat stored in fat cells The cardiorespiratory system controls the efficiency of fat being broken down. A trained individual can breakdown fat using lipolysis more efficiently than an untrained individual.
Discuss the control of ventilation during exercise.
Lung function and respiratory muscles oxidative capacity (increased concentration of oxidative enzymes and mitochondria) Airway resistance and gas diffusion Cardiac output
What are the different types of minerals?
Major (or macro) minerals Trace minerals
Explain the percentage of maximum heart rate method and the percentage of oxygen consumption reserve method and how they differ.
Max heart rate is a field estimate that just takes the percentage of max HR Percentage of oxygen consumption is a lab estimate that uses hyper specific info to determine the workload of an exercise using VO2 max and exercise intensity
What are the cardiovascular training effects at submaximal exercise and at rest?
Minute ventilation (Ve): little/no change (rest), no change/slight decrease (submax) Tidal volume (Vt): no change (rest), no change/slight increase (submax) Average breathing frequency (Fb): no change/slight decrease, slight decrease (submax) Volume of oxygen (Vo2): no change/slight decrease (rest), no change/slight decrease (submax) Cardiac output (Q): no change (rest), No change/slight decrease (submax) Stroke volume (SV): increase (rest), increase (submax) Heart rate (HR): decrease (rest), decrease (submax) Arteriovenous oxygen difference (the difference in the oxygen content of the blood between the arterial blood and the venous blood; a-vo2 diff): no change (rest), no change/slight increase (submax) Systolic blood pressure (SBP): little/no change (rest), little/no change (submax) Diastolic blood pressure (DBP): little/no change (rest), little/no change (submax) Mean arterial pressure (MAP): little/no change (rest), no change/slight decrease (submax) Systemic vascular resistance (SVR): no change (rest), no change/slight decrease (submax) Double product (DP): decrease (rest), decrease (submax)
How does minute ventilation differ from alveolar ventilation?
Minute ventilation is air inspired or expired per minute. It is the product of an average breathing frequency of 12 breaths per minute While alveolar ventilation is the volume of air available for gas exchange calculated by: tidal volume-dead space x frequency
Respiratory calculations
Minute ventilation: tidal volume x frequency of breaths in a minute carbon dioxide produced: (ventilation expired x percentage of CO2 exhaled) - (ventilation inspired x percentage of CO2 inhaled) Respiratory exchange ratio: volume of CO2 consumed/volume of O2 consumed Ventilatory equivalent for oxygen: minute ventilation/volume of O2 consumed Alveolar ventilation: (tidal volume-anatomical dead space) x frequency of breaths in a minute Ventilation-Perfusion ratio: ventilation divided by perfusion Indirect Fick equation: Vo2 divided by O2 content in arterial blood - O2 content in mixed venous blood
What is muscle soreness, and which training modality causes more soreness compared to others?
Muscle soreness is believed to be due to small tears in muscle tissue or damage to contractile components Training that people are unaccustomed to will cause the most damage since the body isnt used to it
What are the steps necessary for a muscle to generate a force?
Muscles must contract and have enough energy to move against gravity
Explain the health-related benefits of muscular training.
Muscular training can help prevent musculoskeletal diseases
What percentage of Americans are regularly active?
Only about 10-15%
What are the reasons why the winner of a long distance race cannot be predicted from Vo2?
Other factors play a role in race performance like age, genetics, the athlete's training, gender, and family history
What are the effects of agining on Vo2max?
Overall decrease in Vo2 but also related to decrease in age-related activity decrease
Describe the ECG configuration of the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave and the normal duration of the PR interval, QRS complex, and QT interval.
P wave: atrial depolarization (symmetrical) (0.08-0.11 s in duration) QRS complex: ventricular depolarization (duration related to heart rate); an increase in the duration of the QRS complex is a sign of delayed conduction through the ventricle T wave: ventricular repolarization (0.16 s in duration) PR interval: normal interval of 0.12-0.20 s QRS complex: between 0.10 and 0.12 seconds QT interval: 0.40-0.44 seconds
What are the principles of exercises and describe each.
Principle of Overload: a greater than normal stress is required for the muscles to become stronger Principle of Specificity: training progresses from general training to specific skills. In order to get better at a skill, an athlete must practice and perform the skill Principle of Individual Differences: Training must be tailored to meet a person's specific needs. One training regimen may not work the same way for two different people. Principle of Reversibility: most gains can easily be lost after a period of no training. Gains can't be permanently kept and athletes must continue to work out Principle of Progression: a gradual and systematic increase of workload over a period of time will result in the improvement of injury without risk of injury Principle of Warmup and Cooldown: A warmup should precede exercise and cooldown should follow a exercise
What types of exercises develope strength as opposed to cardiovascular endurance?
