Ethics exam 1, Ethics quiz questions exam 1, ethics Cahn book exam 1, ethics overheads and notes exam 1

P2: Selfishness just IS always acting on your own desires.

Here, it means "desires that are aimed at your own benefit".

Psychological egoism is the view that

all people are selfish in everything they do..

With the rise of a "priestly" social leadership,

the uses for evaluative terms is re-appropriated.

Bad: "Other" (Nietzsche)

"Bad" things were simply those which were not preferred by the noble class.

Good: "Noble" (Nietzsche)

"Good" is simply a name given to those things and activities preferred by the dominant social class.

Examples of normative thinking

"I ought not to try to escape from prison," "Knowledge is good," or "It is always wrong to harm someone,"

Nagel thinks that, if properly understood, the answer that most people would give to the question, "How would you feel if someone were to harm you?" is:

"I would resent it."

CR is true?

"There are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to exist."

Dilemma of Plato's Euthyphro: Is something wrong because God says so, or does God say so because it is wrong?

1. Cahn: What God commands must conform to independent moral standard to be right 2. Religious beliefs alone do not settle moral questions

Three kinds of ethical reflection:

1. Descriptive 2. Normative 3. Meta-ethical

Argument for PE: "Selflessness feels good!"

"Whenever I perform a 'selfless action', I feel good in a distinctive way afterward. And I know I will feel that way before I perform the action. So I must have really just wanted that good feeling all along." Notice the structure is the same as in this argument: "Whenever I drive to work, I burn gasoline. I knew that I would burn gasoline when I got in the car to come to work today. So I must have really just wanted to burn gasoline all along." This argument appears to commit the Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

Stages of Morality

(a) "pre-rational," "customary," or "group" morality and (b) "personal," "rational," or "reflective" morality.

If CR is true, then

1) We can no longer say that the customs of other societies are inferior to our own. There's certainly something attractive about this result. But what about practices like slavery, or genocide? Shouldn't we be able to criticize these kinds of practices? 2) To find out if a particular action is right or wrong, we just need to figure out the standards of our society. How are we supposed to know what "our society" is? Sometimes we disagree with the standards of our society. If CR is right, we can't criticize our own cultural practices. 3) Moral progress becomes impossible. We no longer have any way to determine if new standards are better or worse than old standards. For example, we can't say that our society is better now that women can vote. We also severely limit the concept of social reform: If CR is true, then "reformers" can't challenge the ideals of their own societies.

Predominance of disagreements in attitude in ethical conflict

1. Determine what beliefs are relevant to the conflict 2. Persistence or resolution determines whether conflict has been settled (ethical disagreement can persist despite perfect agreement over facts)

Claims Made by Cultural Relativists

1. Different societies have different moral codes. 2. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code better than another 3. The moral code of our own society has no special status; It is merely one among many. 4. There is no "universal truth" in ethics - that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times. 5. The moral code of society determines what is right within that society; that is, If the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society. 6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other peoples. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance towards the practices of other cultures.

KINDS OF NORMATIVE JUDGMENT

1. Ethical or moral judgments proper 2. Nonmoral normative judgments

Socratic approach to moral questions

1. Follow reason, not emotions 2. Think for yourself 3. Never do what is immoral

Murphy: Immorality is incompatible with true happiness

1. Happiness ≠ pleasure or "a whole lot of fun" 2. True happiness = satisfaction in having a personality that makes full human realization possible 3. Even immoralists who think themselves happy evoke pity, not envy

In attitude

1. I am for something; you are against it 2. May or may not be based in disagreement in belief

In belief

1. I believe p, you believe something incompatible with p 2. Not content to let each other's beliefs go unchallenged 3. Scientific methods only proper way to resolve conflict

1. It is wrong to hurt others 2. But why care about others?

1. Implicit argument in the question: "How would you like it if someone did that to you?" 2. Resentment at being hurt by others implies that the others have a reason to be more considerate 3. That reason would apply to anyone else in a similar situation, including you

