Ethical Leadership Exam 1
ethics, leadership and rotting fish
" a fish rots from the head down", ethics rots from the head down; ethics thrives from the head down
paradox of hedonism
"Happiness cannot be pursued; it must ensue, and it only does so as the unintended side effect of one's personal dedication to a cause greater than oneself or as the by-product of one's surrender to a person other than oneself." Viktor Frankl in Man's Search for Meaning
factor affecting the organization's moral climate
1. Behavior of SUPERIORS - the number one influence on moral climate 2. Behavior of ONE'S PEERS - the second influence; people do pay attention to what their peers in the firm are doing 3. INDUSTRY OR PROFESSIONAL ETHICAL PRACTICES - ranked in the upper half; these context factors are influential 4. PERSONAL FINANCIAL NEED- ranked last
Vega's four big questions
1. Cui bono? (Who benefits?) 2. Who is going to get hurt 3. How will my decision affect my personal sense of morality? 4. What is the goal of business?
ethics quick test
1. Is the action legal? 2. Does it comply with our values? 3. If you do it, will you feel bad? 4. How will it look in the newspaper? 5. If you know it's wrong, don't do it. 6. If you're not sure, ask. 7. Keep asking until you get an answer
misconceptions about business ethics
1. Simplism 2. Legalism 3. Cynicism: Profit and Morality Incompatibility 4. Idealism: Profit and Morality Identity 5. Relativism
Cooke: seven-step process for ethical decision making
1. The Facts 2. The Ethical Issues 3. The Alternatives 4. The Stakeholders 5. The Ethics of the Alternatives: Use Ethical Theories 6. The Practical Constraints 7. Actions to Take
Rawl's principle of justice
1. each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for all others 2. social and economic inequalities are arranged so that they are both reasonably expected to be to everyone's advantage and attached to positions and offices open to all
codes of conduct
>A way of establishing standards of behavior and communicating them to managers and employees. >The single most important element of an ethics and compliance program. >Virtually all major corporations have codes of conduct today. >Many have worldwide codes or standards. >Some codes of conduct are designed around stakeholders, others on conduct.
three models of management ethics: moral
>Conform to the highest standards of ethical behavior or professional standards of conduct. >Ethical Leadership is commonplace. >Their goal is to succeed within the confines of sound ethical precepts >Demonstrate high integrity in thinking, speaking and doing. >Follow both the letter and the spirit of the law >Possess an acute moral sense and moral maturity >Moral managers are the "good guys" >INTEGRITY STRATEGY (conception of ethics as the driving force of an org) >Habits: They have a passion to do right. They are morally proactive. They consider all stakeholders. They have a strong ethical character. They have an obsession with fairness. They undertake principled decision- making. They integrate ethics wisdom with management wisdom. >positive ethical behaviors: Giving proper credit where it is due. Being straightforward and honest with other employees. Treating all employees equally. Being a responsible steward of company assets. Resisting pressure to act unethically. Recognizing and rewarding ethical behavior of others. Talking about the importance of ethics and compliance on a regular basis
managing organizational ethics
>Ethical decision-making is at the heart of business ethics. >One must sharpen one's decision-making skills to avoid amoral thinking, and achieve moral management. >A manager must see the organization's ethical climate as part of its corporate culture. >An ethical climate is shaped through actions taken, policies established, and examples set.
special interest groups
>Make life more complex for business and government. >Can number in the tens of thousands in some societies. >Pursue their own focused agendas. >Are active, intense, diverse and focused. >Can attract a significant following. >Often work at cross purposes, with no unified goals. >A special-interest society is pluralism taken to the extreme (thousands of special interest groups, each pursuing its own specific agenda)
discipling violators of ethics standards
>Management must discipline violators of accepted ethical norms and standards. >One reason many question the sincerity of business with regard to codes of conduct is that many businesses are unwilling to discipline violators, implicitly approving their behavior. >Before disciplining anyone, the firm needs to have communicated its ethics standards clearly and convincingly.
managerial approach
>Managers are practical, and have begun to deal with social and ethical concerns in ways similar to those they use to manage traditional business functions such as marketing, finance, operations, & risk management. >As a result, managers have been able to convert seemingly unmanageable concerns into ones that can be dealt with in a balanced and impartial fashion. >At the same time, managers have had to integrate traditional economic and financial considerations with ethical and social considerations.