Resistance workouts that use weights to fight gravity
Describe the location and function of the SA node, AV node, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.
SA node: located within the posterior wall of the right atrium at the junction of the superior vena cava and right atrium primary pacemaker which conducts the electrical activity AV node: located at the junction of the right atrium and right ventricle controls heart rate and can act as a pacemaker when the SA node is damaged bundle branches: offshoots from the bundle of His play an integral role in the electrical conduction system of the heart by transmitting cardiac action potentials from the bundle of His to the Purkinje fibers. Purkinje fibers: located in the inner ventricular walls of the heart, just beneath the endocardium in a space called the subendocardium carry the contraction impulse from both the left and right bundle branch to the myocardium of the ventricles
What is the difference between a vector and a scalar?
Scalar has no direction while vector has a direction attached to it
Describe the events that associate with sinus bradycardia, sinus tachycardia, arrhythmia, sinoatrial block, and sinus arrest.
Sinus bradycardia: refers to an event happening at the sinus node that forces the heart rate to slower than normal Sinus tachycardia: refers to an event happening at the sinus node that forces the heart rate to faster than normal arrythmia: a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat sinoatrial block: a disorder in the normal rhythm of the heart, known as a heart block, that is initiated in the sinoatrial node. The initial action impulse in a heart is usually formed in the sinoatrial node (SA node) and carried through the atria, down the internodal atrial pathways to the atrioventricular node (AV) node.[1] In normal conduction, the impulse would travel across the bundle of His (AV bundle), down the bundle branches, and into the Purkinje fibers. This would depolarize the ventricles and cause them to contract. In an SA block, the electrical impulse is delayed or blocked on the way to the atria, thus delaying the atrial beat.[2] (An AV block, occurs in the AV node and delays ventricular depolarisation). SA blocks are categorized into three classes based on the length of the delay. sinus arrest: a medical condition wherein the sinoatrial node of the heart transiently ceases to generate the electrical impulses that normally stimulate the myocardial tissues to contract and thus the heart to beat
What is the distinction between a) speed and velocity and b) instantaneous velocity and average velocity?
Speed is how fast something is while velocity is how fast something is with a specific direction Instant velocity is the speed of something at a given point in time while average velocity is the speed of something between two points
Describe the muscle fiber type that has a higher quality of mitochondrial activity via electron transport chain.
Type 1 fibers has a high quality mito. activity via ETC because it has a high aerobic capacity and it is slow to fatigue.
Contrast the neurotransmitters and the effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation of the heart.
Sympathetic: catecholamines Parasympathetic: acetylcholine Sympathetic system increases heart rate, stroke volume, firing rate of the SA node, force of ventricular contraction, heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output Parasympathetic system does the exact opposite
Why does the cost of ventilation increase with exercise?
The activation of inspiratory muscles with exercise increases the work so ventilation cost must increase to compensate
What is the medullary respiratory center?
The area of the medulla that controls basic rhythm and rate of breathing.
Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system and its two divisions in the regulation of cardiac output.
The autonomic system controls bodily systems automatically (without one's conscious thought) With cardiac output, when there is an increased need for O2, the sympathetic system will increase heart rate and will influence the SA and AV nodes to increase firing rate. When the need for extra O2 is no longer there, the parasympathetic system will regulate the cardiac output anad heart to resting values
Explain why expired ventilation and perfusion need to be balanced to optimize gas exchange at the alveolar-pulmonary capillary membrane.
The balance is required because if the blood is flowing too fast through the pulmonary capillaries, the transient time is vastly reduced which reduces arterial oxygenation
What is the importance of the brain and spinal cord in human movement?
The brain and spinal cord sends the neurological impulses and messages that cause movement. With no neuro system, movement will never happen.
Explain the normal conductivity of the heart
The cardiac conduction system is a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells in the walls of the heart that send signals to the heart muscle causing it to contract. The main components of the cardiac conduction system are the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers. The SA node (anatomical pacemaker) starts the sequence by causing the atrial muscles to contract. From there, the signal travels to the AV node, through the bundle of His, down the bundle branches, and through the Purkinje fibers, causing the ventricles to contract. This signal creates an electrical current that can be seen on a graph called an Electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG). Doctors use an EKG to monitor the cardiac conduction system's electrical activity in the heart.