Two kinds of disagreement

1. In belief 2. In attitude

Rachels's objections: Psychological egoism: People never act unselfishly

1. It is the object of an action, not the subjective desire motivating it, that determines whether that action is selfish 2. Self-interest ≠ selfishness

Rachels's objections: Ethical egoism: People are under no obligation to act unselfishly

1. No logical refutation is possible, BUT: 2. Human welfare is valuable for its own sake 3. That an action would hurt others is sufficient reason not to do it

Ethical or moral judgments proper:

1. Particular, e.g. (assuming terms are used in their moral senses), a. I ought not to escape from prison now. b. You should become a missionary. c. What he did was wrong. 2. General, e.g., a. We ought to keep our agreements. b. Love is the fulfillment of the moral law. c. All men have a right to freedom.

Judgments of moral value (aretaic judgments) :

1. Particular, e.g., a. My grandfather was a good man. b. Xavier was a saint. c. He is responsible for what he did. d. You deserve to be punished. e. Her character is admirable. f. His motive was good. 2. General, e.g., a. Benevolence is a virtue. b. Jealousy is an ignoble motive. c. The man who can forgive such carelessness is a saint. d. The good man does not cheat or steal.

Judgments of nonmoral value:

1. Particular, e.g., a. That is a good car. b. Miniver Cheevy did not have a very good life. 2. General, e.g., a. Pleasure is good in itself. b. Democracy is the best form of government.

Judgments of nonmoral obligation:

1. Particular, e.g., a. You ought to buy a new suit. b. You just have to go to that concert. 2. General, e.g., a. In building a bookcase one should use nails, not Scotch tape. b. The right thing to do on fourth down with thirteen yards to go is to punt.

Cahn: Immorality is not incompatible with happiness

1. Redefinition of happiness to exclude the immoralist = "philosophical sleight of hand" 2. Possibility of happy immoralist = genuine threat to morality

four moral or social types in The Lonely Crowd

1. The tradition-directed individual and/or society. 2. The inner-directed individual and/or society. 3. The other-directed individual and/or society. 4. The autonomous individual and/or society.

The Cultural Differences Argument: Different cultures have different moral codes Therefore, there is no objective "truth" in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.

1. This argument is not sound, because it is not valid. It is possible that the premise could be true and the conclusion false. 2. This doesn't prove that the conclusion is false. It just shows that the Cultural Difference Argument shouldn't persuade us to believe that the conclusion is true. 3. There may, however, be some arguments available to show that the conclusion is false.

Morality does not depend on God's existence

1. Uncertain whether God exists 2. Granting existence of God, still uncertain what God wills us to do 3. Dilemma of Plato's Euthyphro: Is something wrong because God says so, or does God say so because it is wrong?

Cultural Relativism: What can we learn from it?

1. We should not assume that all of our preferences are based on some objective moral standard. 2. It's a good idea to keep on open mind when we encounter practices that disturb us. We need to ask ourselves: Why do I hold the values and beliefs that I hold?

Nietzsche's central questions:

1. Where do our evaluative concepts (good and evil) come from? 2. What is the "value of these values themselves"?

FACTORS IN MORALITY

1. certain forms of judgment in which particular objects are said to have or not to have a certain moral quality, obligation, or responsibility; 2. the implication that it is appropriate and possible to give reasons for these judgments; 3. some rules, principles, ideals, and virtues that can be expressed in more general judgments and that form the background against which particular judgments are made and reasons given for them; 4. certain characteristic natural or acquired ways of feeling that accompany these judgments, rules, and ideals, and help to move us to act in accordance with them; 5. certain sanctions or additional sources of motivation that are also often expressed in verbal judgments, namely, holding responsible, praising, and blaming; 6. a point of view that is taken in all this judging, reasoning, and feeling, and is somehow different from those taken in prudence, art, and the like. factors (1), (3), and (5). These have a central place in morality, and the main questions of normative ethics and meta-ethics relate to them.

Redefinition of happiness to exclude the immoralist

= "philosophical sleight of hand"

Possibility of happy immoralist

= genuine threat to morality

Ressentiment:

A deeply-held jealousy of the naturally stronger.

