ETHICS - final reminder flash cards

PERFECTIONIST CONSEQUENTALIST

-____: a species of the generic view that accepts a perfectionist theory of value. According to a value perfectionist, states of human perfection (including knowledge and achievement) are what have intrinsic value. One might achieve a lot of knowledge and accomplishments in their life, but not be happy (so that means a perfectionist theory of the good is not the same as a happiness theory of the good).

good content, good form

A good argument has these two things

utilitarians

ALL ___ hold the Principle of Utility

argument

An ___ is a finite set of statements, called premises, that are intended to support the truth of another statement, the conclusion

kant's universal law formulation

An action is right if and only if one can both (a) consistently conceive of everyone adopting and acting on the general policy (that is, the maxim) of one's action, AND also (b) consistently will that everyone act on that maxim.

natural law theory

An action is right if and only it (and because) in performing the action one does not directly violate any of the basic values

doctrine of double effect

An action that would bring about at least one evil effect and at least one good effect is morally permissible if (and only if) the following conclusions are satisfied: , Intrinsic permissibility, necessity, non intentionality, proportionally

Human life, Human procreation, Human knowledge, Human sociability

Aquinas's four intrinsic goods

kant

For ___, Moral requirements are CATEGORICAL. They are ABSOLUTE. No matter what your feelings, desires, and inclinations happen to be, and even what the immediate consequences of your action might be, you should, for example, try to help needy people.

direct moral standing

For something to have ___ is for it, independently of its relation to other things or creatures, to posses features in virtue of which it deserves to be given moral consideration by agents who are capable of making moral choices.

Corvino

He argues for gay rights by redefining the word unnatural and responds to harm-based arguments about homosexuality

aristotle

He thinks that NONE of us is naturally virtuous and says that Virtue of thought arises and grows mostly from teaching, and hence needs experience and time" (61). o Virtue of character is acquired through habituation, rather than from "a process of nature" (61).

conditional, absolute

Hypothetical imperatives are ___, whereas categorical imperatives are ___.

sandel

Now,___ argues that it's not virtuous to try to genetically enhancement yourself. But is it not virtuous to try to increase your chances of becoming virtuous?

utility

PRINCIPLE OF___ : An action is right if and only if (and because it would (if performed) likely produce at least as high a utility (net overall balance of welfare) as would any other alternative action one might perform instead.

principles of value

Principles that specify conditions under which something has intrinsic values is principles of value

principles of right conduct

Principles that state conditions for an action's being right (or wrong) are ____

extrinsic value

Something has ___ when its goodness is a matter of how it is related to something else that is intrinsically good

intrinsic value

Something has ___ when its value depends on features that are inherent to it

conservative view based on some elements of natural law theory

The Vatican Declaration's view on sexual ethics

natural law theory, consequentialism

The ___ and ___ bases right action on considerations of intrinsic value. It is a value-based theory of right conduct

doctrine of double effect, direct violations

The ___ helps define what counts as a ____: They are those that cannot be justified by the doctrine of double effect

ACCEPTANCE VALUE

The fact that rules can have consequences has to do with the fact that if people were to accept the rule in question, this would influence what they do. So, we can evaluate a rule by asking what consequences would likely be brought about if the rule were to be generally accepted in society. Call the value associated with rules their ____, which is a familiar idea. Think of debates in the sporting world about changing the rules of some sport. The focus on these debates is on the likely effects the proposed rule would have on the game if it were to be accepted.

ethics

The study of how we ought to live with others and ourselves

regan

Thinks that the utilitarian approach to zoos doesn't work and is wrong. • What if we took a utilitarian approach? • Interests of animals (e.g., their "needs, desires, and preferences") will figure in the moral assessment of zoos. • A problem with applying this approach: We need to know about the interests of all affected, not just the interests of animals. • A serious implication of this problem: "the theory requires knowledge that far exceeds what we humans are capable of acquiring

kant

This is true For who ???? , • Then what makes us moral? What makes us moral is that we have GOOD WILL. • Good will means having the right INTENTIONS.