What is the ventilation equivalent of oxygen? How is it calculated?
The equivalent is an indication of respiratory economy It is calculated as the ratio of expired ventilation to oxygen.
What is the interaction between force and velocity in the muscles?
The force-velocity relationship, like the length-tension relationship, is a curve that actually represents the results of many experiments plotted on the same graph. Experimentally, a muscle is allowed to shorten against a constant load. The muscle velocity during shortening is measured and then plotted against the resistive force. The general form of this relationship is shown in the graph below. On the horizontal axis is plotted muscle velocity relative to maximum velocity (Vmax) while on the vertical axis is plotted muscle force relative to maximum isometric force (Po).
What is the Bohr effect? How is it related to blood carbon dioxide?
The higher increases in blood acidity, the more oxyhemoglobin disassociates with oxygen Carbon Dioxide helps increase the Bohr effect and help hemoglobin release oxygen
Ventillation and rhythmic breathing is controlled by what part of the brain?
The medulla oblongata of the brain stem
What role does the nervous system play in training the musculoskeletal system?
The nervous system is usually the first thing to see the effects of training. In the first 6 weeks of training, we see an increase in recruitment, synchronization, and firing frequency of motor units
Describe the role of the peripheral nervous system in human movement.
The peripheral nervous system is the highway from the brain to the limbs. It is basically a bridge between the two.
What is the significance of Ve to Vo2 in steady-state aerobic exercise?
The pulmonary ventilation/oxygen consumption ratio is a good indicator of the benefits of aerobic training. The lower the ratio, the less total cost of O2. This means more O2 is readily available to non-respiratory muscles.
Where is ATP used in muscle contraction?
The splitting of ATP releases the stored energy that provides movement of the myosin cross-bridges toward the central region of the sarcomere
Describe the primary branches of the right and left coronary arteries.
The two main coronary arteries are the left and right coronary arteries. The left coronary artery (LCA), which divides into the left anterior descending artery and the circumflex branch, supplies blood to the heart ventricles and left atrium. The right coronary artery (RCA), which divides into the right posterior descending artery and a large marginal branch, supplies blood to the heart ventricles, right atrium, and sinoatrial node (cluster of cells in the right atrial wall that regulates the heart's rhythmic rate).
What is the significance of the different static lung volumes?
These values can be used as predictors for lung diseases or patterns of restriction
Why is it important that exercise physiologists carry out their duty to the public in accordance with ethical standards?
To do the least amount of harm and do the most amount of good you can to an unsuspecting public
What are the static measures of lung volume and capacity?
Total Lung Capacity: ~6000 mL Inspiratory reserve volume: 2000 to 3000 mL Tidal volume: 500 mL Expiratory reserve volume: 1200 mL Residual volume: 1200 mL
Describe the anatomic and metabolic differences between Type I and type IIB muscle fibers.
Type I fibers are typically hard to fatigue, has alot of endurance, but no power, replaces ATP very rapidly, and has a high flow of blood to the muscle Type IIB are easy to fatigue, replaces ATP slowly, very strong, but no endurance, and has a poor supply of oxygen
Is it necessary for athletes to consume vitamins or minerals beyond eating a normal diet?
Unless they are doing something extreme that requires they consume more, no.
How is active expiration achieved?
Using the muscles on the inside of the rib cage to force air out
In what way does variable resistance training compare favorably or not so favorably to traditional methods of strength training?
Variable resistance training can have its pros and cons. Pro: this training forces the muscle to work harder to accommodate the dynamic forces and dynamic resistance arms Con: this training also is less stable so there is an increased risk in injury for people who dont know what they are doing
What is the relationship between velocity and acceleration and how does it relate to human movement?
Velocity and acceleration are both related to how fast something is moving, but acceleration also has a direction to it Speed is required for human movement in all directions and can dictate certains things about a persons movement
How is passive expiration achieved?
When alveolar pressure is higher than the outside atmospheric pressure
Explain how cardiorespiratory adaptations might result from resistance training.
When resistance training, there is an acute increase in blood pressure which causes an increase in the left ventricular wall thickness and mass
What is the Haldane effect?