The Cultural Differences Argument:

Different cultures have different moral codes Therefore, there is no objective "truth" in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.

something

A. Ethical or moral judgments proper: B. Judgments of moral value (aretaic judgments) :

Nonmoral normative judgments:

A. Judgments of nonmoral value: B. Judgments of nonmoral obligation:

Happiness

According to Murphy, the satisfaction one takes in having a personality wherein all elements required for a fully realized human life are harmoniously integrated; according to Cahn, something like untroubled (even smug) contentment with one's situation.

Gyges

According to a legend recounted in Plato's Republic, shepherd who used his power of invisibility (granted by a magic ring) to seduce the queen, murder the king, and usurp the throne.

Cultural differences argument

Argument that (wrongly) infers from the mere existence of different moral codes in different cultures that there is no such thing as objective moral truth.

Socrates

Athenian philosopher (469-399 BCE) convicted and sentenced to death by his peers for threatening society with his probing philosophical questions; wrote nothing himself but often serves Plato's dialogues as the spokesman for Plato's own views.

Descriptive ethics

Attempt to describe or explain moral phenomena or to work out a theory of human nature that bears on ethical questions.

Ethics

Branch of philosophy dealing with morality, moral problems, and moral judgments; synonymous with "moral philosophy."

If you really wanted to be in bed more than you wanted to be in this classroom, then you'd be in bed right now. The fact that you're here shows that this is what you deemed the best decision--what you most wanted to do.

C: I always act selfishly.

Moral progress

Change for the better in a society's moral standards; makes sense only if cultural relativism's denial of objective moral truth is incorrect.

Disagreement in belief

Conflict that occurs when one person believes one thing and another believes something contradictory or incompatible; open to resolution by the empirical methods of science.

Disagreement in attitude

Conflict that occurs when one person is in favor of something and another is against it; not always rooted in disagreements in belief and, therefore, not necessarily open to resolution by empirical methods; predominant form of disagreement in ethical conflicts.

For Nagel, our reason for caring abut the welfare of others is ultimately explained by considerations of:

Consistency

Consider the following question: "Does the available evidence show that capital punishment really deters violent crime?" According to Frankena, this would be an example of:

Descriptive inquiry

Psychological egoism

Descriptive theory of human nature according to which people never act unselfishly.

Resentment

Emotion felt in response to being treated inconsiderately or unjustly by another; implies that others have a reason to consider your interests, and, inversely, you have a reason to consider theirs.

Among the Eskimos, female infanticide is practiced more frequently than male infanticide because

Eskimo males die prematurely at much higher rates than Eskimo females..

How much to different cultures really disagree with CR? We need to distinguish between values and beliefs. It may turn out that all cultures hold some values in common.

Examples: *The safety of infants and young people *Truth telling *Prohibition on murder

Cahn argues that we should interpret "happiness" as something requiring moral concern/regard

False

According to Cahn, although Kate and Joan did not have equally satisfying careers, because they both acted morally, they were equally happy.

False.

According to Frankena, meta-ethics has no bearing on questions about what is right, good, or obligatory in general or in a particular case.

False.

According to Nagel, saying that something is wrong is the same as saying that it is against the rules.

False.

According to Socrates, a good person cannot feel pain.

False.

Cahn and Murphy fundamentally agree about the relationship between happiness and morality.

False.

Cahn denies the existence of God.

False.

Ethical arguments usually involve disagreement predominately in belief.

False.

Nagel assumes that everyone has at least some degree of concern for other people.

False.

Nagel claims that the basis of morality is a belief that good and harm to particular people is good or bad just from their point of view.

False.

Psychological egoism is a normative view.

False.

Rachels believes, as a descriptive matter, that most people are thoroughgoing egoists.

False.

Rachels thinks it makes no sense to condemn some societies as inferior to our own.

False.

Socrates gives a threefold argument to show that he ought to break the laws by escaping.

False.

Stevenson thinks that the methods of science should have undisputed sway in normative ethics.

False.

That different cultures have different moral codes is a relatively recent discovery.

False.

Which of the following statements best captures the point Glaucon intends to make by recounting the legend of Gyges in Plato's Republic?