Vatican Declaration

Who's argument is this against premarital sex? 1. Non marital sex cannot "guarantee" the sincerity and fidelity of the relationship, not protect it against changes in desire 2. Marriage can guarantee these things 3. Sex is permissible only if it takes place in a context where commitment is guaranteed a. Therefore 4. Sex outside marriage (including premarital sex) is not permissible, it is morally wrong a. ARGUMENT HAS GOOD FORM BUT BAD CONTENT

halwani

__' approach is a virtue ethics approach to sexual morality. He believes that adultery is often—but not always—wrong.

warren

__'s argument: a partial defense of animal rights

curnutt

__'s argument: a prima facie duty-based argument for vegetarianism

matheny

__'s tests: • Balance of pain test: "In every case, we should ask if the pain prevented by an experiment is greater than the pain caused by that experiment." If not, the experiment is wrong. • Infant substitution test: "Would researchers contemplating an animal experiment be willing ... to place an orphaned infant in the animal's place?"

cohen

__'s view: Animals cannot be the bearers of rights because the concept of rights is essentially human; it is rooted in, and has force within, a human moral world." • "Rationality is not at issue; the capacity to communicate is not at issue.... Nor is the capacity to suffer here at issue." AUTONOMY is. For "moral autonomy is uniquely human." ___ still thinks we have obligations towards animals, because he thinks factors other than rights can produce obligations.

cohen

__'s view: a challenge to animal rights

kass

___ argues a consequentialist and kantian challenge to reproductive cloning

Kant

___ makes a distinction between hypothetical and categorical imperatives. Hypothetical imperatives are conditional, whereas categorical imperatives are absolute.

sandel

___ thinks the fairness argument is not pervasive • The FAIRNESS argument "has a fatal flaw" because it has always been the case that some athletes are better endowed genetically than others, and yet we do not consider this to undermine the fairness of competitive sports. From the standpoint of fairness, enhanced genetic differences would be no worse than natural ones, assuming they were safe and made available to all. If genetic enhancement in sports is morally objectionable, it must be for reasons other than fairness.

regan

___'s approach: a right's based argument against the morality of zoos

a partial defense of animal rights

describe warren's animal argument

a challenge to animal rights

explain cohen's view

a prima facie duty-based argument for vegetarianism

explain curnutt's argument

a consequentialist and kantian challenge to reproductive cloning

explain kass' argument

a utilitarian analysis of the treatment of animals

explain mathenys' argument

a consequentialist defense of reproductive cloning

explain pence's argument

a right's based argument against the morality of zoos

explain regan's arguement

has a VIRTUE ETHICS approach to the issue of genetic engineering (virtue-based challenge to genetic enhancement)

explain sandal's argument

sandel

has a VIRTUE ETHICS approach to the issue of genetic engineering (virtue-based challenge to genetic enhancement)

consequentialism

he main principle of____ An action is right if and only if (and because) its consequences would be at least as good as the consequences of any alternative action that the agent might instead perform.

universal law formulation, humanity formulation

kant's formulations

philosophy

love of wisdom

good form

means that the premises actually support the conclusion

good content

means that the premises are true

patients, agents

moral _____ lack the ability to formulate moral principles in deliberating about which one among a number of possible acts would be right or proper to perform. Moral patients cannot doe right or wrong. Only moral agents can do what is wrong. • moral subjects • moral _____: to be a moral ____ is to be able to grasp the generality of moral restrictions on our will.

halwani

o ____ accepts that there are possible cases where adultery is not wrong. This makes ___'s conclusion non-absolutist. o This is because while fidelity is an ideal, according to ___, there could be cases where the virtuous agent would decide that there is sufficient reason to not seek this ideal. (EXAMPLES?) o He also claims that his argument applies not just to marriages, but to committed romantic relationships generally.

philosopher

seeks to answer the deepest questions about any subject

true

true or false, kant believes you can never lie

thomas aquinas

who created natural law theory

regan

why___'s argument fails according to pence • the bad arguments argument equates moral agents with moral patients AND equivocates on "inherent value." (meaning two or more meanings of the same phrase, in this case inherent value, have been confused in several premises of an argument) • Sense 1: moral dignity • Sense 2: being more than "just a thing"

positive

• A ___ RIGHT "involves the rights holder being entitled to something and so having a valid claim that some other party do or provide something (some service or some good) to that rights holder" (21). Article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages...." • Then there are moral and legal rights. Because the duty in action requires positive action on the part of the addressee, the corresponding right is called a ___ right

negative

• A ___ RIGHT is "an entitlement of noninterference and so involves a claim by the rights holder that others refrain from interfering with her or his engaging in some activity" (21). Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment." These rights requires that others NOT act in certain ways, so they are ____.

kant's humanity formulation

• Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end (with respect) and never as a means only. or • (H) An action is right if and only if (and because) the action treats persons (including oneself) as ends in themselves and not as mere means.