While the increased oxygenation of hemoglobin promotes disassociation of carbon dioxide, deoxygenated hemoglobin has a higher affinity for CO2 than it does O2
What are the nutritional needs of young athletes versus college age athletes?
Young athletes need more nutrients and food because 1) their bodies inefficiently burn energy and 2) they need more because of their growing and changing bodies
How does ventilation change during graded exercise?
alveolar ventilation increases 20-fold in order to keep up with the increase in metabolic demand and need for oxygen this increase also keeps the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide constant the most important need of this is to remove the excess CO2 from the body due to increase in exercise in the inital seconds, expired ventilation happens very rapidly, but levels off about five minutes into steady state exercise Tidal volume remains unchanged during endurance exercise and increases with submaximal and maximal exercise VO2 Max Values: 65-85 for distance runners 45-65 for non-distance athletes (football) 25-45 to sedentary population highest ever recorded was 94 in male cross-country skier
What are the functions of the apneustic center and the pneumotaxic center?
apneustic: stimulates the inspiratory center by preventing inspiratory neurons from being switched off, lengthening inspiration (back of the pons) pnemotaxic: inhibits the inspiratory center, shortening inspiration (front of the pons)
Thickening of blood vessel wall lining, and a progressive narrowing of the vessels is referred to as ___.
atherosclerosis
What are the differences between the bipolar and limb leads?
bipolar leads have different charges on their poles limb leads are placed on the limbs of the body
According to some physiologists, cardiac index should be calculated by dividing what by what? What is the traditional interpretation compared to the modern one?
cardiac output divided by body surface area traditional used to do total body weight minus lean body weight but was changed to the modern body surface area
The ___ component of the exercise prescription is used to prevent blood pooling in the lower limbs.
cool-down
With immobilization, which of the following is responsible for the greatest change in skeletal muscle ___.
decreased protein synthesis
Which of the following changes in lung capacity may be observed in sedentary aging adults ___
decreased vital capacity
Maximal oxygen uptake ___ with increasing age.
decreases
What limits an athlete's VO2 max, and how is it related to cardiac output and/or tissue extraction?
depends on max cardiac output and max arterial O2 content With exercise, there is a decrease in tissue saturation which means arterial O2 content is decreased but this decrease can be overcome with training Cardiac output increases with Vo2 max linearly
The cuff pressure at which the last sound can be detected is the ___ pressure.
diastolic
Regarding the following types of research, which one examines cause-and-effect relationships?
experimental
An increase in the body fat stores is accomplished by an increase in ___.
fat cell size to a critical level, then an increase in number
Phosphate loading is thought to ___.
improve maximal oxygen uptake
Chromium supplementation might benefit the endurance athlete by
improving carb metabolism
How does oxygen play a minor role in ventilation?
in the presence of a lack of oxygen, the carotid bodies will send impulses to stimulate the inspiratory center. However, because the exchange in the alveoli is so fast, this mechanism is rarely used
Increased ventricular contractility results in a(an) ___ in myocardial oxygen consumption.
increase
Regarding nitrates, which of the following is not true ___.
increased preload
In research, ___ variables are manipulated by the investigator.
independent
The electrical impulse of the heart spreads from ___ via the ___.
inside to outside/purkinje fibers
When the inspiratory center is triggered into action, the ___ space becomes ___ subatmospheric, thus causing the ___ space to become subatmospheric and air moves ___ the lungs.
intrapleural/more/intrapulmonary/in
Systolic blood pressure ___ with the transition from standing to lying down to head-down (45 degrees).
is unchanged
A transcient, reversible state of a lack of oxygen in the heart caused by reducted blood flow is termed ___.
ischemia
Of the following types of resistance training protocols, which is static?
isometric
Why is the SA node the dominant pacemaker of the heart?
it contains a group of cells in the wall of the right atrium that have the ability to spontaneously initiate the electrical impulse that leads to the contraction of the heart
Myocardial infarctions usually occur in the ___ ventricle, thus involving the ___ coronary artery.
left/anterior descending
Following an aerobic training program, heart rate tends to be ___ at the same fixed work bout because ___ is generally increased.
lower/stroke volume
The respiratory centers are located in the
medulla oblongata
Bicarbonate loading is proposed to have ergogenic potential for ___.
middle distance sports
During exercise, heart rate is linearly related to ___.
oxygen consumption
With low resistance, high repetition, high speed training, muscle ___ is developed.
power
Describe the characteristics, causes, signs, and symptoms for premature atrial complexes, supraventricular arrhythmias, multifocal atrial tachycardia, artial flutter, and atrial fibrillation.