personal and organizational ethics
>Managers encounter day-to-day ethical challenges in such areas as: conflicts of interest sexual harassment customer dealings pressure to compromise on personal standards, and more >Many managers have no training in ethics or ethical decision making. >Ethics is vital to business success.
a pluralistic society
>Prevents power from being concentrated in the hands of a few. >Maximizes freedom of expression and action, and strikes a balance between monism, on the one hand, and anarchy on the other. >Creates a widely diversified set of loyalties to many organizations, and minimizes the danger that a leader of any one organization will be left uncontrolled. >Provides a built-in set of checks and balances, in that groups can exert power over one another with no single organization (business or government) dominating and becoming overly influential.
improving the org's ethical culture
>The emphasis is on creating an ethical organizational culture or climate, one in which ethical behavior, values and policies are displayed, promoted and rewarded. COMPLIANCE VS. ETHICS ORIENTATION: 1. Ethics thinking is principles based; compliance thinking is rule-bound and legalistic. A compliance orientation can undermine ethical thinking. 2. Compliance can squeeze out ethics. 3. Managers many not consider tougher issues that a more ethics-focused approach might require.
ethics and the law
>The law and ethics can overlap in many respects. >The law is a reflection of what society thinks are minimal standards of conduct and behavior. >Research of illegal corporate behavior focuses on two questions: What leads firms to behave illegally? What are the consequences of engaging in illegal behavior?
business ethics scandals
>The public's interest in business ethics is at an all-time high, spurred by scandals. >The Enron scandal impacted business so greatly it is called "The Enron Effect." But then followed more scandals: Worldcom, Tyco, Arthur Andersen >And then the Wall Street financial scandals: AIG, Bear Stearns, Lehman Bros, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and Bernie Madoff >Business will never be the same.
top management leadership (uses moral management)
>This premise cannot be overstated: >The MORAL TONE of an organization is set by top management. >In a poll of communication professionals, more than half believed that top management is an organization's conscience. >Managers and employees look to their bosses at the highest levels for their cues as to what practices and policies are acceptable.
corporate transparency
A quality, characteristic, or state in which activities, processes, practices, and decisions that take place in companies become open or visible to the outside world. The degree to which an organization: Provides public access to information. Accepts responsibility for its actions. Makes decisions more openly. Establishes incentives for leaders to uphold standards. OPACITY (opposite of this; when activities and practices remain obscure or hidden from outside scrutiny and review)
factors in social environment
AFFLUENCE (the level of wealth, disposable income and standard of living of the society) AND EDUCATION (Create higher expectations of major institutions as society becomes more prosperous and better educated; Growing public awareness through television, movies, and the Internet.); THE REVOLUTION OF RISING EXPECTATIONS (the belief that each succeeding generation ought to have a standard of living higher than that of its predecessor; creates a social problem- a gap between societal expectations for social conditions and social realities. This can lead to: ENTITLEMENT MENTALITY (belief that someone is owed something just because they are a member of society) RIGHTS MOVEMENT (establishing legal rights, increased rights for minorities, civil rights, etc.) VICTIMIZATION PHILOSOPHY (people who see themselves as having been victimized by society; feeling rather than facts)
what are ethics?
Agreed upon rules for governing behavior. How we decide to behave when we decide we belong together.