PERFECTIONIST CONSEQUENTIALISM

• BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ___: An action is right if and only if (and because) it would (if performed) likely bring about a greater net balance of perfectionist goods than would any alternative action one might perform instead. Or in my words, an action is right if and only if (and because) if somebody performed the action, the action would likely result in a greater net balance of perfectionist goods than any alternative action one might perform instead would.

consequentialists

• However, ____ may disagree over what they think is intrinsically valuable (aka the primary focus of consequentialist). One might think happiness has intrinsic value, but another might think perfection has intrinsic value. Because of these disagreements, there are different species of consequentialism.

aristotle

• In the West, the first and still most influential account of the virtues was offered by ___

categorical imperative

• Kant thinks that the right motives are derived from a principle that every rational person must accept. He calls this the ____. This is what ensures that your will is good.

halwani

• One way to understand ___'s central argument: o 1. Love and exclusive commitment are constituents of a marriage. o 2. Given the connection between love, commitment, and sex, sexual fidelity is an ideal in marriage. o 3. If fidelity is an ideal in marriage, a virtuous person would strive to realize it and would avoid engaging in activities that are contrary to this ideal. o 4. An action is morally wrong if and only if it is what a virtuous agent would not do. o Therefore o 5. Adultery is morally wrong.

infringement, violation

• Rights ____ Like the breaking into the house to use the phone to call 911 example. When you go against another persons right, that person's right has been infringed (assuming that the person is morally justified in doing it, that's when we call it ____) • Rights ___: Involves cases where someone goes against another person's rights but is not morally justified in doing so.

hedonistic, value hedonism

• So, what makes up happiness? For Bentham and Mill, happiness is made up of experiences of pleasure and unhappiness is made up of experiences of displeasure of pain. Because of this, Bentham and Mill's version of Utilitarianism is _____. • Their theory of intrinsic value is called ___: Only states of pleasure have positive intrinsic value and only states of pain have intrinsic negative value. Anything else of value is of mere extrinsic value.

vatican declaration

• The ____ is hugely influenced by Aquinas's claim that one of the 4 basic human goods is human procreation • It also assumes that an action is wrong if it is unnatural (that is, goes against proper function)

vatican

• The___ claims that there are 2 sources of moral knowledge 1. Natural (NLT, reason, science) 2. Supernatural (what does Bible say, god, angel) • These sources should agree

Utilitarianism

• Why is it called ___? It actually comes from the term "utility", and UTILITY is the NET VALUE of the consequences of actions. So for instance, how much OVERALL happiness or welfare would likely result from an action being taken (taking into account the welfare of ALL those affected, both short-term and long-term)

prima facie duty

_____ theory: • prima facie: Latin for "at first glance" • ultima facie: Latin for "at final look" • A prima facie duty can be overridden by other moral reasons that favor doing some other action. • An ultima facie duty is not overridden by other moral reasons.

hedonistic utilitarianism

______ : (a type of Utilitarianism). An action is right if and only if (and because) it would likely produce (if performed) at least as high a net balance of pleasure (or less pain) as would any other alternative action one might do instead.

a virtue

a character trait that allows us to act well in a habitual way

matheny

a utilitarian analysis of the treatment of animals, ___'s argument

matheny

___'s argument for vegetarianism Animals in factory farms suffer greatly, and often experience an entire lifetime of pain. • 2. Animal suffering ought to be opposed, not only because of the indirect effects on humans, but also because of the direct effects on the animals themselves. • Therefore (from 1 & 2), • 3. There must be a good reason for causing the suffering of animals. • ___'s argument for vegetarianism (part 2): • 4. Except in rare cases, we have no nutritional need for animal products. • 5. Vegetarians are, on average, healthier than those who eat meat. • 6. The overriding interest we have in eating animals is the pleasure we get from the taste of their flesh. • 7. There are, however, a variety of vegetarian foods available that taste like animal products. • Therefore (from 4, 5, 6 & 7), • 8. In order to justify eating animals, we would have to show that the pleasure gained from consuming them minus the pleasure gained from eating a vegetarian meal is greater than the pain caused by eating animals. • 9. It isn't. • Therefore (from 8 & 9), • 10. It is morally wrong for us to eat meat. (It's only OK in those rare cases where eating meat is necessary for survival).