premature atrial complexes: a beat initiated by an ectopic atrial impulse that appears early in the cycle. Causes the shape of the P wave and PR length to interval to be different because it doesnt affect the sinus node. A majority of these are normal and don't indicate heart disease. Treated with quinidine supraventrical arrhythmias: To identify, look at P wave and PR interval must be analyzed. Usually affects the automaticity of the sinus node which causes the heart to beat outside the normal ranges. Due to sympathetic nervous system stimulation by fever, stress, or anxiety. Treat by looking for the underlying cause to fix problem. multifocal atrial tachycardia: an abnormal heart rhythm, specifically a type of supraventricular tachycardia, that is particularly common in older people and is associated with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Normally, the heart rate is controlled by a cluster of cells called the sinoatrial node (SA node). When a number of different clusters of cells outside the SA node take over control of the heart rate, and the rate exceeds 100 beats per minute, this is called multifocal atrial tachycardia (if the heart rate is ≤100, this is technically not a tachycardia and it is then termed multifocal atrial rhythm). atrial flutter: rapid, regular firing of an irritable ectopic focus in the atrium. Occurs in an unhealthy heart. Atrium contracts much faster than ventricles. Treatments include: 1) digitalis (slows pulse by blocking AV node), 2) antiarrhythmic drugs, 3) calcium channel blockers, and 4) cardioversion atrial fibrillation: most common cardiac arrhythmia. Very fast atrial rate arising from many ectopic foci. Happens in older patients with CHD or rheumatic heart. Most common system ischemic stroke due to blood pooling and clotting. Treatments include digitalis or cardioversion
What are the physiological factors that contribute to Vo2 max?
pulmonary diffusion, cardiac output, and blood volume and flow, muscle diffusion capacity, mitochondrial enzyme (molecules that facilitate ATP production in mitochondria) levels, and capillary density
The following conditions are associated with an improvement in coronary artery blood flow ___.
reduction in stress and refrain from cigarette smoking
What are the primary responsibilites of the cardiovascular system during exercise?
remove the increased carbon dioxide and lactic acid build up transport more oxygen due to increase in workload and oxygen need
A primary reason to include stress testing in a medical evaluation is to ___.
reproduce and document exercise-related chest symptoms
In what ways does the respiratory system differ from the cardiovascular system?
respiratory system transports oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and the atmosphere cardiovascular system moves blood throughout the body
The force arm of a third-class lever is always ___ the resistance arm.
shorter than
During the transfer of electrons, energy is released at three sites. What are they?
sites between NADH and FADH2 sites between cytochrome b and cytochrome [c1 and c] sites between cytochrome a and cytochrome a3
The volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle with each beat is ___.
stroke volume
A narrowed pulse pressure with increasing workload indicates a low ___ and a very good likelihood of a ___ left ventricle.
stroke volume/failing
All of the following muscles flex the shoulder joint except ___.
subscapularis
Explain the metabolic equivalent method of prescribing exercise.
the best method to guide intensity the objective measure of the ratio of the rate at which a person expends energy, relative to the mass of that person, while performing some specific physical activity compared to a reference, set by convention at 3.5 ml of oxygen per kilogram per minute, which is roughly equivalent to the energy expended when sitting quietly.
What is anatomical dead space?
the total volume of the conducting airways from the nose or mouth down to the level of the terminal bronchioles, and is about 150 ml on the average in humans
Bicycle ergometers allow for an easier blood pressure measurement and blood sampling because ___.
the upper body remains relatively stable
Identify the primary factors that make up the exercise prescription.
type of exercise exercise frequency exercise duration exercise intensity
Among the following, which is true with regard to unstable angina ___.
unpredictable pain
Calcium-blockers ___ coronary arteries by ___ calcium entry.
vasodilate/blocking
When doing a squat exercise, which phase is considered eccentric for the quadriceps muscle group ___.
when the hips, knees, and ankles undergo flexion
The thigh skinfold measurement should be taken ___.
with a vertical fold midway between the patella and the inguinal crease (line)
The initial increase in heart rate with exercise appears to be a result of a(an) _____, and later during exercise a(an) _____.
withdrawal of vagal influence/increase in SNS tone
Normal breathing is achieved by what?
~70% contraction of the diaphragm ~30% movement of the external intercostal musclces and muscles of the head and neck (lifting the ribs)