three models of management ethics: immoral
An approach devoid of ethical principles and an active opposition to what is ethical. The operating strategy of immoral management is focused on exploiting opportunities for corporate or personal gain; Intentionally do wrong, Are Self-centered and self-absorbed, Care only about self or organization's profits or success, Actively oppose what is right, fair, or just, Exhibit no concern for stakeholders, Are the "bad guys"; Examples: Stealing petty cash Cheating on expense reports Taking credit for another's accomplishments Lying on time sheets Coming into work hungover Telling a demeaning joke Taking office supplies for personal use Showing preferential treatment toward certain employees Rewarding employees who display wrong behaviors Harassing a fellow employee
behavioral ethics
BEHAVIORAL ETHICS helps us to understand many of the behavioral processes that are taking place: BOUNDED ETHICALITY - occurs when managers and employees find that behaving ethically is difficult because of various organizational pressures. CONFORMITY BIAS - the tendency people have to take their cues for ethical behavior from their peers, rather than exercising their own, independent judgment. OVERCONFIDENCE BIAS -people may be more confident of their moral character than they have reason to be. SELF SERVING BIAS- people may process information in a way that supports their preexisting beliefs & self-interest. FRAMING - ethical judgments are affected by how an issue is posed; if posed as an "ethical" issue, they make more ethical decisions. INCREMENTALISM -a predisposition toward the "slippery slope." ROLE MORALITY - a tendency to use different ethical standards for different roles in life. MORAL EQUILIBRIUM - a tendency for people to keep an ethical scoreboard in their heads, and use this information when making future decisions, balancing decisions, and avoiding a moral "surplus". ILL-CONCEIVED GOALS - poorly set goals that encourage negative behaviors. MOTIVATED BLINDNESS - overlooking the questionable actions of others when it is in one's own best interest. INDIRECT BLINDNESS- when one holds others less accountable for unethical behaviors when they are carried out through third parties THE SLIPPERY SLOPE - causes people not to notice others' unethical behavior when it gradually occurs in small increments. OVERCOMING VALUES - the act of letting questionable behaviors pass if the outcome is good. This can occur when managers put more emphasis on results rather than on HOW the results are achieved.
business criticism: business power and iron law (use and abuse of power)
BUSINESS POWER (the ability or capacity to produce an effect or to bring influence to bear on a situation or people); IRON LAW OF RESPONSIBILITY (In the long run, those who do not use power in a manner society considers responsible will tend to lose it)
ethical decision making traditions: relationship
CARE ETHICS: As a moral goal and virtue, care ethics seeks to maintain relationship [sic] by promoting the well-being of care-givers and care-receivers in networks of social relations." -A more interpersonal view of ethics than principles such as utility, duty, or rights. -Brings a female perspective to ethical theory but not the same as "feminist ethics". -Consistent with "stakeholder theory." Care is a practice Care ethics are specific and contextual: -Rejects universal person principle of utilitarianism and universal principles of Kantian ethics. -Assumes shared human frailty and vulnerability requires interdependence and caring. -Suggests responsibility for future generations and the unborn -Leads to concern for sustainability
three major approaches to business ethics
CONVENTIONAL APPROACH (Based on how the average person views business ethics, and on common sense; compare a decision or something that is being used in practice with prevailing norms of acceptability in society); PRINCIPLES APPROACH (Based on the use of ethics principles to justify and direct behavior, actions, and policies; normative ethics and considers general guidelines to ethical decision making that managers should consider in practice); ETHICAL TESTS APPROACH (Based on short, practical questions to guide ethical decision making and behavior and practices)
conflicting view on business ethics: cynical and idealistic
CYNICAL (business ethics is a contradiction in terms); IDEALISTIC (good ethics is good business and good business is good ethics)
disclosure rule (sunshine law
Can the proposed action be justified if it becomes public knowledge?
paradox of capitalism
Capitalism has done more to raise the standard of living in the world than any other institution in human history but distrust of business is at an all-time high. Raj Sisodia, author of "Firms of Endearment"
what does research say about ethics and profitability
Conflicting Findings in Empirical Studies ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE Bad ethics is often bad business Good ethics can be good business--purpose driven companies
types of ethics: descriptive, normative
DESCRIPTIVE (Involves describing, characterizing, and studying morality. Focuses on what is occurring.); NORMATIVE (Focuses on what ought or should be occurring. Demands a more meaningful moral anchor than just "everyone is doing it." we focus on this one)
how do we disagree about ethical issues?
Disagreements on facts Disagreements on definitions Disagreements on values
ethical decision making traditions: all
ENDS - consequentialism (utilitarianism, egoism, enlightened self-interest); ACTIONS-MEANS -deontology (rights, duties, golden rule, categorical imperative); PROCESS (justice based ethics); AGENTS/PERSONS (virtue ethics); RELATIONSHIPS (care ethics)
focus of the book: business ethics vocab
ETHICAL QUESTION (inevitably and continually come into play during business operations. ); ETHICS (refers to issues of right, wrong, fairness, and justice); BUSINESS ETHICS (focuses on ethical issues that arise in the commercial realm.); ETHICAL QUESTIONS (permeate business's activities as it attempts to interact with major stakeholder groups.)