sandel

___'s ideas:• Genetic breakthroughs offer both a PROMISE TO BE HEALTHY ("We may soon be able to treat and prevent a host of debilitating diseases") and a PREDICAMENT TO REACH BEYOND HEALTH (""Our newfound genetic knowledge may also enable us to manipulate our own nature—to enhance our muscles, memories, and moods; to choose the sex, height, and other genetic traits of our children; to make ourselves 'better than well.'") • The deepest moral objection to [genetic] enhancement lies less in the perfection it seeks than in the human disposition it expresses and promotes."

matheny

___'s main 2 part argument • 1. Being sentient is sufficient (enough) for having interests, including being free from pain and suffering. • 2. Many nonhuman animals are sentient. • Therefore (from 1 & 2), • 3. Many nonhuman animals have interests, including being free from pain and suffering. • ___'s main 2-part argument (part 2): • 3. Many nonhuman animals have interests, including being free from pain and suffering. • 4. An action is morally right (permissible) only if the like interests of all who will be affected by one's action are given equal weight by one's action. • Therefore (from 3 & 4 ), • 5. An action is morally right only if the like interests of all who will be affected by one's action, including nonhuman animals, are given equal weight by one's action.

mappes

___'s main principle of sexual morality: A sexually uses B if and only if A intentionally acts in a way that violates the requirement that Bs sexual involvement with A be based on Bs voluntary informed consent" o (This means of course that sexual interaction with a child or any incompetent "inescapable involves the sexual using of another person"

mappes

___'s main view: o Only when the reward is something the individual desperately needs, then there is coercion (though ___ does tend to think that the offer itself is not coercive. Exploitation is taking advantage of an individual's desparate situation o Needing something is not the same as wanting it

pence

___'s response Regarding harm to SCNT ("cloned") children: 1. Parents need not have bad motives 2. Genes do not fully determine a child's future 3. Social prejudices can and do change (Dolly again) 4. Confusion with social, genetic, and kinship ties would not be any worse than that found with twins

pence

___'s view: a consequentialist defense of reproductive cloning

mappes

___'s view: • Using another person can arise in at least 2 important ways o Coercion (either through physical force or threats) violates the "voluntary" aspect of this requirement o Deception (either through lying or withholding information violates the "informed" aspect of the requirement)

virtue ethics

____ focuses on our moral CHARACTER rather than finding moral rules that classify ACTIONS into right and wrong. • Our moral character is good when we possess VIRTUES rather than VICES.

sandel

____ thinks the AUTONOMY argument "is not persuasive". • It is not persuasive for TWO reasons. One: It implies that without a designing parent, children are free to choose their characteristics for themselves. But none of us choose our own genetic inheritance. The alternative to a cloned/genetically enhanced child is not one whose future is unbound by particular talents but one at the mercy of the genetic lottery. Two: Even if we're concerned about parents making made-to-go children because it gets rid of their autonomy, well then why are we not ok with things like plastic surgery and not sure its moral? Plastic surgery and genetic enhancements after birth would definitely contribute to autonomy and children having the chance to change their idendity and future, so if that were a good thing/something we want children to be able to choose, then why are we not morally ok with it when people do get to choose their own identity (like plastic surgery)

pence

____ tries to refute consequentialist arguments against reproductive cloning: "Originating humans by SCNT will never be common" because of how expensive it must be. People often overestimate the possible dangers of SCNT and underestimate the actual dangers of ordinary human sexual reproduction. Embryos will not be harmed because they "are not sentient [i.e, can't experience pain] and...thus [are] not the kind of subjects that can be harmed."

thomas mappes

____' article is an application of Kant's Humanity Formulation to the Categorical Imperative to the question of when it is wrong to sexually interact with another person

kass

____'s 4 main objections to cloning: 1.The "unethical experimentation" argument 2. the "identity" argument 3. the "manufacturing" argument 4. the "despotism" argument

sandel

____'s paper: • From a RELIGIOUS perspective: "To believe that our talents and powers are wholly our own doing is to misunderstand our place in creation, to confuse our role with God's." • From a SECULAR perspective: "If bioengineering made the myth of the 'self-made man' come true, it would be difficult to view our talents as gifts for which we are indebted, rather than as achievements for which we are responsible."