Freed from the fear of reprisal, people would—and should—act in whatever way they think best for themselves.

Crito

Friend of Socrates and namesake of one of Plato's dialogues, in which Crito tries unsuccessfully to convince Socrates to escape from prison and avoid his death sentence.

Murphy argues that while an immoral person can live a life filled with pleasure,

He cannot live truly happy life

What attitudes does Murphy take toward Fred?

He pities him..

P1: I always act on my own desires (i.e., I always do what I most want to do) The idea here is that when we pay attention to how we make choices, we tend to find that these choices always reflect our own preferences.

Here, "your own desires" means "desires that ORIGINATE in you, or that COME FROM you"

suppose that Cultural Relativism is true. suppose that right and wrong are determined entirely by cultural practices.

If we can show that some unacceptable consequences follow from this view, then we have some reason for rejecting it as false.

Dilemma of Plato's Euthyphro:

Is something wrong because God says so, or does God say so because it is wrong?

"analytical," "critical," or "meta-ethical" thinking

It does not consist of empirical or historical inquiries and theories, nor does it involve making or defending any normative or value judgments. It does not try to answer either particular or general questions about what is good, right, or obligatory. It asks and tries to answer logical, epistemological, or semantical questions

Consider the following question: "Is there any meaningful sense in which it's factually correct to say that capital punishment is wrong, or is it simply a matter of personal opinion?" According to Frankena, this would be an example of:

Metaethical inquiry

Self-interest

Motivation that gives rise to actions benefiting oneself but not necessarily harming others; not the same as "selfishness," which implies a blameworthy disregard of others' well-being.

Kierkegaard

Nineteenth-century Danish philosopher and religious thinker who sees the pursuit of eternal, ethico-religious goals as the only path to true happiness; those who think themselves happy in the pursuit or possession of temporal goods are self-deceived.

Consider the following question: "Is it wrong to support capital punishment, even if serves as an effective deterrent to violent crime?" According to Frankena, this would be an example of:

Normative inquiry

Ethical egoism

Normative moral theory according to which people are never under any obligation to act unselfishly.

argument for psychological egoist: "We do what we want"

P1: I always act on my own desires (i.e., I always do what I most want to do) The idea here is that when we pay attention to how we make choices, we tend to find that these choices always reflect our own preferences. P2: Selfishness just IS always acting on your own desires. C: I always act selfishly.

Recognizing ambiguity is the key here

P1: If I keep any pot in my kitchen, then I am in violation of federal law P2: I keep several pots in my kitchen C: I am in violation of federal law

Ethical egoism:

People are under no obligation to act unselfishly

Psychological egoism:

People never act unselfishly

Meta-ethics

Philosophical thinking about the meaning, use, or justification of moral expressions and value judgments.

Normative ethics

Philosophical thinking about what is right, good, or obligatory.

Euthyphro

Platonic dialogue in which Socrates reveals the difficulty of basing morality on God (or the gods) by asking whether an action is right because God says so or whether God says so because the action is right, a question that finds no satisfactory answer.

Some philosophers maintain that we should define 'happiness' as a deep characteristic fully realized human life, requiring moral concern as a necessary element. Cahn:

Rejects this definition as a "philosophical sleight of-hand"

Cultural Relativism: What is it?

Rough idea: There is no universal truth in ethics. There are only customary practices specific to various cultures. "When in Rome, do as the Romans do." 1. Different societies have different moral codes. 2. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code better than another. 3. The moral code of our own society has no special status; is merely one among many. 4. There is no "universal truth" in ethics—that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times. 5. The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society. 6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other peoples. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance toward the practices of other cultures.

Granting existence of God, still uncertain what God wills us to do

Serious conflicts over moral intuitions and scriptural interpretations

If cultural relativism is true, then which of the following claims must be false?

Some actions that conform to the code of one's society may still be wrong..

Immoralist

Someone who does not allow moral considerations to become a hindrance to the pursuit of self-interest; incapable of true happiness according to Murphy and many classical philosophers, but not according to Cahn.