ethical tests
ETHICAL TEST (help clarify what is the most prudent course of action to take); TEST OF COMMON SENSE (consider the practical consequences, aka smell test- if action stinks, don't do it); ONE'S BEST SELF (is the course of action consistent with perception of yourself at your best); MAKING SOMETHING PUBLIC (whether you comfortable action being known publicly, most powerful); VENTILATION (get a second opinion); PURIFIED IDEA (that an action is okay if a person with authority says it is); BIG FOUR (whether action has fallen toward greed, speed, laziness or haziness); GAG TEST (if you gag at the idea of doing it, don't)
ethics audits and risk assessments
ETHICS AUDITS:Intended to carefully review such ethics initiatives as ethics programs, codes of conduct, hotlines, and ethics training programs. SUSTAINABILITY AUDITS Helps to identify sustainability issues within an organization. FRAUD RISK ASSESSMENT Review processes that identify and monitor conditions that may pertain to the company's exposure to compliance/misconduct risk and to review methods for dealing with concerns.
content of codes of conduct
Employment practices Employee, client, and vendor information Public information and communications Conflicts of interest Relationships with vendors Environmental issues Ethical management practices Political involvement
justice
Equal or Fair Treatment ,Consistent Administration of Rules, Restitution; Justice in society is best promoted by establishing conditions that a logical persons would support if they did not know what their station in life would be, i.e., their "original position" in life is clouded by a "veil of ignorance." -Liberty Principle -Difference Principle -Equal Opportunity Principle
ethics based on Cooke
Ethics is the process of determining what are and what are not reasonable standards of moral conduct by systematically addressing at least 3 key questions: What is morally good or bad? What is morally right or wrong? What are my moral obligations, if any?
how to support ethical behavior timothy devinnev
Examine stress and time pressures Evaluate power differentials/Establish protections for the powerless Enhance transparency Encourage people to think of themselves in a different role
contexts that promote wrongdoing: timothy devinnev
Greater stress and time pressure Greater power differentials Expectations of anonymity
three models of management ethics: amoral
INTENTIONALLY AMORAL MANAGERS: Don't think ethics and business should "mix." Business and ethics exist in separate spheres. A vanishing breed. UNINTENTIONALLY AMORAL MANAGERS Don't consider the ethical dimension of decision- making. Don't "think ethically." Have no "ethics buds." Well-intentioned, but morally casual or unconscious. Ethical gears are in neutral. COMPLIANCE STRATEGY (submission to the law as its driving force; lawyer driven, not oriented toward ethics but toward existing law)
Dr. W's conclusion about ethics
In the long run good ethics is good business most of the time. But cheaters sometimes do win and you won't always be rewarded for doing the right thing. Sometimes virtue is just its own reward.
ethics check
Is it legal? Is it balanced? How will it make me feel about myself?
ethical decision making traditions: process
JUSTICE BASED ETHICS: Fair treatment and due reward in accordance with ethical or legal standards; VARGAS: Justice may be viewed from a deontological or utilitarian perspective.
Cooke: three methods for making ethical decisions
KANTIAN/RIGHTS BASED ETHICS—every person has basic rights and we have a duty to respect those rights. THE GOLDEN RULE—treat others in the same way you would want to be treated. ENLIGHTENED SELF-INTEREST—maximize net benefits to yourself in a way that minimizes the harm to others
focus of the textbook
MANAGERIAL which is split into three subsections: BUSINESS ETHICS, SUSTAINABILITY, AND STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
SRI Tactics
NEGATIVE SCREENING: Avoiding firms or industries that conflict with your values (e.g. carbon-based fuel companies, tobacco, gambling, alcohol, or pornography firms) POSITIVE SCREENING: Investing in firms or industries that align with your values (e.g. firms in local community, alternative energy firms, microfinance) SHAREHOLDER ACTIVISM—Otherwise trying to influence management (e.g., shareholder initatives, voting against management-backed directors, lawsuits)
the cheating culture: why we cheat
New pressures Bigger rewards for winning Temptations Trickle-down corruption Sense of entitlement (my addition)
paradox of service
Oftentimes serving others brings greater satisfaction/happiness than seeking happiness directly. (Service Learning)
ethical relativism
One picks and chooses which source of norms one wishes to use based on what will justify current actions or maximize freedom.; this is a serious danger of using the conventional approach to business ethics; this dictates that morality is relative to some personal, social or cultural standard.