duty-based

_____ moral theories are theories that take the concept of duty to be basic and so define or characterize the rightness of actions independently of considerations of goodness

value based

_____ moral theories include versions of consequentialism, natural law theory, and virtue ethics

curnutt

• ___ argues for OVO-LACTO VEGETARIANISM. Let's quickly discuss what this diet includes and what it excludes. • Part 1 of ___'s three-part argument: • 1. Causing harm is prima facie morally wrong. • 2. Killing animals causes them harm. • 3. Therefore, killing animals is prima facie morally wrong. • Part 2 of his three-part argument: • 3. Killing animals is prima facie morally wrong. • 4. Animal-eating requires the killing of animals. • 5. Therefore, animal-eating is prima facie morally wrong. • Premise 2 is probably the most controversial of the above premises: • Killing animals • causes them harm. • How does Curnutt argue that this premise is true? • prima facie: Latin for "at first glance" • ultima facie: Latin for "at final look" • A prima facie duty can be overridden by other moral reasons that favor doing some other action. • An ultima facie duty is not overridden by other moral reasons. • Part 3 of Curnutt's three-part argument: • 5. Animal-eating is prima facie morally wrong. • 6. The wrongness of animal-eating is not overridden. • 7. Therefore, animal-eating is ultima facie morally wrong.

warren

• ___ argues that both animals and humans have rights, but these rights differ in terms of content and strength. • She believes that there IS a moral difference between murdering animals and murdering humans. • The rights of animals are weaker than the corresponding rights (i.e., rights with the same content) as humans because: • 1. Humans desire liberty and life more strongly • Note: Ruth Cigman goes too far in arguing that animals have no right to life. • 2. Humans possess moral autonomy • Note: Moral autonomy is not necessary for having rights, according to ____, but it can strengthen the rights one already has. • So, according to ____, "animals do have a right to life but that it is generally somewhat weaker than that of human beings."

Kass

• ___ is a very vocal and longtime opponent of cloning. • __ believes that people are naturally digusted/turned off by cloning. He doesn't think that this enough is an argument against cloning, but he does think that behind our disgust/horror of reproductive cloning, there is wisdom.

regan

• ___ prefers a rights-based approach: • If wild animals confined in zoos are treated with appropriate respect, then (contrary to the utilitarian approach), we don't have to ask about: • The interests of those employed by zoos • Economic benefits of zoos • How much people learn from zoos • Animals have rights for the same reasons that humans do. (Those who deny this are SPECIESIST.) • Zoos are not defensible because they violate animals' right to freedom.

kant

• ___ speaks of the inherent WORTH and DIGNITY of every PERSON. • The fact that every person has inherent worth and dignity does not mean that everyone is good. Nor does it even mean that human nature is basically good. • The key is that a person is a RATIONAL BEING.

cohen

• ____ argues that animals do not have rights: • __'s lioness & baby zebra thought experiment. (401) • Animals are "totally amoral...they do no wrong, ever .... In their world there are no rights."

Rule consequentialists

• ____ emphasize the importance of moral rules • ____ involves two levels of evaluation. First level: If you have a rule that requires a permit or say a rule that prohibits different courses of action, then it is evaluated by referencing the values of the rule's consequences. Second Level: To evaluate a particular action, you determine whether or not the action is required, permitted, or prohibited by a rule (a rule whose consequences are the best).

Utilitarianism

• ____ is actually pretty new compared to other moral theories. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill developed it. The basic idea behind ____ is that human WELFARE or HAPPINESS alone is intrinsically valuable. So, whether or not an action is right or wrong depends completely on how the action affects human welfare or happiness.

rights based, right conduct

• ____ moral theory: A moral theory according to which rights are more basic than utility, dignity, and even duty • BASIC IDEA OF___: (R)—An action is right if and only if (and because) in performing it either (a) one does not violate the fundamental moral rights of others, or (b) in cases where it is not possible to respect all such rights because they are in conflict, one's action is among the best ways to protect the most important rights in the case at hand.

warren

• ____ talks about the content and strength of rights. • The content of a right = the sphere of activity the right protects (e.g., the content of the right to free speech is free speech) • The strength of a right = the strength of reasons required for it to be legitimately overridden (e.g., the right to live might be stronger than the right to vote—it may be all right to prevent someone if doing so will save a live)

matheny

• ____'s Principle of Equal Consideration of Interests: "Act in such a way that the like interests of everyone affected by your action are given equal weight." Utilitarianism: "Act in such a way as to maximize the expected satisfaction of interests in the world, equally considered."

Consequentialism

• _____ is a type of moral theory where consequences of actions are all that matter when you are determining if an action is wrong or right • The guiding idea of ____ is that we understand right action entirely in terms of the overall intrinsic value of the consequences of the action compared to the overall intrinsic value of the consequences of a different/alternative action someone might do instead