What reason does Rachels give for not taking actions that would hurt other people?

Such actions would hurt other people..

RIGHT AND WRONG

THOMAS NAGEL 1. It is wrong to hurt others 2. But why care about others?

Nagel takes the question "How would you like it if someone did that to you?" to be a standard way of trying to show:

That you have a reason to care about others

Rachels doubts the truth of cultural relativism for which of the following reasons?

The extent of cultural disagreement is not as significant as cultural relativists usually imply. It has certain consequences that make it implausible on its face. It rests on an invalid argument.

Rachels mentions that some societies believe the earth to be flat to make which of the following points?

The mere fact that people disagree about something does not prove that there is no "objective truth" of the matter.

Cultural relativism

Theory holding that there is no such thing as universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural codes, and our own is merely one among many.

cultural relativism

To many thinkers, this observation -"Different cultures have different moral codes - has seemed to be the key to understanding morality. Challenges our ordinary belief In the objectivity and universality of moral truth. It says, in effect, that there is no such thing as moral truth in ethics. Only various cultural codes and nothing more.

According to Cahn, those who do not believe in the existence of God can be highly moral.

True

According to Rachels, selfishness and self-interest are not the same thing.

True.

According to Rachels, the unselfish person is precisely the one who derives satisfaction from helping others.

True.

According to Socrates, moral questions can and should be settled by reason.

True.

Any belief that is introduced into an argument about values must be likely to bring about a difference in attitude.

True.

Disagreement in attitude determines what beliefs are relevant to an ethical argument.

True.

Euthyphro's dilemma runs as follows: Is an action wrong because God says so, or does God say so because it is wrong?

True.

If cultural relativism is true, a social "reformer" cannot legitimately challenge the ideals of his or her society.

True.

Murphy argues that revisionary definitions of happiness are not useless.

True.

Socrates believes that it is appropriate to act immorally if by doing so we can save ourselves from serious harm.

True.

Sometimes what appears to be fundamental disagreement about moral principles is, in fact, merely disagreement about facts.

True.

The cultural differences argument seeks to draw a conclusion about that is true from claims about what is believed.

True.

The rational egoist cannot advocate that egoism be universally adopted.

True.

To say that good is whatever God commands, Cahn argues, is to lose the possibility of meaningfully praising God's goodness.

True.

Moral skepticism

View, closely linked to egoism, that most people are grossly deceived about what is or should be the case where morals are concerned.

Altruism

Way of feeling or acting characterized by unselfish concern for others; does not exist, according to psychological egoism; should not exist, according to ethical egoism.

Which of the following is NOT one of the claims typically made by cultural relativists?

Western values are generally superior to non-Western values.

Which of the following is NOT one of the claims typically made by cultural relativists?

Western values are generally superior to non-Western values..

Examples of meta ethical thinking

What is the meaning or use of the expressions "(morally) right" or "good"? How can ethical and value judgments be established or justified? Can they be justified at all? What is the nature of morality? What is the distinction between the moral and the nonmoral? What is the meaning of "free" or "responsible"?

Crimes and Misdemeanors

Woody Allen film depicting a physician who gets away with murder and seems to end up better off for it; cited by Cahn as lending plausibility to the idea of a happy immoralist.

A typical pattern of moral reasoning involves which of the following?

a general moral rule or principle a premise that involves a statement of fact

According to Cahn, defining "happiness" to exclude an immoral person who enjoys total contentment amounts to

a philosophical sleight of hand..

According to Stevenson, the belief that science can always settle arguments about value is

a useful heuristic maxim..

To resist Nagle's argument someone must

admit that his or her interests are of no concern to others..

The naturally stronger are convinced that their own natural tendencies

are "evil", giving rise to two crucial mechanisms of "slave morality": Guilt and conscience

According to Stevenson, what kind of disagreement usually predominates in an ethical conflict?

attitude

Stevenson cites two men's conflict over where to have dinner as an example of disagreement in:

attitude.

Stevenson distinguishes between disagreement in

belief and attitude..

If I am confident that Candidate O will become the next president, and you suspect it will be Candidate M, we have a disagreement of

belief..