ethics issues at different levels
PERSONAL LEVEL ( Situations faced in our personal lives outside the context of our employment) ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL (Workplace situations faced by managers and employees) INDUSTRY OR PROFESSION LEVEL (A manager or organization might experience business ethics issues at the industry or professional level) SOCIETAL AND GLOBAL LEVELS (Managers acting in concert through their companies and industries can bring about constructive changes)
hypotheses regarding moral management models: population and individual
POPULATION (The distribution of the three models approximate a normal curve, with the amoral group occupying the large middle part of the curve and the moral and immoral categories occupying the tails.); INDIVIDUAL (Within the individual manager, these three models may operate at various times and under various circumstances)
profits and purpose
Profits are necessary for business but they are not the purpose of business anymore than breathing is the purpose of life.
guidelines for resolving ethical dilemma and applying ethical frameworks
RATIONALITY and GENERALIZABILITY AND IMPARTIALITY
rights and duties
RIGHTS (entitlements to do something without interference from others); DUTIES (are obligations to act in a certain way, and they typically arise because people have rights. The existence of a right implies the existence of a correlative duty. Duties can also arise from voluntarily assumed obligations, or from absolute authority.) RIGHTS AND DUTIES OFTEN CONFLICT (Rights and duties often conflict: My own duties may conflict My rights may conflict with your rights My duties may conflict with your duties)
urgent vs. enduring issues
SHORT TERM (Issues or crises arise on the spur of the moment and management must formulate quick responses.); LONG TERM (Issues or problems are a long-term concern and management must develop a thoughtful organizational response)
Importance of ethics
SOCRATES (we are discussing no small matter; but how we ought to live); THOMAS HOBBES (without ethics life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short); WILL ROGERS (it takes a lifetime to build a reputation, but you can lose it in a minute)
focus of the book: stakeholder management
STAKEHOLDERS: Individuals or groups with which business interacts and who have a vested interest in the firm. EXTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS (such as government, consumers, the natural environment, community members) INTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS (such as employees, those involved in corporate governance, and others)
focus of the book: sustainability vocab
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet current needs while preserving the environment for future generations); SUSTAINABILITY (has become one of the businesses' most pressing mandates; concerns the ability of businesses to survive and thrive over the long term; embraces the criteria: Environmental Economic Social)
types of ethical principles: teleological, deontological, aretaic
TELEOLOGICAL (focuses on consequences or results of an action); DEONTOLOGICAL (focuses on duties, without regard to consequences); ARETAIC (focuses on the virtue of an action)
what are business ethics
The application of traditional ethical analysis frameworks to business situations. Is concerned with morality and fairness in behavior, actions, and practices that take place within a business context. Is the study of practices in organizations and is a quest to determine whether these practices are acceptable or not.
conventional approach to business ethics
The conventional approach to business ethics involves a comparison of a decision or practice to prevailing societal norms. Decision, behavior, or practice <---> Prevailing norms of acceptability (pg. 191)
paradox of profits
The pursuit of some greater goal, value, or mission may actually produce more profits than the pursuit of profits per se. (Purpose Driven Companies)
best practices for improving an org's ethical culture
Three key elements that must exist if an ethical organizational culture is to be developed and sustained: 1. The continuous presence of ETHICAL LEADERSHIP reflected by the board of directors, senior executives and managers. 2. The existence of a set of CORE ETHICAL VALUES infused throughout the organization by way of policies, processes and practices; and 3. A FORMAL ETHICS PROGRAM which includes a code of ethics, ethics training and an ethics officer
ethical decision making traditions: agents
VIRTUE ETHICS (Characteristics or virtues that make you a "good" person (e.g. integrity, fairness, courage, prudence) To be a virtuous person takes practice: "Fake it until you make it" Darryl Koehn
Vega's bottom line for ethical decision making
What do we value?/What matters to us? EMOTIONALLY: Love, Affection, Kindness, Gentleness, A Heart at Ease, Security PHYSICALLY: Wealth, Comfort, Luxury, Vacations, Health UNIVERSALLY: Peace, Equality/Fairness, Eradication of Hunger, International Cooperation MORALLY (Gentile) Wisdom, Courage, , Humanity, Justice, Temperance, Transcendence
society
a community, a nation, or a broad group of people with common traditions, values, institutions, and collective activities and interests; the macroenvironment in which businesses operate