Ethics:

branch of philosophy dealing with morality, moral problems, and moral judgments

Cahn asserts that the moral prescriptions in holy books

conflict..

According to Rachels, the cultural differences argument

draws a conclusion that does not follow from the argument's premise..

A sociologist would typically be most concerned with which of the following?

empirical inquiry intended to describe or explain moral phenomena.

Descriptive claims are relevant to ethics because

facts about psychological and anthropological theories bear on some normative and meta-ethical questions..

Murphy suggests that Fred's happiness is likely to be undermined by feelings of

fear..

Foot would deny that Fred is happy because

he lacks friends, love of freedom, and other goods fundamental to human life..

In the story cited by Rachels, Abraham Lincoln claims to have acted selfishly in helping some pigs who had fallen in the mud because:

he would have lost his peace of mind if he hadn't helped the pigs.

In the story cited by Rachels, Abraham Lincoln claims to have acted selfishly in helping some pigs who had fallen in the mud because

he would have lost his peace of mind if he hadn't helped the pigs..

Murphy: Immorality

is incompatible with true happiness

Cahn argues that morality:

is independent of belief in God.

Cahn argues that morality

is independent of belief in God..

Cahn: Immorality

is not incompatible with happiness

Morality

is sometimes defined as an instrument of society as a whole, as if an individual, family, or social class cannot have a morality or moral action-guide of its own that is different from that of its society. is distinguished from convention by certain features that it shares with law; similarly, it is also distinguishes from law (with which it overlaps, for example, in forbidding murder) by certain features that it shares with convention, namely, in not being created or changeable by anything like a deliberate legislative, executive, or judicial act, and in having as its sanctions, not physical force or the threat of it but, at most, praise and blame and other such mainly verbal signs of favor and disfavor.

In the resultant evaluative framework

it is the weak, and not the powerful, who are given preference and advantage.

According to Cahn, God's existence alone implies:

no particular moral precepts.

To say that it is always wrong to harm someone is to make which of the following kinds of claims?

normative.

the new moral framework serves to

protect those who would otherwise be susceptible to domination in the hands of the stronger.

The view that people are selfish in everything they do is known as

psychological egoism..

The ideas of right and wrong can be used to evaluate

rules and actions..

normative judgments

some prefer to say "value" judgments or "evaluative" judgments or simply "ethical" or even "moral" judgments.

Normative thinking

that anyone does who asks what is right, good, or obligatory.

The psychological egoist wants to convince us

that we always act from self-interested motives.

"Good" now refers to

the activities and characteristics that the priestly class prefers

descriptive empirical inquiry, historical or scientific

the goal is to describe or explain the phenomena of morality or to work out a theory of human nature which bears on ethical questions.

Stevenson claims that disagreements in belief can be resolved by:

the methods of the sciences.

Stevenson claims that disagreements in belief can be resolved by

the methods of the sciences..

What, according to Rachels, determines whether an action is selfish or not?

the object of the action.

To admit that you would feel resentment toward someone who hurt you, Nagel argues, is to admit that

there is a reason the person who harmed you shouldn't have done what he or she did..

Cahn suggests that some might be made to feel insecure by the knowledge that the world had been planned by an all-good being because

they would realize the extent to which their existence depended on the will of that being..

for "bad"

vice-versa of "good"

The psychological egoist wants to convince us that

we always act from self-interested motives.

An ethical egoist argues that:

we are under no obligation to do anything except what is in our own interests.

meta-ethics

we mainly seek to work out a theory of the meaning and justification (1) of judgments of moral obligation, (2) of judgments of moral value, and also (3) of judgments of nonmoral value.

Even if we reject cultural relativism, Rachels argues we may still learn from it that

we should keep an open mind. preferences are not all based on some absolute rational standard.

normative ethics

we try primarily to arrive at a set of acceptable judgments (1) of moral obligation, (2) of moral value, and secondarily (3) of nonmoral value.

According to Nietzsche, the earliest usages for the evaluative concepts of "good" and "bad"

were significantly different from contemporary uses.