kant's categorical imperative
a duty based ethics, deontological; duty means an action that is morally obligatory
servant leadership
approach to ethical leadership and decision making based on the moral principle of serving others first
golden rule
do unto others as you would have them do unto you; aka. ethic of reciprocity, if you want to be treated fairly, treat others fairly
ethics of care
emphasizes the relationship's moral worth and the responsibilities inherent in those relationships, rather than in rights, as in traditional ethics
virtue ethics
merits consideration; focuses on individual becoming imbued with virtues (honesty, fairness, etc.); focus on the heart of the person; actions of a virtuous person will be virtuous
ethical decision making traditions: Ends/ consequences
only consequences matter in determining right and wrong; EGOISM (consequences only to oneself; every individual should seek to maximize their self interest); UTILITARIANISM (consequences to everyone; greatest good for the greatest number); ENLIGHTENED SELF-INTEREST (consequences to oneself and others)
principles of right
persons have both moral and legal rights that should be honored and respected. MORAL RIGHTS (important, justifiable claims or entitlements); LEGAL RIGHTS (rights that some governing authority have formalized); NEGATIVE RIGHT (the right to be left alone, ex. of freedom from false imprisonment); POSITIVE RIGHT (the right to something, like food and health care, clean air); COMPETING RIGHTS (when the situation is more right vs. right)
social, environment, business criticism and corporate response diagram
pg. 11
society's expectations vs. business' actual social performance diagram
pg. 15; shows that business's actual social performance is below, parallel and not touching TO society's expectations of business performance (the area in between is the social problem; the left hand side says social performance expected and actual; while bottom is the time from 1960-2010)
levels and spheres of corporate power diagram
pg. 19,
sources of ethical norms diagram
pg. 192
elements involved in making ethical judgements diagram
pg. 195
a venn model of ethical decision making (ethics, economics, and law)
pg. 197
kohlberg's level of moral development diagram
pg. 210; PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL (how ppl behave as infants, focus on self); CONVENTIONAL (learns the importance of conforming to the conventional norms of the group); POST CONVENTIONAL (develops a concept of ethics that is more mature)
why managers and employees behave ethically diagram
pg. 212
elements in social contract diagram
pg. 21; SOCIAL CONTRACT: set of reciprocal understandings and expectations that characterize the relationship between major institutions, business and society; seen as understood and tacit agreements that guide behavior in relationships among members of a community
factors affecting the morality of managers and employees diagram
pg. 241
how to improve ethical culture diagrm
pg. 246
structure and flow of the textbook digram
pg. 25
ethical decision making process diagram
pg. 253; ETHICS SCREEN (several select standards against which the proposed course of action is to be compared)
business and stakeholder relationship diagram
pg. 9
ethical due process
procedural justice, everyone wants to be treated fairly, want their side of the issue to be heard; PROCESS FAIRNESS (have people's input been included in decision, do people believe the decisions were made and implemented in an appropriate manner, people watch their managers' behavior)
ethical decision making traditions: actions (deontological/nonconsequentialist)
right and wrong are determined by more than consequences; DUTIES (Every individual has certain duties (e.g., fidelity, gratitude, justice, reparations, beneficence, self-improvement; not harming innocent people, helping others in need).; RIGHTS (Every individual has certain rights that must be respected (e.g. free consent, privacy, freedom of conscience, free speech, due process)); GOLDEN RULE (Do unto others as you would have them do unto you; Every individual has a right to be consulted on matters that affect them)
ethics of care as alternative to kohlberg diagram
slide 35 of ch. 7 starrated
external sources of a person's values diagram
slide 36 of ch. 7
business
the collection of private, commercially oriented organizations ranging in size from one-person proprietorships to corporate giants.
principle of justice
the fair treatment of people; DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE (the distribution of benefits and burdens in societies and organization); COMPENSATORY JUSTICE (involves compensating someone for a past injustice); PROCEDURAL JUSTICE (aka. ethical due process, fair decision making procedures, practices or agreements)
macroenvironment
the total environment outside the firm, the comprehensive societal context in which the organization resides; SOCIAL (demographics, lifestyles, social values) ECONOMIC (nature and direction of the economy in which business operates) POLITICAL (processes for passing of laws and election of officials. interactions between firms, politics, and government) TECHNOLOGICAL (changes in technological advancements taking place in society)
The runaway trolley dilemma
think about it